COMPILATION

OF NOTES
PRELIMS -
FINALS
 BLE OF CONTENT
TA S
WORD STRUCTURE
PARTS OF SPEECH:
1. NOUN
2. PRONOUN
3. ADJECTIVE
4. VERB
5. ADVERB
6. PREPOSITION
7. CONJUNCTION
8. INTERJECTION
PUNCTUATION
SENTENCES
PHRASES & CLAUSES
CONDITIONALS
SYTAX TREE
 WORD
STRUCTURE
 WORD STRUCTURE
What is WORD?
basic unit of language
can be classified according to their action and meaning
works as a symbol to represent, refer something or someone.

CRITERIA
There are several criteria for speech sound, or a combination of some speech
sound to be called a word.
There must a be a potential pause in speech and a space written
between two words.
Every word must contain at least one root and meaning.

WHAT IS MORPHOLOGY? WHAT IS MORPHEMES?

it is the study of the internal building blocks of morphology
structure of words. smallest meaning of-bearing units
the term morphology is Greek of language
and is a make-up of morph
‘shape-form’ and ology means
‘the study of something’.

Words have internal structure built of even smaller pieces

1. Simple Words- only consist one morpheme (don’t have internal structure)
Example: work, build, run
2. Complex Words- consists two or more morphemes. (have internal structure)
Example: worker: affix- er added to the root work to form a noun.

FREE VS. BOUND MORPHEMES

Free morpheme: simple word, consisting of one morpheme. They are words that can stand on their
own.
Example: house, work, high, chair, wrap
Bound morpheme: morphemes that must be attached to another morpheme to receive meaning.
They are words that cannot stand on their own
Example: Unkindness (un-and-ness are the bound morphemes) requiring the root KIND to
form the word.

TWO TYPES OF AFFIXES:

1.Prefix (front of the base)
2.Suffix (end of the base)
 BOUND MORPHEME:
Derivational morpheme
is a bound morpheme or affixes which derive (create) new words by
either changing the meaning or part of speech. It will change)
Example: drive-driver
can be prefixes and suffixes.

Inflectional morpheme
units of meaning that are added to the base or root of a word to indicate
grammatical information but do not change the word’s basic meaning or
its part of speech.
there are 8 inflectional morphemes which can indicate aspect such as
tense, number, possession, or comparison.

WORD FORMATION PROCESS

1. DERIVATION- process of creating new words from an existing word by adding affixes to the
root of a word.
2. BACK FORMATION- word formation process where a new word is created by removing a
suffix or prefix from an existing word.
3. CONVERSION- there is a shift but does not change its spelling or pronunciation.
4. COMPOUNDING- combining two or more words, we also use hyphen.
Ex: father-in-law
5 CLIPPING- cutting or shortening a words.
4 types of CLIPPING:
Back clipping- cutting or dropping the end of a word.
Ex: Advertisement-Ad
Fore clipping- dropping the beginning of a word.
Ex: Telephone- phone
Middle clipping- dropping both the beginning and the end of a word, but it retains the middle
we do not change.
Ex: Influenza-Flue
Complex/Outside clipping- shortening a multiple part or a compound word.
6. BLENDING- process where parts of two or more existing words are combined to create a
new word.
Ex: breakfast+lunch= brunch/ motor+hotel= motel
7. ABBREVIATION- shortening the word or phrase by eliminating some letters.
Ex: Junior-Jr.
8. ACRONYMS- process where an initialism is uttered as a WORD.
Ex: PAGASA, NASA
9. BORROWING- borrowing word to another language by contextualizing and adopting it
locally.
Ex: Pizza- Italy, Hamburger- German, Theatre- Greece
PARTS
OF
SPEECH
NOUN
 NOUN
What is Noun?
noun is a word that refers to a person place or thing.

CLASSES OF NOUNS
1. Common nouns- refer to general nouns, starting with small letters.
Ex: house, cat, dog, feet, country
2. Proper nouns- refer to a particular person, place, event, animal, thing or idea, beginning
with capital letters.
Ex: Spain, Sony, Channel, Louis Vuitton
3. Concrete noun- refer to the nouns that can be perceived by the five senses.
Ex: table, mug, ear, apple
4. Abstract noun- refer to the intangible things that we cannot readily perceive yet aware of.
Ex: love, creativity, democracy
5. Collective noun- refer to the group of people, animals, things, or events which can be taken
as one unit.
Ex: crowd, flocks, committee
6. Compound noun- they are formed when two or more nouns combined.
Ex: toothpaste, ice cream, output, haircut
7. Countable noun- they are countable since they can be broken down or separated units
from the others.
Ex: table, apple, orange, pencil
8. Uncountable noun- also known as mass noun- they cannot be counted as separate,
individual, unit; they only take singular form.
Ex: salt, sugar, coffee, advice

NOUN DECLENSION
In English the declension of nouns and pronouns can show three different syntactic and grammatical
function: case, number, gender
1. Case
3 types of Grammatical Cases in English:
A. Subjective (nominative) -the form of a noun or pronoun used when it acts as the subject of a verb in a
sentence. In simpler term, it’s the part of the sentence that is performing the action or is being described.
B. Objective (possessive)- is used when a pronoun is the recipient of an action is the object of a
preposition. It is also used to show ownership or possession of something.
C. Genitive (possessive)- to show a noun’s. possession, we simply add apostrophe and an s to the end of
the word.
2. Number- nouns in English change form to show number- singular or plural.
Regular nouns- form the plural by adding -s (Ex: apple-apples)
Irregular nouns- change spelling or stay the same (Ex: man-men, fish-fish)
3. Gender- unlike languages like French or Spanish, English nouns usually do not change for gender.
Some nouns may have gendered forms (e.g., stewardess), but this is becoming outdated. Personal
pronouns show gender: he/him/his (masculine) she/her/hers (feminine), and they, them/their/theirs
(gender neutral, singular or plural).
PRONOUN
 PRONOUN
What is pronoun?
takes the place of a noun
word that stands in for a noun, often to avoid the need to repeat the
same noun over and over.
A pronoun can also function as the object in a sentence- either a direct
or indirect object.
Direct Object- something or someone that is directly acted upon by
the verb.
Indirect Object- someone or something that receive the direct object
PRONOUN ANTECEDENTS
the noun or noun phrase that a pronoun refers to or replaces.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS
1. Personal pronouns- a word that replaces the name of a person, place, thing, or idea in a
sentence.

2. Demonstrative pronouns- are words that point to specific people, animals, or things—either
near or far in distance or time. They are used to replace nouns and make it clear which one(s)
you are referring to.
 3. Interrogative pronouns- are used to ask questions. They stand in for something that is
unknown and are used to gather more information.

4. Relative pronouns- are words that introduce relative clauses—parts of a sentence that
provide extra information about a noun. They help link the relative clause to the main clause.

5.Indefinite pronouns- are pronouns that refer to people, places, things, or ideas in a general or
non-specific way. They do not refer to any one specific person or thing.
CLASSES OF PRONOUNS
6. Reciprocal pronouns- are used when two or more people are
doing the same action to each other. They show a mutual
relationship or exchange.
ADJECTIVES
 ADJECTIVES
What is adjectives?
to describes or modify a noun or a pronoun.
give specific information by telling what kind, how many, or which one.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES
1. Descriptive
used to describe nouns and pronouns.
like silly, tall, annoying, loud

2. Quantitative
they answer the question of “how much?” or “how many?
general words like many, a lot and half are a few types of this adjective.

3. Demonstrative
noun or pronoun a person is referring to is described by “which”, they are
demonstrative adjectives.
words like this, these, that and those.

4. Possessive
show possession by describing to whom things or person belongs in a
sentence.

5. Interrogative
they ask questions, followed by a noun or pronoun in every sentence to
form a question.
wh-words like what, which and whose.

6. Distributive
describing specific members out of a group, one person can make use of
distributive adjectives.
singling out one or more individual items or people from a group.

7. Articles
‘A’, ‘an’ and ‘the’ are the three articles used in the English
language. As many languages don’t have articles, it can be
difficult for non-native English speakers to correct their use.
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVE
1.Positive Adjective
used to describe a person, thing.
comparison does not take place.

2. Comparative Adjective
comparing between two things

3. Superlative Adjective
used to compare between three or more things.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
adjectives which are used to denote the number of nouns or the order in
which they stand
also commonly called Adjectives of Number.

Numeral Adjectives can be divided into three types. They are:

1. Definite Numeral Adjective
2. Indefinite Numeral Adjective-
3. Distributive Numeral Adjective
VERBS
 What is verb?
VERB
a word that shows action or a state of being. It is one of the most important
parts of a sentence because it tells what the subject is doing or what condition
the subject is in.

CLASSES OF VERBS
1. Helping (Auxiliary) Verbs- These are used with main verbs to show tense,
voice, or mood.

Common Helping Verbs:

am, is, are, was, were, have, has, had, do, does, did, will, shall, can, may,
must

2. Modal Verbs- are special helping (auxiliary) verbs that are used to express
possibility, ability, permission, necessity, advice, or obligation. They always
come before the main verb in a sentence and do not change form (no -s, -ed, or -
ing).

Common Modal Verbs:

1. can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to (slightly
different in form but used like a modal)

3. Phrasal Verbs- are verbs made up of a main verb + one or two particles
(usually a preposition or an adverb) that together create a new meaning different from
the original verb alone.

Common Phrasal Verbs:

give up, look after, turn on, turn off, get up, run out of, pick up, put off,
break down, come across

4. Linking Verbs: are verbs that connect the subject of a sentence to

additional information about the subject—usually a description or a state—rather
than showing an action. They link the subject to a word or phrase that describes or
identifies it.

Common Linking Verbs:

be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been, seem, become, appear, feel, look,
sound, taste, smell
 DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF VERBS
1.Regular Verbs
these are verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding -ed or -d to the base
form.
They follow a consistent pattern.

Examples:
walk → walked
play → played
clean → cleaned

2. Irregular Verbs
These verbs do not follow the regular -ed pattern to form the past tense or past
participle.
Their past forms can change completely or stay the same and must be memorized.

Examples:
go → went → gone
buy → bought → bought
eat → ate → eaten

3. Transitive Verbs
These verbs need a direct object to complete their meaning.
The action happens to someone or something.

Examples:
She reads a book. (“a book” is the direct object)
They built a house.

4. Intransitive Verbs
These verbs do not need a direct object.
The action does not happen to something else or the verb is complete on its own.

Example:
He runs every morning.
The baby cried.

Note: Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive, depending on how they are
used.

Example:
She runs a company. (transitive)
She runs fast. (intransitive)
 VERB FORMS
a verb is used n different ways to indicate the time in which he subject is performing an action.
There are variouds verb forms that are used to do the same. Let us look at the different verb
forms:

Root Verb- is the basic, original form of a verb—also called the base form or infinitive
without “to”. It is the form you find in a dictionary, and it has no tense, suffixes, or endings
added.

Examples of Root Verbs:

go, play, eat, run, read, write, help, speak, sing, jump

Simple Present- Third Person Singular

— The simple present tense is used to talk about actions that happen regularly, facts, or general
truths. When the subject is third person singular (he, she, it, or a singular noun), we need to
change the verb form slightly.

Present Participle
— The present participle is the -ing form of a verb. It is used to form continuous (progressive)
tenses, and sometimes acts as an adjective or part of a participle phrase.

Simple Past
— Actions that happened and were completed in the past.

Past Participle
— The past participle is a verb form used to:

Form perfect tenses (with have/has/had)

Form the passive voice
Act as an adjective in some cases

Note: It is not the same as the simple past tense—though for many regular verbs, the forms
look the same.

Gerund
— the -ing form of a verb that functions as a noun in a sentence.

How to recognize a gerund:

It looks like a present participle (verb + -ing), but it acts as a noun.
It can be the subject, object, or complement in a sentence.
Examples:
Swimming is good exercise. (subject)
I enjoy reading. (object)
Her favorite hobby is painting. (complement)
 VERB FORMS
Active Voice
— sentence in which the subject does
the action.

Example:
The doctor checked the patient.

Passive Voice
— sentence in which the indirect object
or the direct object is switched to make
it the subject.

Example:
The patient was checked by the
doctor
ADVERBS
What is adverb?
ADVERB
used to provide more information about the verb or the action in the
sentence. It
also has the property of describing the adjective or another adverb.

CLASSES OF ADVERBS
1. Adverb of Manner
an adverb that shows how someone does something or how something
happens.

2. Adverbs of Time
can tell us about when an action happens or how frequently an action happens.

3. Adverb of Place
describe the location or the place where an action is taking place
They answer the question ‘where’.
They are mostly found after the main verb or the object in a sentence.
4. Adverb of Frequency
the number of times something happens within a particular period
fact of something happening often or a large number of times.

5. Adverbs of Degree
used to show the intensity or degree of something.
they can be used before adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs.
 COMPARISON ADVERBS
adverbs used to compare actions or states between two or more things. They show how
something is done in relation to something else—more quickly, less carefully, better, worse,
etc.

1. Comparative Form:
used to compare two actions or qualities.
comparative by adding "more" before the adverb.

Examples:
She runs more quickly than him.
He speaks more fluently now.

2. Superlative Form:
used to compare three or more actions or qualities.
superlative by adding "most" before the adverb.
Example:
She runs the most quickly of all the athletes.
He speaks the most fluently in the group.

3. Irregular Forms:
some adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms that don't follow the standard
rules.
Example:
• Adverb: well, Comparative: better, Superlative: best
• Adverb: badly, Comparative: worse, Superlative: worst

4. Use with Adjectives:

comparison adverbs can also be used to compare the degree of a quality described by an
adjective.
Example:
• She is more beautiful than her sister.
• This movie is most interesting.

5. Use with Adverbs:

adverbs can modify other adverbs to compare the degree or intensity of an action or quality.
Example:
He runs more slowly now.
She speaks the most softly of all.

6. Placement:
adverbs are usually placed before the verb, adjective, or adverb they modify.
Example:
• He plays the piano more skillfully.
• She dresses the most stylishly in the group."
PREPOSITIONS
 PREPOSITION
What is preposition?
word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase
to show direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to
introduce an object.

CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS
1.Preposition of Direction
refer to a direction, use the prepositions "to," "in," "into," "on," and "onto."

2. Prepositions of Time
refer to one point in time, use the prepositions "in," "at," and "on."
Use "in" with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and
seasons.

3. Prepositions of Place
refer to a place, use the prepositions "in" (the point itself), "at" (the general
vicinity), "on" (the surface), and "inside" (something contained).

4. Prepositions of Location
refer to a location, use the prepositions "in" (an area or volume), "at" (a
point), and "on" (a surface).

5. Prepositions of Spatial Relationships

refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions "above," "across,"
"against," "ahead of," "along," "among," "around," "behind," "below,”
beneath," "beside," "between," "from," "in front of," "inside," "near," "off,"
"out of," "through," "toward," "under," and "within."
CONJUNCTIONS
 CONJUNCTIONS
What is conjunction?
used to combine two or more objects, phrases or clauses.
It can also be termed as connectors as they are employed in sentences to
make connections.

TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are mainly used to join actions, ideas and
thoughts. They are categorized into three main types:

1.Coordinating conjunctions – used to combine two

independent clauses.
Examples: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.

2. Subordinating conjunctions – used to combine an

independent clause and a dependent clause.
Examples: are if, although, though, after, before,
because, as if, unless, until, when, while, etc.

3.Correlative conjunctions – used to combine two

phrases or parts of the sentence which have equal
importance within a sentence.
Examples: not only.…but also, either…or, neither…
nor, whether…or, rather…or, if…then, etc.
 INTERJECTION
What is interjection?
word or short phrase that expresses a sudden emotion or reaction. It often stands
alone and is not grammatically related to the other parts of a sentence.

List of Interjections for Everyday Communication

How and When to Use Interjections?

When using interjections, there are some

very important punctuation rules that you
should keep in mind. Given below are the
points you have to remember.

1.When a short interjection is used in the

beginning of a sentence, it should be followed
by a comma.
2.When an interjection forms a sentence by itself,
the interjection can be followed by a full stop, a
question mark or an exclamation mark.
3.When an interjection is used in the middle of a
sentence, the interjection has to be preceded
and followed by a comma.
4. In a conversation, interjections are
sometimes allowed to stand alone.
5. It is better if you do not use too many or any
interjections in a formal context.
PUNCTUATION
 PUNCTUATIONS
What is punctuation?
refers to the symbols or marks used in writing to help organize sentences and
clarify meaning. These marks guide readers on how to read a sentence—
where to pause, stop, ask a question, show emotion, or separate ideas.

TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS
1. Period (.)

Ends declarative sentences.

Example: She went to the store.

2. Question Mark (?)

Ends direct questions.

Example: Are you coming?

3. Exclamation Point (!)

Shows strong emotion or emphasis.

Example: Watch out!

4. Comma (,)

Separates items in a list, clauses, or introductory elements.

Example: We bought apples, oranges, and bananas.

5. Semicolon (;)

Links closely related independent clauses.

Example: I have a big test tomorrow; I can’t go out tonight.

6. Colon (:)

Introduces a list, explanation, or quote.

Example: He brought three things: a pen, a notebook, and a calculator.

7. Dash (—)

Indicates a break in thought or adds emphasis.

Example: She was going to call—but then she changed her mind.
8.
8. Hyphen (-)

Joins words or parts of words.

Example: Well-known author

9. Parentheses ( ( ) )

Adds extra information or an aside.

Example: He finally answered (after taking five minutes to
think).

10. Brackets ([ ])

Adds information within a quote or clarifies.

Example: She said she was “not [at all] surprised.”

11. Apostrophe (’)

Shows possession or forms contractions.

Example: John’s book, can’t (cannot)

12. Quotation Marks (” “)

Encloses direct speech or quotations.

Example: She said, “I’ll be there soon.”

13. Ellipsis (…)

Indicates omitted material or trailing off.

Example: I’m not sure… maybe we should wait.

14. Slash (/)

Shows alternatives or divisions.

Example: and/or, 2024/2025
SENTENCES
 SENTENCES
What is sentence?
a group of words that makes complete sense. It begins with a
capital
letter and ends with a full stop. It always contains a finite verb.

Types of Sentences According to Structure

1. Simple Sentence

Definition: Has one independent clause (a subject + predicate).

Details:
May include objects or modifiers.
Expresses a complete thought.

2. Compound Sentence

Definition: Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, but, or) or a semicolon.
Details:
Each clause can stand alone as a complete sentence.

3. Complex Sentence

Definition: Has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Details:
Dependent clauses begin with words like because, although, since,
while.
Comma rule: Use a comma if the dependent clause comes first.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence

Definition: Contains at least two independent clauses and one or more

dependent clauses.
Details:
Mix of compound and complex features.
Types of Sentences According to Function

1. Declarative Sentence
Purpose: Makes a statement, gives information or
expresses an opinion.
Punctuation: Ends with a period (.)

2. Interrogative Sentence
Purpose: Asks a question.
Types:
Yes/No
WH-Questions (Who, What, When…)
Tag Questions
Punctuation: Ends with a question mark (?)

3. Imperative Sentence
Purpose: Gives a command, instruction, request, or
advice.
Subject: Often implied (“you”).
Punctuation: Ends with a period or exclamation mark (!)

4. Exclamatory Sentence
Purpose: Expresses strong feelings like surprise, joy, or
anger.
Structure: Often begins with What or How.
Punctuation: Ends with an exclamation mark (!)
PHRASES
AND
CLAUSES
 PHRASES
What is phrase?
group of words without a finite verb that acts as a single unit of
meaning in a sentence. It cannot stand alone and adds detail or
meaning.

Types of Phrases
1. Noun Phrase
• Acts as a subject, object, or complement.
• Contains a noun or pronoun and its modifiers.

2. Adjective Phrase
• Functions like an adjective; modifies a noun or pronoun.
• Gives more details about the noun.

3. Adverb Phrase
• Functions like an adverb; modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
• Describes time, place, manner, reason, etc.

4. Verb Phrase
• Includes a main verb and auxiliary/helping verbs.
• Acts like a verb in the sentence.

5. Prepositional Phrase
• Made of a preposition + object (noun/pronoun).
• Acts like an adjective or adverb.

6. Conjunctional Phrase
• A phrase with a conjunction that connects words or ideas.
• Shows addition, contrast, cause/effect, or time.

7. Interjectional Phrase
• Shows emotion or reaction (surprise, excitement, sadness).
• Acts like interjections with extra description.
 CLAUSES
What is clause?
a group of words that has a subject and a finite verb. It may
or may not stand alone.

Types of Clauses
1.Main Clause (Independent Clause)
• Has a subject and a verb.
• Can stand alone as a sentence.

2. Subordinate Clause (Dependent Clause)

• Has a subject, a verb, and a subordinating
conjunction/relative pronoun.
• Cannot stand alone; needs a main clause.

Subtypes of Dependent Clauses

• Noun Clause – Acts as a noun.
• Adjective Clause – Modifies a noun or pronoun.
• Adverb Clause – Modifies verbs, adjectives, or
adverbs.
• Conditional Clause – Shows conditions (if, unless).
• Relative Clause – Introduced by who, which, that,
etc.
• Comparative Clause – Makes comparisons.
• Verbless Clause – Lacks a finite verb but implies
meaning.
• Complementary Clause – Completes meaning of
a sentence element.
CONDITIONALS
 CONDITIONALS
What is conditionals?
describe possible or hypothetical situations and their results. They
usually include an “if” clauseand a main clause. They may refer to
real (likely or possible) or unreal (imaginary or impossible) situations.

Types of Conditional
( Zero Conditional
• Use: General truths, facts, or laws of nature.
• Structure: If + simple present, simple present
• Notes: “If” can often be replaced by “when”.

( Type 1 Conditional (First Conditional)

• Use: Real and possible situations in the present or future.
• Structure: If + simple present, will + base verb
• Notes: Outcome is likely.

( Type 2 Conditional (Second Conditional)

• Use: Hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or future.
• Structure: If + simple past, would + base verb
• Notes: Imaginary or unrealistic.

( Type 3 Conditional (Third Conditional)

• Use: Imaginary situations in the past — events that did not
happen.
• Structure: If + past perfect, would have + past participle
• Notes: Used for regret or missed opportunities.

( Mixed Conditional
• Use: Past condition with present result.
• Structure: If + past perfect, would + base verb (present
conditional)
• Notes: Mixes past and present tenses for contrast.
 Ç Real vs. Unreal Conditionals
Real Conditionals
• Refer to real or likely
situations.
• Use present or future verb
tenses.

Unreal Conditionals
• Refer to imaginary, unlikely,
or impossible situations.
• Use past or past perfect
tenses.
SYNTAX
TREE
 SYNTAX TREE
What is syntax tree?
a diagram that visually represents the hierarchical structure of
a sentence.
Morphology vs. Syntax
Morphology: Studies how morphemes (the smallest units of
meaning) combine into words.
Syntax: Studies how words combine into phrases and
sentences.
Hierarchical Structure
Meaning: Words and morphemes are not just lined up; they
form structured relationships, often represented by trees.
Example: For “rehospitalize,” the structure shows that
“hospital” is turned into a verb with “-ize” before “re-” is
added.
Sentence Structure
Linear vs. Hierarchical: Words in a sentence are grouped
into phrases, which are then combined to form the whole
sentence.
Example: “I watched the movie about snakes on a plane in
August” can be represented with a tree showing which words
are grouped together.
Syntactic Categories
Lexical Categories: Nouns (N), Verbs (V), Adjectives (Adj),
Prepositions (P), Adverbs (Adv).
Functional Categories: Determiners (Det), Auxiliary Verbs
(Aux), Conjunctions (Con), Degree Words (Deg).
Purpose: These categories help organize words by their
function and meaning.
Distribution
Definition: How words can co-occur with other words in
sentences.
Examples: Nouns occur with determiners (a car), verbs with
auxiliaries (has gone), adjectives with degree words (very
rich).
Phrase Structure
Definition: Sentences are built from phrases, not just words.
Types of Phrases:
Noun Phrase (NP): Built around a noun.
Verb Phrase (VP): Built around a verb.
Prepositional Phrase (PP): Built around a preposition.
Head of a Phrase: The main word in a phrase (the noun in
an NP, the verb in a VP, etc.).
Constituency Tests
Purpose: To prove if a group of words forms a phrase.
Tests:
Pronoun Test: Replace a group with a pronoun to check
if it’s an NP.
Do-form Test: Replace a group with “do so” to check if
it’s a VP.
There/Then Test: Replace a group with “there” or “then”
to check if it’s a PP.
Movement Test: Move a group to the front of the
sentence to check if it’s a constituent (NP, VP, or PP).
Heads and Phrases
Rule: Every N is part of an NP, every V is part of a VP, every
P is part of a PP.
Meaning: The head of a phrase determines the type of
phrase it is.
 SUBMITTED BY:
IVY KATHERINE INDA

SUBMITTED TO:
PROF. JOHN PAUL GAMET