OSI Model - Layers of OSI Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) was developed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific
functions and responsibilities.
OSI Model provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The
OSI Model is widely used as a reference to understand how network systems function.
Layers of the OSI Model
There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All
the layers are mentioned below:
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical
layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking, "Who has that IP address?" and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.
Layer 3: Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver's
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80,
because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default
ports assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the
Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
Layer 5: Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer
is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security / Secure
Sockets Layer).JPEG, MPEG, GIF, are standards or formats used for encoding data, which is
part of the presentation layer’s role.
Layer 7: Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which
is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in
the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
TCP/IP Suite
The TCP/IP model is a framework that is used to model the communication in a network. It is
a collection of network protocols and organization of these protocols in different layers for
modelling the network.It has four layers, Application, Transport, Network/Internet and
Network Access.
Role of TCP/IP
One of its main goals is to make sure that the data sent by the sender arrives safely and
correctly at the receiver’s end. To do this, the data is broken down into smaller parts called
packets before being sent. These packets travel separately and are reassembled in the correct
order when they reach the destination. This helps prevent errors and makes sure the message
is complete and accurate.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
The Application Layer is the top layer of the TCP/IP model and the one closest to the user.
This is where all the apps you use like web browsers, email clients, or file sharing tools connect
to the network. It acts like a bridge between your software (like Chrome, Gmail, or WhatsApp)
and the lower layers of the network that actually send and receive data.
It supports different protocols like HTTP (for websites), FTP (for file transfers), SMTP (for
emails), and DNS (for finding website addresses). It also manages things like data formatting,
so both sender and receiver understand the data, encryption to keep data safe, and session
management to keep track of ongoing connections.
2. Transport Layer
The Transport Layer is responsible for making sure that data is sent reliably and in the correct
order between devices. It checks that the data you send like a message, file, or video arrives
safely and completely. This layer uses two main protocols: TCP and UDP, depending on
whether the communication needs to be reliable or faster.
TCP is used when data must be correct and complete, like when loading a web page or
downloading a file. It checks for errors, resends missing pieces, and keeps everything in order.
On the other hand, UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is faster but doesn’t guarantee delivery
useful for things like live video or online games where speed matters more than perfect
accuracy.
3. Internet Layer
The Internet Layer is used for finding the best path for data to travel across different networks
so it can reach the right destination. It works like a traffic controller, helping data packets move
from one network to another until they reach the correct device. This layer uses the Internet
Protocol (IP) to give every device a unique IP address, which helps identify where data should
go.
The main job of this layer is routing deciding the best way for data to travel. It also takes care
of packet forwarding (moving data from one point to another), fragmentation (breaking large
data into smaller parts), and addressing.
4. Network Access Layer
The Network Access Layer is the bottom layer of the TCP/IP model. It deals with the actual
physical connection between devices on the same local network like computers connected by
cables or communicating through Wi-Fi. This layer makes sure that data can travel over the
hardware, such as wires, switches, or wireless signals.
It also handles important tasks like using MAC addresses to identify devices,
creating frames (the format used to send data over the physical link), and checking for
basic errors during transmission.
Working of TCP/IP Model
The working of TCP/IP can be explained with the help of the diagram given below and
explained :
Addressing
A computer network is a group of interconnected computers that share common or different
resources provided on or by network nodes. This sharing or communication between the
machines is governed by some set of rules or network protocols. These computers or
machines are identified by network addresses and may have hostnames.
Introduction to Network Address
A Network Address is a logical or physical address uniquely identifying a host or a machine
in a telecommunication network. A network may also not be unique and can contain some
structural and hierarchical information of the node in the network. Internet protocol (IP)
addresses, Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, and telephone numbers are some basic
examples of network addresses. It can be of numeric type symbolic or both in some cases.
Unique Address:
Each device on a network has a unique address to avoid confusion.
Types of Addresses:
I. IP Address: Used in internet networks (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
II. MAC Address: A permanent hardware address of a device (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
III. IPv4 and IPv6:
a. IPv4: 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.0.1)
b. IPv6: 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:0db8::1), used to handle more devices
IV. Static vs Dynamic:
a. Static: Manually assigned, doesn't change.
b. Dynamic: Assigned by DHCP, can change.
V. Network & Host Portion:
a. An IP address has:
b. Network part: Identifies the network.
c. Host part: Identifies the device.
VI. Subnetting:
a. Divides a network into smaller parts to improve efficiency.
VII. DNS (Domain Name System):
a. Translates domain names (like google.com) into IP addresses.
An IP address (IPv4) is divided into 5 classes (A, B, C, D, E) based on its first few bits and
range.
IP Address Classes:
1. Class A
Range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0
Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
For: Very large networks.
First bit: Always 0.
2. Class B
Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0
Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
For: Medium-sized networks.
First bits: 10.
3. Class C
Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0
Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
For: Small networks.
First bits: 110.
4. Class D
Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
For: Multicasting (sending data to multiple devices).
First bits: 1110.
5. Class E
Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
For: Experimental and research.
First bits: 1111.
Analog and Digital Signal
The difference between analog signal and digital signal could be understood from the table
given below:
Basis Analog Signal Digital Signal
Analog signals represent continuous Digital signals are Discrete and quantized,
Definition
variations in magnitude over time. with specific values.
Signal Type Continuous waveforms Discrete Signals
Requires complex processing for
Processing Easier to process and manipulate digitally.
manipulation.
Less efficient for storage due to More efficient for storage due to discrete
Storage
continuous nature. values.
Bandwidth Typically requires more bandwidth. Requires less bandwidth for transmission.
Analog audio signals, analog radio waves, Digital audio signals, digital data streams,
Examples
Human voice, etc. computers, etc.
Errors Susceptible to noise and distortion More resistant to noise and distortion
Circuit Amplifiers, filters, continuous-wave Microprocessors, binary counters, logic
Component oscillators gates
Signal Values Infinite range of values Limited to discrete values
Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC)
Conversion No conversion required
required
Analog signals are used in electric fan, Digital signals are used in computers,
Applications landlines, radio frequency smartphones, digital sensors, digital
communications, etc. imagining, etc.
Transmission Impairments
Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the transmitted
signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a
digital signal.
In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different
amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get
changes in bits (0's or 1's).
Causes of Transmission Impairments
There are various causes of transmission impairments
I. Noise
II. Distortion
III. Attenuation
Let us understand them one by one.
I. Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets added to
the transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified and at the
receiver side it is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises are various
kinds like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
II. Distortion
This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in which a composite
signal has various frequency components in it and each frequency component has some time
constraint which makes a complete signal.
But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens between the
frequencies components, then there may be the chance that the frequency component will
reach the receiver end with a different delay constraint from its original which leads to the
change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due to environmental parameters or from
the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.
III. Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be
difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority factor by
environment as environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signal strength decreases as it
tries to overcome the resistance imposed.
