Radio and Electronics Cookbook
Figure 3 Standing waves on
a transmission line
the ‘calibrate’ position, the sensitivity control is adjusted to give full-scale
deflection on the meter. The switch is then changed to ‘forward’ to read the
forward power, to ‘reflected’ to read the reflected power, and to ‘SWR’ to
read the value of the standing-wave ratio. When there is no reflection (see
Figure 3), the meter should read 1:1 or, simply, 1.
Most SWR meters remain in the feeder line while the transmitter is
operating, so the condition of the aerial and feeder can be constantly
monitored. Problems with the aerial (such as water entering the feeder at its
junction with the driven element) are immediately shown up. Without the
use of the SWR meter, the situation would slowly deteriorate over several
months and you would be left wondering why so few stations were
answering your calls!
50 A standing-wave indicator
for HF
Introduction
The standing-wave ratio (SWR) meter shows how well the aerial system,
including the feeder, is matched to the output of the transmitter. This
design does not measure SWR, but it gives an indication of when the SWR
is minimum for a given system of aerial and feeder. The design is usable on
the HF bands from 1.8 to 28 MHz, and can be used at 50 MHz with reduced
sensitivity.
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A standing-wave indicator for HF
How it works
There are two types of wave in any feeder: the forward wave, which travels
from the transmitter to the aerial; the reflected wave, which travels back to
the transmitter from the aerial. The presence of a reflected wave is evidence
that some of your transmitted power is not being radiated, but is being
returned to the transmitter to be lost as excess heat. When aerial and feeder
are perfectly matched, there is no reflected wave, and all the power from the
transmitter is radiated.
Referring to the circuit of Figure 1, a tiny fraction of the signal is removed
by the transformer, T1, and by the capacitors, VC1 and C1. It is then
detected by the germanium diodes, D1 and D2, and any residual RF
removed by the capacitors, C2 and C3. The currents through the diode and
meter (depending on the position of switch, S1) represent the forward and
reflected signals. VR1 acts as a sensitivity control for the meter.
It pays to shop around for a suitable meter. Surplus types from tape
recorders and hi-fi equipment are usually ideal for this purpose. A new one
would cost several pounds. The more sensitive the meter, the more sensitive
your indicator will be. Meter sensitivity is given by the current required to
give full-scale deflection (FSD) of the pointer. One with an FSD of between
50 and 200 micro-amps (A) is suitable for this circuit. The higher the FSD,
the less sensitive the circuit.
Construction
The meter circuit and the sampling transformer (see Figure 2) are built and
mounted on Veroboard of the copper-strip variety. It simplifies construction
Figure 1 Circuit diagram of
the SWR meter
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Radio and Electronics Cookbook
Figure 2 Component layout
of the SWR meter
but reduces the operational range of the meter to below 30 MHz because of
the capacitive coupling between strips. The board has 13 strips by 30 holes,
although you can reduce this if you have a smaller case.
Firstly, cut the tracks at the three points shown. Then insert and solder
Veropins for connections to the external components, the switch, variable
resistor and the meter. Solder in the components starting with the resistors
and followed by the capacitors and the diodes, ensuring that the diodes are
inserted correctly.
Now you have to wind the transformer, T1, on a small toroidal ferrite core.
Wind the secondary with 15 turns of 36 SWG enamelled copper wire,
spaced evenly over about two-thirds of the former. The turns should not
overlap, and considerable care must be taken; the wire is very thin, will kink
easily and will break if you apply too much tension. The ‘primary’ is an 8 cm
length of 50 coaxial cable which passes through the toroid on its way
between the input and output connectors. The braid of the cable is
connected to the case at only one of the connectors (see Figure 1); this
prevents the screen and the metal case between the two sockets forming a
single, shorted turn.
The ends of the secondary winding must be carefully stripped of their
enamel with sandpaper, before attaching the toroid to the board with cotton
or nylon fishing line. On no account must wire be used for this!
Solder the secondary connections of T1 to the board and thread through the
coaxial cable ready for soldering to the connectors.
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A standing-wave indicator for HF
The case used was an aluminium box (Maplin LF02C), but any suitable
metal box could be used. Aluminium is preferable, as it is easily drilled with
simple tools. Use standoff insulators to mount the board in the case. Once
this has been done, the leads from the board to the chassis-mounted
components can be soldered. So can the coaxial cable passing through the
toroid. Make the lead from the input socket to VC1 as short as possible.
Setting up
You will need a 50 dummy load and a transmitter to set up your indicator.
Connect the transmitter to SK1 and the dummy load to SK2. Set the toggle
switch, S1, to forward and the sensitivity control, VR1, to mid-travel.
Switch on the transmitter, and set VR1 for maximum meter deflection.
Switch to reflected and adjust VC1 until the reading is minimum (ideally
zero). This completes the setting up!
Using the indicator
For setting up an aerial, connect your circuit between the transmitter and
the cable leading to the aerial. With S1 in the forward position, key the
transmitter and adjust VR1 for maximum reading on the meter. Switch to
reflected, and then adjust your ATU to give minimum reflected power. If
your adjustments are to be made to the aerial itself, to give minimum
reflected power, you must make a note of the reflected reading, switch off
the transmitter, make a change to the aerial, key the transmitter, and note
whether the reflected power is greater or less than before. Then, make more
changes to the aerial. Never adjust your aerial with the transmitter on.
Make your adjustments on an unused frequency, and do it as quickly as
possible, thus avoiding (or minimising) interference to other stations.
Parts list
Resistors: all 0.25 watt, carbon 5% tolerance
(or Maplin 0.6 watt metal film)
R1, R2 27 ohms ()
R3 2.2 kilohms (k)
VR1 10 kilohms (k) linear
Capacitors
C1 220 picofarad (pF) disc ceramic 50 VDC
C2, C3 0.1 microfarad (F) disc ceramic 50 VDC
VC1 20 picofarad (pF) trimmer
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Radio and Electronics Cookbook
Semiconductors
D1, D2 OA91 germanium
Additional items
S1 Single-pole changeover (SPDT or SPCO)
SK1, SK2 Coaxial sockets to suit station standards
Veroboard – 13 strips by 30 holes
Veropins (7 off)
Amidon FT 50–43 ferrite toroid
Meter, less than 200 A FSD
36 SWG enamelled copper wire
Short length of UR43 or RG58 coaxial cable
Insulated stranded wire
Aluminium box
Standoff insulators for mounting the board
Knob for the sensitivity control
51 A moisture meter
Introduction
Dry rot (Merulius Lacrymans) can strike havoc in buildings, causing the
timbers to decay and crumble to dust – hence the term dry rot. Wood is
attacked only if its moisture content rises above 20%.
Construction
The circuit of the moisture meter is shown in Figure 1. The two probes
touch the wood, and the current that flows between them depends on the
moisture content of the wood. If the moisture is sufficiently high, the
current, after amplification, will be enough to light the LED.
The meter can be made on a piece of plain matrix board (no copper strips),
as Figure 2 shows. The board is big enough (10 cm by 2.5 cm) to
accommodate the PP3 battery, taped on. No case is needed, unless you want
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A moisture meter
Figure 1 Circuit diagram of
a moisture meter
Figure 2 Moisture meter,
component layout
to leave the meter in a damp location for a protracted period! Make sure
that the transistors and LED are mounted correctly. In Figure 2, the
connections as shown to TR1 and TR2 are illustrated as if the transistors
were transparent. An on/off switch is not really necessary, as only a very
small current flows when the probes do not touch anything. Use solder tags,
screwed to the board, to act as probes.
After the assembly is completed, check your circuit one final time, and then
connect the battery. Nothing should happen at first. If you lick your
forefinger and hold it across the probes, the LED should light.
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Radio and Electronics Cookbook
Using it
The prototype was compared with a commercial moisture meter, and the
LED lit when the moisture was around 20%. This was quite fortuitous, as
the point at which the LED lights depends both on the separation of the
probes and on the gain of the two transistors.
In addition to searching for dry rot, the instrument may be used to monitor
the moisture in the soil of household plants. In this case, probes made of 16
SWG copper (not enamelled) should be soldered on to the two tags, and
should penetrate the soil to a depth of several centimetres, and R1 may
require adjusting so that the LED extinguishes if the soil is too dry, and
lights if the soil is sufficiently moist. If you wanted to leave the meter with
the probes in the soil, an on/off switch would be necessary.
Parts list
Resistors: all 0.25 watt, 5% tolerance
R1 100 kilohms (k)
R2 15 kilohms (k)
R3 180 ohms ()
Capacitor
C1 0.1 microfarad (F) polyester
Semiconductors
TR1, TR2 BC108
LED Any shape or colour will do
Additional items
PP3 battery and connector
Solder tags (2 off) for probes
Matrix board 10 cm by 2.5 cm
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