Acknowledgements

Sky City Auckland (http://www.skycityauckland.co.nz), cover photo; W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,
p. 19; John Katz, p. 57; David Rentz, p. 155; California Avocado Commission, p. 280; Sabena Flight
Academy, p. 323; Graham Ward, Barfoot & Thompson, Devonport, p. 487.

The section of the Land Information New Zealand topographic map included on p. 282 is from Tauranga
260-U14, published 1997. Crown Copyright reserved.

Screen shots reprinted by permission from Microsoft Corporation.

Mathematical figures and diagrams drawn by Richard Rendle.
Cartoons drawn by Red Shark/Fraser Williamson.
Page layout by Mona Mohun.

www.pearsoned.co.nz

Your comments on this book are welcome at

[email protected]

Pearson Education New Zealand

a division of Pearson New Zealand Ltd
Corner Rosedale Road and Airborne Road, Albany, Auckland
New Zealand

Associated companies throughout the world

© Pearson Education New Zealand 1992, 1996, 2000, 2005

First published by Longman Paul 1992
Reprinted 1993, 1994
Reprinted by Addison Wesley Longman New Zealand Limited 1996, 1997, 1998 (twice), 1999 (twice)
Second edition published by Pearson Education New Zealand 2000
Reprinted 2001 (three times), 2002, 2003
This edition published 2005

ISBN 0 582 54748 2

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Produced by Pearson Education New Zealand

Printed in Malaysia
Typeset in 10/12 Palatino
 ontents
Investigations iii
Technology investigations iii
Pu les iii
Spreadsheet topics and activities iv
ata sets v
Simulations v
Foreword to students, parents and teachers v

Alge
1 Basic algebra 2
2 Algebraic fractions 17
3 Factorising and uadratic e pressions 22
4 Rearrangements of algebraic formulae 30
5 Simultaneous e uations 40
6 uadratic e uations 48
7 Non linear simultaneous e uations 63
8 Indices 75
9 Logarithms 84
NCEA 2.1 Revision e ercises 94

on l ne g s
10 Factored polynomials and their graphs 96
11 yperbolas and circles 109
12 E ponential and logarithmic graphs 130
13 Transformations of graphs and modelling 144
NCEA 2.2 Revision e ercises 158
ed ca on
This book is dedicated to my brother, e t es nd nteg ls
John Campbell Barton
14 Introducing differentiation 160
15 Calculus and curves 168
In loving memory of John,
9 December 1952 21 June 2005 16 Integration 179
17 Calculus applications 194
Who would true valour see, let him come hither NCEA 2.3 Revision e ercises 211

David Barton
o o d n te geomet
ctober 2005
18 Co ordinate geometry 213
19 Further co ordinate geometry 225
NCEA 2.4 Revision e ercises 240

t t st c l n e ence
20 Sample statistics and data display 242
21 Sampling processes and making inferences 274
NCEA 2.5 Revision e ercise 291
 o lt Painted cubes 373
22 Theoretical probability 293 The sharebroker s report 409
23 E perimental probability and simulation Pythagoras and the cosine rule 435
methods 320 The octagon chop 437
24 The normal distribution 338 The olden Ratio and the cosine rule 440
NCEA 2.6 Revision e ercises 367 The Auckland Sydney road tunnel 461
The Reuleau triangle 469
e ences
25 Introducing se uences 369 ec nolog n est g t ons
26 Arithmetic se uences 380 ff to the free ing works 44
27 eometric se uences 389 uadratic e uation solver 59
28 rowth and decay 401 The acoustic concert hall 74
NCEA 2.7 Revision e ercises 411 The roller coaster 108
The dance oor 117
gonomet o lems rawing a semi circle 126
29 Triangle trigonometry 413 E ponential and log graphs 139
30 The sine rule 423 ifferent bases, different curves 143
31 The cosine rule 433 The shrinking chord 163
32 Practical trigonometry 445 Combining trape iums 185
33 Circular measure 452 The warehouse 203
NCEA 2.8 Revision e ercises 470 The horse breeder s paddock 210
Motorcyclist crashes 257
gonomet c e t ons Coffee cups 272
34 Trig graphs and e uations 472
Numeral soup (or random numbers from a computer) 277
35 Further trig graphs and e uations 486
The normal curves and the witch of Agnesi 355
NCEA 2.9 Revision e ercises 502
Identical triplets 370
The Fibonacci se uence 378
Answers 503
The parking building 385
Inde 581
Watering down drinks 391
seful formulae 583
The grains of rice 392
Normal distribution table 586
The four gifting schemes 396
Business depreciation 405
The kidney shaped pool 449
n est g t ons
The Polygon Society and the round tablecloth 456
Che uered ags 6
Producing trig graphs using radians 478
Splitting rectangles 24
Modelling monthly temperatures in Clyde,
ollow s uares 28 Central tago 492
Floor oists 34
Three s uares in a row 39 les
The olden Ratio 56 The third highest number 8
Close to 1 143 The four friends 10
Reading age 144 Stuf ng envelopes 14
Mathematics te tbooks 286 avier and vonne 16
50c and the polar bears 319 The shoemaker s will 19
The Boeing 757 45 sing a spreadsheet to draw a bo plot 263
Pumpkin patch 53 sing technology to nd the standard deviation 267
Minding your p s and q s 54 Coffee cups 272
This century base 3 75 Numeral soup (or random numbers from a
Car number plates 78 computer) 277
Last digit 81 Real estate cluster sample 288
Wayward perpendicular bisectors 236 sing technology to calculate standard normal
probability 346
The stolen bicycle 239
sing technology to calculate any normal
The white marbles 302
probability 350
Baker s do en auction 323
The normal curve and the witch of Agnesi 355
Se uential clock display 382
sing technology to obtain normal inverses 359
The 51 pearls 388
Constructing a histogram in a spreadsheet 365
Circumscribed triangle 422
Identical triplets 370
ouble triangles 442
sing a spreadsheet to generate se uences 374
The mobile crane 451
E ercise 25.04 375
Straight hands 456
E ercise 25.05 376
Spreadsheets and recursively de ned se uences 376
e ds eet to cs nd ct t es
E ercise 25.06 377
ff to the free ing works 44
The Fibonacci se uence 378
uadratic e uation solver 59
The parking building 385
The acoustic concert hall 74
E ercise 26.04, uestion 18 388
Plotting points for a parabola 96
The 51 pearls 388
The roller coaster 108
Watering down drinks 391
The dance oor 117
The grains of rice 392
rawing a semi circle 126
The four gifting schemes 396
Marathon times 126
Business depreciation 405
Produce the graph of y 2x 131
The sharebroker s report 409
E ercise 12.01, uestion 5 132
Adding to the original investment 409
E ercise 12.03, uestion 4 134
E ercise 28.04 410
E ponential and log graphs 139
E ercise 32.02, uestion 3 447
raph of log3(x) 141
E ercise 32.03, uestion 1 448
ifferent bases, different curves 143
E ercise 32.03, uestion 2 448
Reading age 144
The kidney shaped pool 449
The shrinking chord 163
The Polygon Society and the round tablecloth 456
Combining trape iums 185
E ercise 33.08 468
The warehouse 203
raphs of y sin(x), y cos(x) and y tan(x) 472
The horse breeder s paddock 210
Producing trig graphs using radians 478
sing technology to calculate the three measures
of central tendency 244 Modelling monthly temperatures in Clyde,
Central tago 492
Technology and fre uency tables 249
Picturing a solution to a trig e uation 496
Motorcyclist crashes 257
sing spreadsheets to calculate simple measures
of spread 261
 t sets Boys and girls 329
Christchurch temperatures 245, 262, 270 Three members of a family 329
Motorcyclist crashes 257 The gamblers 329
Avocado weights 280 The Chinese Lunar Calendar 330
Bag weights 283 The dartboard 330
scar winners 283 The overbooked car ferry 331
The olive grove 284 The licorice factory and the triangle ine uality 332
Longman Mathematics series 286 Acute, obtuse and right angled triangles 332
Auckland real estate prices 288 Ten to one it s Pythagoras 332
Toyota Corolla prices 291 The cars and the goat (the Monty all problem) 333
Cats and mice (predator prey) 334
m l t ons Sharks and sh (predator prey) 336
Numeral soup (or random numbers Ferrets and fantails (predator prey) 337
from a computer) 277 ff road vehicles and toheroa (predator prey) 337
50c and the polar bears 319 Normally distributed values 366
Tossing a fair coin 324 olumes of soft drinks 366
eads or tails 324 E cess baggage charges 366
ay of the week 325 The 12 houses 367
Waiting for heads 326 The cro uet hoop 448
Fives and si es 327 The penalty spot 448
The petrol station and the coloured cards 327

o ewo d to st dents ents nd te c e s

Welcome to Year 12 and another year of learning Standards are covered in separate colour-coded sections
mathematics. so that you know e actly which topics fit where.
Theta Mathematics (NC A Level 2) has been The content has been e tensively reviewed and some
completely updated and reorganised to provide you material, such as networks, time series, polynomials
with full coverage of the NC A Mathematics Level 2 and surds, has been removed, so that the te t is a
Achievement Standards. This is the second full-colour smooth fit with NC A Mathematics Level 2. New
mainstream maths te t written specifically for New coverage includes material on sampling and statistical
Zealand high schools. The liberal and functional use inference, simulations, and practical applications of
of colour throughout makes the book easier and more trigonometry.
interesting to use. For e ample, all nine Achievement

NCEA Achievement Standard

. ebra Manipulate algebraic e pressions and solve e uations
. on near rap s Draw and interpret straightforward non-linear graphs
. er a es and n e ra s Find and use straightforward derivatives and integrals
. o ord na e eo e r Use co-ordinate geometry methods
. a s ca nference Select a sample and use data to make an inference about the population
. robab Simulate probability situations and apply the normal distribution
. e ences Solve straightforward problems involving se uences
. r ono e r prob e s Solve trigonometry problems re uiring modelling of practical situations
. r ono e r c e a ons Solve straightforward trigonometric e uations
 Year 12 is when students first begin to study The new curriculum in mathematics encourages the
mathematics in some depth. Until this stage, much use of technology, and wherever suitable, spreadsheet
of mathematics has been applications-based, with e ercises have been provided to give students
some straightforward skills work. Now students an additional perspective on various topics. The
start to learn about some of the underlying structure spreadsheet used in the e amples is Microsoft celTM,
of mathematics and study it for its own sake. At this but the approach used is applicable across a wide range
level, mathematics is an optional sub ect for all who of other programs.
take it, and I assume that most students using this isit the companion website for this maths series,
te tbook have en oyed doing mathematics so far. My www.mathematics.co.nz, to see up-to-date links for
aim in updating this te tbook has been to continue to the content of Theta Mathematics (NC A Level 2). All
stimulate the students interest and encourage them to of the spreadsheets referred to in this book, together
carry on with mathematical studies. with suggested answers to spreadsheet activities, can
Topics that students are meeting for the first time, be downloaded from the website.
such as calculus and the normal distribution, have been You will probably use this book mainly in the
accompanied by a large number of graded, skills-based classroom. owever, you need to study and do e tra
uestions in order to reinforce understanding and build activities in your own time to do as well as possible.
solid foundations for future learning. Throughout The Theta Mathematics Workbook (NC A Level 2) would
the book, application-type uestions and situations be ideal for this purpose. It provides full homework
are provided to make the underlying mathematics and revision for the course, with plenty of NC A-style
more interesting and relevant. Many investigations, uestions. The workbook is closely referenced to this
spreadsheet activities and puzzles have been added te tbook, to make it easy to match homework and
try doing these, you can often be surprised at how revision with what you are doing in class. Because it is
some interesting maths is found in une pected and a write-on publication, you can add your own notes,
unfamiliar situations. (Note: indications of the level highlight important points, colour-code places where
of difficulty in revision uestions (AC , MRT, C) you made mistakes for future reference, or add hints
represent the opinion of the author only.) from your teacher. The Theta Mathematics Workbook also
A normal distribution table has been included at features a companion CD, which has PowerpointTM
the back of this book to save teachers from having to demonstrations on key worked e amples, full inclusion
provide separate books of tables. There are also full of all spreadsheets referred to in the te t, and links to
e planations of how to use appropriate technology to internet websites.
carry out normal probability calculations. Mathematics will lie behind much of your career
Full and comprehensive answers are provided. In and ourney through life. With a broad maths education
most cases, answers for uestions involving numerical and a positive attitude you should do well. Best wishes
working are correct to 4 significant figures, so that for an en oyable, challenging and successful year.
students can check whether their calculations are
accurate, but in some cases answers have been rounded
appropriately to fit the conte t of the uestion. avid Barton

Starter Puzzle Tipster Lecturer www Technology

 1

2.1 Algebra
Manipulate algebraic expressions and solve equations

Contents
1 Basic algebra 2 6 Quadratic equations 48
Expansions 2 Solving quadratic equations 48
Quadratic expansions 3 Expressions that include quadratics 50
Expanding more than two brackets 5 Applications of quadratic equations 51
Sentences 6 The quadratic formula 53
Equations 7 Applications from geometry and area 55
Inequations 10 Other applications of quadratic equations 57
Basic indices 14 Further properties of quadratic equations 58
Power laws 15 Nature of the roots of a quadratic equation 58
The discriminant of a quadratic equation 60
2 Algebraic fractions 17
Applications of properties of the discriminant 62
Rules for solving (simplifying) algebraic
fractions 17 7 Non-linear simultaneous equations 63
Simplifying 17 Intersection of lines and curves 63
Multiplication 17 No points of intersection 64
Division 17 Intersection of a line and a parabola 65
Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions 20 Intersection of a line and a circle 67
Intersection of a line and a hyperbola 69
3 Factorising and quadratic expressions 22
Applications 71
Factorising 22
Two-stage factorising 23 8 Indices 75
Quadratic expressions 23 Using the power button on your calculator 75
Factorising quadratics 24 Negative powers 76
Quadratics where the coefficient of x 2 The rules of indices 77
is not 1 25 Fractional indices 79
Two special cases of quadratic factorisation 26 Combining powers and roots 79
Using factorising in cancelling 28 Fractional and negative indices 81
Expressing numbers as powers of the same
4 Rearrangements of algebraic formulae 30
base 82
Changing the subject of a formula 30
Linear rearrangements 30 9 Logarithms 84
Applications of linear rearrangements 31 What are logarithms? 84
Rearrangements of rational expressions 33 Historical background 84
Rearrangements of formulae involving square Formal definition of logarithms 86
roots 35 Properties of logarithms 87
Rearrangements of formulae involving perfect Index equations 90
squares 36 Applications of index equations 91
Further applications of rearrangement 37
NCEA 2.1 Revision exercises 94
5 Simultaneous equations 40
Finding intersections by drawing lines 40
Elimination method 41
Substitution method 44
Applications 45
 1
1 Basic algebra

Many basic processes in mathematics involve Example Expand and then simplify
algebra. Algebra is all about manipulating 2(x – 3) + 3(5x + 1).
numbers and symbols – the ‘building blocks’ of
mathematics. = Answer 2(x – 3) + 3(5x + 1)
We start by looking at expanding brackets = 2x – 6 + 15x + 3
(this involves multiplying numbers and = 17x – 3
pronumerals), and then simplifying by adding or
subtracting like terms. Take particular care with minus signs in front of
brackets. A minus sign changes the sign of all
the terms inside the brackets. By itself in front of
Expansions brackets, a minus sign means multiply by –1.
When an expression in brackets has a number Example Expand and simplify
or pronumeral in front, the brackets can be
expanded by multiplying the terms inside the 2(a – 3b + c) – (a + 6b – c).
brackets, in turn, by the number or pronumeral
at the front. This process removes the brackets.
= Answer 2(a – 3b + c) – (a + 6b – c)
= 2a – 6b + 2c – a – 6b + c
= a – 12b + 3c
TIPSTER
When writing formulae in algebra, we use letters
exercise 1.01
of the alphabet (x, y, p, etc.) to represent 1–13 Expand these expressions.
numbers that can be substituted in the formula
1 4(x – 3)
or rule. Because the letter, usually x, is ‘standing
in’ for a number, we call it a pronumeral. 2 –2(y + 9)
3 15(x – 2)
4 3(2x + 5)
5 7(3x – 6y)
Example Expand 6(x + 2y).
6 –(a + b)
= Answer 6(x + 2y) = 6 × x + 6 × 2y = 6x + 12y
7 –(b – c)
8 x(x + 2)
Example Expand x(3 – x).
9 x(x – 3)
= Answer x(3 – x) = 3x – x2
10 a(b + 2c)
11 2x(x + 7)
Where some terms have the same pronumeral or
–
pronumeral combination, these like terms can be 12 3y(y – 1)
‘simplified’ by adding or subtracting. 13 4x(y + 5)
 1 Basic algebra 3

14–25 Expand these expressions. Simplify where TIPSTER

possible.
14 5(3x – 2) + 6(x – 3) When expanding quadratics the convention is to
15 2(1 – 3x) – 4(x + 2) write the resulting expression with ‘descending’
powers of x – i.e. start with the x 2 term.
16 3(2x + 5) – 5(3x – 1)
17 x(x + 3) + x(2x – 1)
18 x(3x + 2) – x(1 – 4x) exercise 1.02 1
19 2(x – 8) – (x + 4)
20 5(1 – x) – (7 + x) Expand and simplify these quadratic
expressions.
21 2x(x + 1) – 3x(x + 5)
22 3x(4x – 2) + 5x(2x – 1) 1 (x + 2)(x + 8) 14 (9 – x)(x + 4)
23 2x(3x – 4) + x(1 – 4x) – 2x(4x + 3) 2 (x + 5)(x + 4) 15 (1 – x)(5 – x)
24 –6(x + 7) + x(9x + 10) – (4 – x) 3 (x – 7)(x – 3) 16 (3 + x)(x – 1)
25 –x(x + 5) + 10(x2 + 2x – 1) – x(9x + 15) 4 (x – 8)(x – 1) 17 (2x + 1)(x + 5)
5 (x + 5)(x – 3) 18 (x + 2)(3x + 5)
Quadratic expansions 6 (x – 7)(x + 1) 19 (2x – 3)(x – 8)
7 (x + 8)(x – 9) 20 (x – 7)(5x – 2)
LECTURER 8 (x – 16)(x + 2) 21 (x – 3)(2x + 7)
9 (x – 11)(x + 4) 22 (3x + 1)(x – 12)
A quadratic expression in x is one that can be
10 (x + 5)(x – 13) 23 (2x – 3)(3x – 4)
expressed as ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0.
11 (x – 1)(x – 2) 24 (5x + 1)(2x + 7)
In a quadratic expression the highest power of x 12 (x + 4)(6 + x) 25 (3x – 7)(2x + 5)
is x2. An example of a quadratic expression is 13 (x + 2)(4 – x) 26 (7x + 13)(5x – 4)
x2 – 5x + 7. When two linear expressions in x
(of the form px + q) are multiplied together a
quadratic is the result. Perfect squares
Example Expand (x + 4)(x + 3). When both brackets in a quadratic expression
= Answer Consider the (x + 4) to be a single are the same, we say that the expression can
term (temporarily). be written in perfect square form. Instead of
Then (x + 4)(x + 3) repeating the same bracket more than once, we
= (x + 4)x + (x + 4)3 write the expression as a power.
= x2 + 4x + 3x + 12
= x2 + 7x + 12 LECTURER
Note: with practice the first step can be left out.
A perfect square can be written in the form (ax + b)2.
Example Expand (x – 1)(x + 8).
= Answer (x – 1)(x + 8) = x2 – x + 8x – 8
Examples (x – 3)(x – 3) is better written as
= x2 + 7x – 8
(x – 3)2.
Example Expand (6 – x)(2x + 3). (4x + 5)(4x + 5) is written as
= Answer (6 – x)(2x + 3) = 12x – 2x2 + 18 – 3x (4x + 5)2.
= –2x2 + 9x + 18
 4 Algebra 2.1

Perfect squares can be expanded in exactly the Difference of two squares

same way as other quadratics.
When the expressions in both pairs of brackets
Example Expand a (x – 3)2 in a quadratic expression are the same except for
b (4x + 5)2 different signs, the resulting expression is called
a difference of two squares. In general:
= Answer a (x – 3)2 = (x – 3)(x – 3)
• (x + y)(x – y) expands to x2 – y2,
= x2 – 3x – 3x + 9
1 = x2 – 6x + 9
• (px + q)(px – q) expands to p2x2 – q2,
• (ax + by)(ax – by) expands to a2x2 – b2y2.
b (4x + 5)2 = (4x + 5)(4x + 5)
= 16x2 + 20x + 20x + 25 Example Expand a (x + 2)(x – 2)
= 16x2 + 40x + 25 b (4x – 3)(4x + 3)

exercise 1.03 = Answer a (x + 2)(x – 2) = x2 + 2x – 2x – 4

1–18 Expand and simplify these perfect square = x2 – 4
expressions. b (4x – 3)(4x + 3)
1 (x + 5)2 10 (100x – 1)2 = 16x2 – 12x + 12x – 9
2 (x – 7)2 11 (8x – y)2 = 16x2 – 9
3 (3 – x)2 12 (4x + 3y)2
4 (x – 100)2 13 (x2 – 4)2 exercise 1.04
5 (20 – x)2 14 (x2 + 5)2
6 (4x + 1)2 15 (3x2 – 1)2 Expand and simplify the following expressions.
7 (5x + 3)2 16 (4x2 + 5y2)2 1 (x – 4)(x + 4)
8 (1 – 3x)2 17 (a + b + c)2 2 (x + 7)(x – 7)
9 (2x + 3)2 18 (2x – y + 3z)2 3 (1 – x)(1 + x)
4 (5 + x)(5 – x)
19 (Multichoice) If 2x2 – 12x + 9 = 2(x – a)2 + b, 5 (x + 11)(11 – x)
then:
6 (2x – 3)(2x + 3)
(A) a = 3, b = 27
7 (1 + 6x)(1 – 6x)
(B) a = –3, b = 27
8 (7x – 5y)(7x + 5y)
(C) a = 3, b = –9
9 (x2 + 2)(x2 – 2)
(D) a = –3, b = 9
10 (3x2 + 7)(3x2 – 7)
(E) a = 6, b = 9
11 (6x2 – 5y2)(6x2 + 5y2)
20 The expression 3x2 – x – 9 is rearranged into
12 (x 4 + 3)(x 4 – 3)
the form a(x + 2)2 + b(x + 2) + c. What are the
values of a, b and c? 13 (4x3 + 2y2)(4x3 – 2y2)

To continue this section on expanding brackets, here are some longer problems.

exercise 1.05
Expand and simplify the following expressions.
1 (x – 3)(x + 2) – x(x + 7) 4 2x(3x – 1) + (x – 6)(x + 8)
2 x(x – 1) + 2x(x + 4) 5 (x + 2)(x – 3) + (2x + 1)(3x – 5)
3 6(x + 3) + x(x + 7) 6 (3x – 1)(x + 5) + (2x – 5)(x – 6)
 1 Basic algebra 5

7 (3x – 2)(5x + 3) – (x – 2)(7x – 1) 10 4(x + 2)2 + x(4x + 3) – (x + 5)(x – 1)

8 6(x – 1)(x + 2) – (1 – x)(2 + x) 11 5x(x + 2) – (x + 2)2 + 4(x + 2)(x – 2)
9 4x(2x + 1) – (x + 3) 12 (3x – 5)2 + (x – 4)2 – 10(x + 4)(x – 1)

Expanding more than two brackets

1
Example Expand and simplify
(x + 1)(x – 2)(x + 4).
= Answer Keep one bracket unchanged and expand the
other two:
(x + 1)(x – 2)(x + 4) = (x + 1)(x2 + 2x – 8)
Now multiply the terms in the second bracket in
turn by both terms in the first bracket:
= x(x2 + 2x – 8) + 1(x2 + 2x – 8)
= x3 + 2x2 – 8x + x2 + 2x – 8
= x3 + 3x2 – 6x – 8

Example Expand and simplify (x – 5)3.

= Answer (x – 5)3 = (x – 5)(x – 5)(x – 5)

= (x – 5)(x2 – 10x + 25)
= x3 – 10x2 + 25x – 5x2 + 50x – 125
= x3 – 15x2 + 75x – 125

exercise 1.06
Expand and simplify the following expressions.
1 (x + 2)(x + 4)(x + 5) 11 (3x – 5)(2x – 1)(3x + 2)
2 (x – 1)(x – 8)(x + 2) 12 (x + 1)(2x – 5)2
3 x(x – 3)(x + 5) 13 (x + 1)3
4 (x + 6)(x – 1)(x – 2) 14 (x + 4)3
5 (x – 3)(x + 4)2 15 (x – 6)3
6 (2x + 1)(x + 1)(x – 2) 16 (3 – x)3
7 x(2x + 3)(x – 7) 17 (2x + 1)3
8 (1 – x)(x + 2)(x + 1) 18 (3x – 5)3
9 (4 – x)(x + 3)(x – 2) 19 (x + 2)3 – (x – 1)3
10 (2x – 1)(x + 4)(x – 5) 20 (2 – x)3 + (x + 5)3
 6 Algebra 2.1

INVESTIGATION

Chequered flags
Chequered flags are so-called because they are made
up of equal-sized small squares laid out in the same
1 pattern as a chess-board. They usually have a coloured
square in the top-left corner. Flag of Croatia
The diagram shows a
chequered flag with
8 rows and 16 columns.

1 How many small squares are there altogether?

2 How many of these squares are white?
3 How many are coloured?
4 Draw a chequered flag (top-left square coloured)
which has an unequal number of coloured and white squares.
In general, a chequered flag can have p rows and q columns. Assume the top-left square must
be coloured.

5 Write down a formula (in terms of p and q) that gives the total number of small squares.
6 Write down a condition for p and/or q that will ensure an unequal number of coloured and
white squares.
7 Investigate and write down formulae (in terms of p and q) for the number of:
a small white squares when p and q are both even,
b small coloured squares when p and q are both odd,
c small white squares when p and q are both odd.

Sentences
Sentences are mathematical statements using symbols, i.e. pronumerals and
numbers, which may or may not be true. There are two types.
1 Equations, in which an equals sign appears. 2 Inequations, in which an inequality sign
Examples 2x + 5 = 6 appears.
x+4 = 5 Examples 2x > 9
6 3x – 5 ≤ 16
x2 – 3x – 8 = 0 x – 3 < 5x + 2
400
Many equations have only one solution.
However, some equations have no solution, Inequations have a solution set – a range of
or more than one solution. values – any of which make the inequation
true.
 1 Basic algebra 7

Equations
A linear equation is one which can be reduced eventually to the form ax = b. Linear equations
generally have only one solution. (There are exceptions to this rule – see later.)

To solve a linear equation, aim to get pronumerals (x) to the left-hand side (LHS) of the equals (=)
sign and numbers to the right-hand side (RHS). Then try to get x by itself. Here are the steps to
follow. 1
1 Expand any brackets.
2 Simplify if necessary by adding or subtracting like terms.
3 Transfer terms with x to the LHS and number-only terms to the RHS. When you do this you
have to change their sign: + changes to –, and – changes to +. ‘Change sides, change operations.’
4 Simplify if necessary by adding or subtracting like terms.
5 Divide by the number in front of x.

Example Solve the equation 3(x – 1) = 5x + 17.

= Answer 3(x – 1) = 5x + 17
3x – 3 = 5x + 17 (expanding brackets)
3x – 5x = 17 + 3 (the 5x is moved to the LHS and has its sign changed to become –5x.
Likewise the – 3 becomes + 3 when moved to the other side)
–2x = 20 (simplifying)
–
x = 10 (dividing by –2, the number before x)

Not every linear equation has a unique solution.

Some equations have an infinite number of Other equations have no solution at all. We say
solutions. Any number will make the equation the solution set is the empty set – i.e. { } or Ø.
true.

Example Solve the equation Example Solve the equation 2x – 3 = 2x + 7.

6x + 5 = 2(3x + 5) – 5.
= Answer 2x – 3 = 2x + 7
= Answer 6x + 5 = 2(3x + 5) – 5 2x – 2x = 7 + 3
6x + 5 = 6x + 10 – 5 0 = 10 which is impossible.
6x + 5 = 6x + 5 The solution set is { }.
6x – 6x = 5 – 5
Note: it should be obvious that this equation
0 =0 has no solution – doubling a number and
which is (trivially) always true. subtracting 3 will never give the same result as
doubling the number and adding 7.
It follows that any number could be substituted
for x.
We say the solution set is R, the real numbers.
 8 Algebra 2.1

exercise 1.07 Equations in fraction form

If the equation has fractions in it, multiply both
Solve these equations by rearranging. sides by the common denominator.
1 5x – 1 = 9 12 3x – 1 = 4 – x
x 2x
2 3x = 7 13 2x + 4 = 4 – 2x Example Solve the equation +3 = .
4 7
–
3 x=6 14 3x + 9 = 3x – 7
1
= Answer The common denominator is 28
4 2–x=8 15 7x – 3 = 1 + 4x (i.e. 4 × 7). Multiply all three terms
5 4x = x + 18 16 4 – 2x = x + 8 by 28.
6 2x = x– 17 7 – 3x = –5x
28 × x + 28 × 3 = 28 × 2 x
7 3x = 5x 18 8x + 4 = 11x – 3 4 7
8 x+1=x+2 19 3 – 2x = 4x + 5 7 x + 84 = 8x
9 4x – 1 = 3 + 4x 20 1 + 7x = 4 + 8x 7 x − 8x = – 84
10 6x + 4 = 5 – 6x 21 –5x + 3 = 10 – 5x
–x= – 84
11 2x + 3 = x + 8 22 12x – 11 = 15x + 10 x = 84

exercise 1.08 exercise 1.09

Solve these equations by expanding brackets and Solve these equations.
rearranging.
1 2x − x = 3
1 2(x + 5) = 18 5 2
2 4x = 3(x + 1) x+ x = 1
2
3 2x – 3 = 5(x + 2) 3 4 5
4 4(x + 2) = 2(x + 3) 3 2x − 7 = x
3 2
5 2(1 – x) = 4(3x – 1)
4 5x + 3x = 1
6 12(x + 5) = 3(7 + 4x)
2 4
7 2(x + 4) + 3(x – 1) = 6
x − 4 − 3 = 2x
8 5(x – 3) = 2x – 3(x + 1) 5
2 5
9 8x – 7 = 2x – (2 – x) x+1+ x−3 = 5
6
10 4(x + 2) = 2(2x + 4) 3 2
11 12x + 6 = 4(1 – 3x) 7 x + 4 + 3x + 2 = 4
12 5 + 2(x – 3) = x + 8 5 3
2x − 3 − 1 − 2x = x + 1
13 7 – 3(1 – 2x) = 3(x – 1) 8
2 5 4
14 4(3x – 1) + 2 = 8x
x−2 − x−1 = 4+ x
15 4x – 3 = 2(x + 1) + 3x 9
3 2 2
16 7(x + 5) – 2(x + 3) = 5x + 9 x + 5 + 3x − 1 = 2 x + 6
10
17 5(x – 3) + 6x – 2(3x – 4) = 0 4 2 3
11 7− x+2 = x
PUZZLE The third highest number 5 7
3(x − 2) 2 x − 3 1 − 2 x
Seven consecutive odd numbers are added 12 + − = 2
4 8 3
together, and then the third highest is
subtracted, giving a result of 340. What is 13 2 − 3 = 4
the value of the third highest number? x 2x
 1 Basic algebra 9

14 3 + 1 = 2
5x x
4 −5= 1
15
3x 2x

16 2 +2 = 3
7x 5x
1
Contrary to common belief, the origin of the saying ‘rule of thumb’
has nothing to do with a law saying that a man was allowed to beat
his wife with a stick no wider than a thumb. This urban myth was
erroneously traced back to a pronouncement that was supposed to
have been made in 1782 by a British judge, Sir Francis Buller. In fact
the saying has been recorded since 1692, and the most likely origin
of the phrase is that the first joint of an adult thumb is about an inch
in length. It therefore fits other rough definitions of imperial lengths
derived from body parts, where a foot was about the length of a
human foot, and a fathom was the height of a tall man.

x − 4 = 2x
Example Solve the equation .
5 3
= Answer Cross-multiply:
3(x − 4) = 10x
3x − 12 = 10x
3x − 10x = 12 TIPSTER
−7x = 12
−
When an equation has fractions
x = 12
−7
= 12 only on both sides, a useful rule of
7
thumb is to cross-multiply – i.e.
multiply diagonally.

exercise 1.10
Solve these equations.
x = 4 x−2 = 3 13 x − 1 = 2x + 3 18 2 x − 4 = 3x + 1
1 2 7 5
8 7 5
x = 3 3x + 2 = 0 x + 11 x−5 = 7
2 8 14 6x = 19
8 4 8 2 x+2 8
3x = 8 x+1 = x 5x = 4 x −9 4x − 1 = 2
3 9 5 3 15 2 20
5 5x + 3
2x = 3 2x − 1 = 3 1+ x = 2+ x 4 = 3
4 10 16 21
9 4 4 5 8 4 x 2x + 1
−x 3 1 − x = −2 3x + 1 = 6x − 5 3
5
10
=
4
11
3
17
2 4 22 = 7
8 − 5x x+2
x = 2x 2x − 3 = − 3
6 12
4 5 5 4
 10 Algebra 2.1

Inequations
LECTURER
An inequation is like an equation but instead
of having an equals sign (=) it has one of these One important rule when solving
inequalities: inequations is that when you
• < less than, divide by a negative number at
• > greater than, the final step, you reverse the
1 • ≤ less than or equal to, inequality. That is, a < becomes
• ≥ greater than or equal to. a >, and a > becomes a < sign.
To solve inequations, we use similar methods to those covered earlier.
However, often the answer is a set of numbers rather than one single number.

Example Solve 4x – 5 < 2. Example Solve 4x – 3(x + 6) ≥ 5x – 22.

= Answer 4x − 5 < 2 = Answer 4x − 3x − 18 ≥ 5x − 22

4x < 2 + 5 x − 18 ≥ 5x − 22
4x < 7 x − 5x ≥ – 22 + 18
x < 7 (or x < 1.75) ≥ –4 (on division by
– 4x
4 –4 we change the
x ≤ 1
inequality sign)

exercise 1.11
Solve these inequations.
15 3x − 2 ≥ 5x + x
1 2x < 9 8 3 – x ≥ 3x + 5
4 2
2 5x – 7 ≤ 3 9 3(2 – x) ≤ –18 x+1 ≤ x−4
16
3 4x + 3 > x + 9 10 4(2x – 3) < 5 + 2(3x – 1) 2 3
4 x + 11 ≥ 2x – 9 11 7 – 4(1 – 2x) ≥ 9x 17 7 − 3x > 15
3x ≤ 2 x 4
2x + 3 < 9 12
5 5 18 5(3x + 2) ≤ 7x – (3 – 8x)
5
−x −
6 –x ≥ –9 13 > 3 19 4(1 – 3x) > 5(2x + 1) – 18
− 4x
4 2
7 5 < 3x + 1 x + 2x < 5 20 x − 2 + 10 ≥ 4 − 5x
14
3 5 4 3

PUZZLE
The four friends
How old are Peter, Quinta, Roger and Sally?
• Their ages add to 75.
• Peter is twice as old as Sally.
• Roger is two years younger than Quinta.
• Quinta is one year older than Sally.
 1 Basic algebra 11

exercise 1.12
1 A gardener plants seedlings in a line in small 3 The formula h = 6 + 0.4t gives the expected
enclosures formed by bricks. height in centimetres of a tomato seedling
t days after it is planted.
a What is the height expected to be 15 days
after the seedling is planted?
b Write down an equation and solve it to 1
work out the number of days it will take
to reach a height of 20 cm.
c At what rate does the seedling increase
in height each day?
d What information does the number ‘6’ in
the formula give?
e Another variety of seedling grows at
1 cm per day and is 7 cm high when first
planted. Write down a formula that gives
its height t days after it is planted.

4 A fishing supplier sells three different sizes

Each extra seedling planted means two of lead sinker. The second weighs 40 g more
extra bricks are needed. The formula for the than the first, and the third weighs 40 g
number of bricks needed for n seedlings is more than the second. Together they weigh
(2n + 2). 204 g. Write down an equation and solve it
Write down an equation and solve it to to work out the three weights.
calculate the number of seedlings that can be
5 A family group of two adults and seven
planted when there are 78 bricks.
children pay $155 altogether for admission
to a water-park. The admission price for
2 Another
children is $10 less than the admission price
gardener plants
for adults. Calculate the price for one child.
seedlings in
a line. Each 6 John buys seven cups of tea and four cups
seedling is of coffee for his co-workers. He pays $29.60
surrounded by altogether. A cup of coffee costs 25c more
a triangle made than a cup of tea. Calculate the cost of a cup
up of three of coffee.
pieces of wood.
7 The heights, in metres, of two hot-air
balloons are measured at the same time.
These formulae give their heights t seconds
after that time.
Write down • Balloon 1: 500 – 0.5t
an equation • Balloon 2: 50 + 0.4t
and solve it to a Write down an equation and solve it to
calculate how work out how many seconds it will take
many seedlings for the two balloons to be at the same
can be planted height.
when there are 25 pieces of wood.
b What will the height be at the time in
part a?
 12 Algebra 2.1

8 A taxi-driver faces a mixture of fixed costs 11 When a cox weighing 64 kg is added to a

(registration, insurance, etc.), and variable cox-less four in rowing, the average (mean)
costs (e.g. petrol, tyre replacement) that weight of the cox-less four decreases by 6 kg.
depend on the distance in kilometres (k) Suppose T represents the combined weight
travelled. of the cox-less four. This information can be
• The fixed cost per day is $30. expressed by the equation T − T + 64 = 6.
4 5
• The cost per kilometre driven is $0.50. a Solve the equation.
1 a Write down a rule for the total cost, C, in
b What is the mean weight of the four
rowers in the cox-less four?
terms of k, the distance travelled.
c Another type of team in rowing is the
b One day the taxi-driver’s costs are less
‘eight’. A rowing ‘eight’ consists of eight
than $90. Express this as an inequation.
rowers, plus the cox who weighs 59 kg.
c Give the range of possible distances Calculate the total weight of all nine in
that the taxi-driver in part b could have the team if the mean weight of the team
travelled. decreases by 2 kg when the cox is added.
9 A railway company charge passengers
$75 each for a journey. All of the passengers
except for 31 decide to pay an additional
$15 each for an optional lunch. Altogether
the company receives $10 425 from the
passengers. Suppose there are x passengers.
Write down an equation and solve it to work
out the number of passengers.

10 Two cell-phone companies are competing for

business. Here are the monthly rate plans:
• Inter-call: connection fee $20, $1.20 per
minute for calls
• Cell-talk: connection fee $45, $0.85 per
minute for calls. 12 This table gives information about the rates
a Mrs Smith expects to use her cell-phone charged by Alpha Rental Cars and Beta
for emergencies only. Which company Rental Cars.
would you advise her to choose?
Alpha Beta
Explain why.
b Write down a brief description of the Booking fee $56 $79
type of user who should choose Cell-talk Charge per kilometre $0.48 $0.37
rather than Inter-call.
c Write down a formula for the charges a The formula that gives the charge for
of each company. Use C to represent the Alpha Rental Cars is 0.48k + 56. Write
charge in dollars, and t to represent the down the formula for Beta Rental Cars.
number of minutes the phone is used. b What mileage travelled would give the
d Calculate the time for which the amount same charge from either company?
charged by each company is the same. c Calculate the charge in part b.
 1 Basic algebra 13

13 Cashwise operates a currency exchange 14 A water-tank has

business at an airport information office. two holes in it.
They use two different formulae for The lower
converting $Canadian to $NZ. For this of the two
question, use an exchange rate of 0.615. holes is
• For cash, they divide by (the NZ/ at a level
Canada exchange rate plus 1% – that is, of 0.8 m.
0.01). 1
• For travellers cheques, they divide by
the NZ/Canada exchange rate and then h
charge a $NZ10 transaction fee.

Level of water
a Suppose a tourist from Canada has $x h = 3 – 0.06t

in tank (m)
in cash they want to change to $NZ.
Write down an expression that gives the h = 2 – 0.015t
amount of New Zealand currency they
0.8
receive.
b Now write down an expression that
gives the amount of New Zealand Time (minutes) t
currency they receive if they exchange $x
in Canadian travellers’ cheques. The tank is filled with water, and
c Maurice changes some Canadian cash for immediately starts to leak from both holes.
$NZ, and receives $NZ 240. Write down • At first the water level in metres,
an equation and solve it to work out how t minutes after it is filled, is given by the
much Canadian money he has changed. formula h = 3 − 0.06t.
d Lori exchanges some Canadian After the level has dropped below the higher
travellers’ cheques and receives hole the tank only leaks from the bottom
$NZ 640.41. Write down an equation hole.
and solve it to work out the value (in • Between the level of the two holes the
Canadian dollars) of the travellers’ water level in the tank is given by the
cheques. formula h = 2 − 0.015t.
e You are writing a letter to a friend a What is the level of water in the tank
in Canada who will be visiting New when full?
Zealand soon. b When does the tank stop leaking?
c What is the height of the higher of the
Dear Pierre two holes?
I’ll be waiting for you outside
Customs. You might want to change 15 These are the monthly dial-up charges for
some of your money into New two internet service providers.
Zealand dollars when you arrive. If • Online.com charges a connection fee of
you have less than _______ to change, $20 and the first 3 hours are free. After
I’d advise you to change cash rather that each additional hour costs $2.
than travellers cheques. • Internet.nz charges a connection fee of
See you soon $12 and the first 2 hours are free. After
Your Kiwi friend that each additional hour costs $3.
Write down and solve an equation to
Write down an inequation and solve it to calculate the number of hours at which the
calculate the amount you should write in monthly charges are the same.
the letter.
 14 Algebra 2.1

16 Dr McCarthy orders a taxi to take her to

the airport.
PUZZLE
• If the taxi is driven at 80 km/h she will Stuffing envelopes
1 of an
miss her flight by 2 minutes ( 30
hour). Rhonda and Sandra are stuffing envelopes to
• If the taxi is driven at 90 km/h she will raise funds for a school trip. If Rhonda did the
make the flight with 1 minute ( 601 of an whole job herself, it would take her 5 hours. If
1 hour) to spare. Sandra worked on her own it would take her
4 hours. How long does it take both of them,
Write down an equation and solve it
working together and starting at the same
to work out how far she lives from the
time, to do the job?
airport.

Basic indices exercise 1.13

Repeated multiplication of the same number can
be shown by using power form. For example: 1 Write these in power form.
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 25 a 3×3×3×3×3×3
b r.r.r.r.r.r.r
c –1 × –1 × –1 × –1
LECTURER In general, in an expression d c×c×c
such as b p, b is called the base and p is
called the index or exponent. 2 Write these in expanded form.
a 42 b (–7)5
Powers are evaluated either by repeated c f3
multiplication, or by using the special ‘power’
key on calculators – i.e. xy , or yx on some 3 Evaluate the following.
models.
a 23 b 32
c 54 d 73
Examples 4.13 = 68.921 2
e 11 f 28
(–3)5 = –243
4 Evaluate to 2 dp.
LECTURER a (1.9)5 b (13.6)3
When the base is negative, an odd number of c (1.07)11
negative numbers multiply to a negative product.
5 Evaluate the following.
An even number of negative numbers multiply to
a positive product. That is, if the index is odd, the a (–3)4 b (–5)3
answer is negative; whereas if the index is even, c (–8)5 d (–1)10
–
e ( 2) 14 f (–1)43
the answer is positive.

6 Evaluate to three significant figures.

Example Evaluate: a (–29.4)3 b (–2.05)4
a (–9)4 c (–403)6 d (–0.03)7
b (–2)5

= Answer a (–9)4 = 94 = 6561

b (–2)5 = –25 = –32
 1 Basic algebra 15

Power laws exercise 1.14

Multiplication Multiply these expressions. Simplify if possible.
1 x6 × x3 13 4x5 × 12x9 × 2x2
TIPSTER When multiplying numbers with
the same base in power form, 2 x8 × x7 14 4x2 × 3x × 2x3
add the indices. 3 y × y5 15 2y7 × –3y4
4 x8 × x 16 xy4 × x2y3 1
Examples 43 × 45 = 48 5 3x4 × 5x2 17 4x2 × 3y5 × 5x7 × 2y6
x × x6 = x7 6 –7x2 × 12x9 18 a2bc × a3c
If there are numbers in front of the bases, they 7 2x2 × x5 19 23 × 27
are multiplied. 8 –3x7 × x 20 38 × 311
9 x × 3x5 21 25 × 34 × 32 × 26
Example 2x5 × 10x6 = 20x11
10 x6 × 2x7 22 a1.7 × a1.8
Division 11 4y × 3y2 23 x2q × x3q
12 y × y3 × y2 24 x1 + p × x1 – p
TIPSTER When dividing numbers with
the same base in power form,
subtract the indices.
exercise 1.15
Divide these expressions. Simplify as far as
6
Examples x = x 4 possible.
x2
x8 15 y 3 ya
x3 = 1 1 9 17
x4 x x2 25 y 2 yb
x12 35x 4 4x 2 y
If there are numbers in front of the base, they are 2 10 18
x6 7x 12 xy 2
divided or simplified.
y9 4x 7 12 a 2 b
3 11 24x 2 19
Examples 24x14 y6 6ab
= 8x12
3x 2 x6 8x 4 27 xy 3
4 12 20
28x = 4 x 2 x6 33x 4 y
35x 3 5x 2
x2 12 x7 21 7a4 ÷ 14a4
5 13 4x 8
x
Powers of powers 22
9x 3
12 x 4 3x 5 3x 3
6 14
3x 3 6x 3
pq − r
TIPSTER 3x 8 15x 23
When a base to a given index 7 15 pr − q
is raised to another index, we x6 5x 3
24 x2a + 1
simplify by multiplying the indices. – 4x 8 6x 4
8 16 x1 − a
2x2 8x 6
Example (x5)2 = x10
If there are numbers in the brackets, they are
raised to the given power.

Example (3x6)5 = 243x30

 16 Algebra 2.1

exercise 1.16 PUZZLE

1–13 Simplify these powers of powers as far as
possible. Xavier and Yvonne

1 (x4)3 8 (–3x6)5 Yvonne is 12. Xavier is twice as old as

Yvonne was when Xavier was as old as
2 (x7)2 9 (5x2y3)2
Yvonne is now. How old is Xavier?
1 3 (4x)2 10 (4a3b2c)3
4 (3x4)2 11 (2xy2z)6
5 (2x2)5 12 (–8x4y2)3
6 (2xy)4 13 (2xy3z4)8
7 (–8x3)2

14–17 Write the following expressions as powers

of 2.
14 48
15 83
16 322
17 162
18 Write 93 as a power of 3.
 2
Algebraic fractions 2

Rules for solving (simplifying)

algebraic fractions
Algebraic fractions follow the same rules as
ordinary fractions.

Simplifying
Common factors should always be taken out to
simplify a fraction.

Example Simplify 2cd .

4de

= Answer This fraction has common factors exercise 2.01

of 2 and d. ‘Cancelling’ each one
1–16 Simplify these algebraic fractions by
gives:
cancelling common factors where possible.
2cd = 1 2cd
4de 2 4de 5x x 2 yz
1 5y 10 xyz
= c
2e 6c
2 15x 2 yz 2
2c 11 20xyz
Multiplication 2a
3 6b
To multiply two fractions, multiply the 2 a 2 bc 2
12
numerators and denominators separately. 3x 4a 3bc 3
4 6xy
4b × 3c = 12bc = 6b a2b2c 2
Example 9xy 13 (abc)2
5c 2d 10cd 5d 5
6wx
42 pq
Division 6 8cd 14 35qr
12d
To divide two fractions, multiply the first 5r a 2 b × ab 2
fraction by the reciprocal of the second fraction. 7 6 pr 15 ab
Note: to form the reciprocal of a fraction turn it (2 xy)2 × 3(xy)2
4x 2
upside-down. 8 16
8x 3 x2 y 2
4x 2
2x ÷ 5x = 2x × 3y = 6xy = 6 9
Example 9y 2
y 3y y 5x 5xy 5
 18 Algebra 2.1

17–28 Complete the missing numerator or

denominator to make each pair of fractions exercise 2.03
equal. Divide each pair of fractions. Simplify where
2 ab = possible.
17 3 = 6 23
c c2 4 pq 8 p
3x = 1 a ÷ b 11 ÷
18 4 = 2 24 b a 5 q
18 4y 12 xy a ÷ 4 6p
2 12 = 5p 15 pr
2
9 9 12
5
÷3
19
16 24 25 = p p 2d
4q 3 ÷ 13 4 ÷ 5 f
3a = 6 4
20 9xy 18xy 2
2 4 26 = 4f 2f x
5y 2 4 ÷ 14 x ÷
3 5 2
5x =
2 ab 2 c = 4y
21 6y 12 y 27 5 3d ÷ d 15 ÷x
xyz 2 2 x 2 yz 2 4 2 3x
4x = 12 x 4y
22
3y 4p2q3 6 2c ÷ 3d 16 3x ÷ 5x
28 = 5 4
3mn 12m2 n4
2 a 4 2cd ÷ 4ed
7 ÷ b 17 5e 5c
3c 6c
15 pq
8
7 a ÷ 2b
18 ÷ 5r
5c 3d 14r 7 pq
exercise 2.02 def df 6 yz
9 gh ÷ h 19 5xy ÷ xyz
Multiply each pair of fractions. Simplify where
possible. 2 x ÷ 5x 32 x ÷ 4x
10 20 15 yz
4 y 3z
1
4× d 11 4a × 2c
d 2 d
We finish this section with some mixed
2
5p 2 p
× 12 6c × 7 a
3 5 8 problems.
x× x 3 pq
3 13 5×
2 3 10 exercise 2.04
a× c xy
4
b a 14 ×z
z Simplify the following.
a×6 2cd × 10de
5 xy (3x)2
3 a 15
5 7c 1 × 62 ×
2 2x 9x
6 2 × 3
ab bc 16 12 ab × 4bc 2c ÷ 4d ÷ 5c
16c 3a 2
3b × 2d 3d 7 c 3d
7 4d 5c 16abc × 14ac
17 4x 2 y xy 15x 2 y
21bc 12bc 3 ÷ ×
2 x × 4x 5x (2 x)2 (2 y)2
8 6xy 10z
3y 5y
18 × a 2 b × ac 2 × b 2 c
x × y2 5xz 3xy 4
9 c b a
y x x 2 y xz
19 × 2 2 a 2 b × (2 ab 2 )2
4 × 2c z y 5
10 16a 4b 4
bc 5b
ab 2 × bc 2 2 2 2
20 c3 a2  a2 b   b2 c   c3 a
6  2  ×  2  ÷  2 
c a b
7 (xy2)4 × (3x2y)2
 2 Algebraic fractions 19

16x 2 y (3x)2
8 (2x7)3 × (3x3)2 13 ×
3xy 4 (4xy 2 )3
( x 4 y )2
9 (2 xy 3 )4 (6x 2 y)2
(x 2 y 3 )4 14 ×
(3xy)2 (12 xy 3 )2
(15x 3 )2 16 4
10 15
( 5 x 4 )3 2 48 4

11
(5x 2 y )4
16
32 3 2
(25xy 3 )2 83

( )
2 2
10  3
12 × x 
x2  5

PUZZLE
The shoemaker’s will

A shoemaker died, leaving behind 17 pairs

of men’s shoes and boots. In his will he
disposed of them as follows.
• 21 of the collection to his youngest,
hardworking son.
• 31 to the middle son.
1
• 9
to ‘Lazybones’, the eldest son.
Of course, it wasn’t possible to divide the
17 pairs into halves, thirds and ninths. So the
executor of the will added his own footwear,
making a total of 18 pairs. He divided these
as follows.
• 21 , or nine pairs, to the youngest son.
1
• 3
, or six pairs, to the middle son.
1
• 9
, or two pairs, to the eldest son.
He then realised that 9, 6 and 2 added up to 17, so the executor retrieved his own pair of shoes
(with relief!) and closed the estate.

1 Had the executor shared the shoes fairly?

2 Had the shoemaker made a mistake in drafting his will?
Explain.

(Source: From Gullberg, J. (1999) Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,
p. 248)
 20 Algebra 2.1

Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions

The most simple cases involve fractions with
the same denominator. In the same way as with Example Simplify 1 − 1 .
a b
ordinary fractions, just add the numerators.
1− 1 = b−a
5x + 3x = Answer a b ab
Example Add .
p p
2 Harder examples involve denominators which
8x
= Answer p
already have a common factor, so the common
denominator is not necessarily the product of the
denominators.
Fractions can only be added/subtracted
when the denominators are the same. When
the denominators are different, obtain the Example Simplify 2 x + 1 + 5 .
6x 4x
common denominator by multiplying. Then
the numerators have to be adjusted by ‘cross- = Answer Here the most suitable common
multiplying’ diagonally. denominator is 12x. To obtain this
common denominator, multiply
Example Simplify (write as one fraction) the first fraction top and bottom by
x + 2x . 2, and the second fraction top and
3 p bottom by 3.
2 x + 1 + 5 = 4x + 2 + 15
= Answer The common denominator is 6x 4x 12 x 12 x
(3 × p) = 3p. Cross-multiply to 4 x + 2 + 15
=
obtain respective numerators 12 x
= 4x + 17
px (p × x) and 6x (3 × 2x).
12 x
x + 2 x = px + 6x
3 p 3p 3p
px + 6x
=
3p

exercise 2.05
Simplify the following (that is, write as one fraction).

4+ 2 7 x+ x 2x − x 2 − 1
1 13 19
p p 3 2 5 x y
13 − 9 4x − x 3x 2 − x 2+ 3
2 8 14 20 x y
q q 7 2 5 2
2c + 3c 2x + 3 7x − x 2 − 4
3 9 15 21
7 7 5 2 xy y
4c + c 4x 2 + 10 x 2 + 3x + 2 a + b
4 10 16 22
5 5 5 10 5 x 2 xy
2x + 7 3 + 2
5 x+ x 11 x+ x 17 23 xy 5
2 2 2 7 3
1+ 1 1 − 3x
6
4x + 8 12 x− x 18 x y 24
5 5 3 x y
 2 Algebraic fractions 21

3 + 2y x + y + z x+1+ x 2x − 3 − x + 9
25 29 y z x 33 37 5 6
2 x 3x 4 3
x + y − a x − y x − x+2 x + 2 y 3x − 2 y
26 30 34 38 −
ay bx by 2y 3 3 5 6y 9x
2 − 3 + 4 x + 2 2x + x + 1 x+7 + 1− x
27 31 35 3 6 39
5 y 2 y 3xy 3a 5x x x2
2 + 3 + 4 2 a − 4a + 5a x − 2 + 2x + 3 3 − 5x − 6
28 32 36 40
xy xy 2 x 2 y 3x 5xy 2 xyz 2 6 2x x2 2

Other examples have linear factors, which when multiplied give a quadratic expression
for the common denominator.

Example Simplify 4 − 3 .
x−3 x+1

= Answer The common denominator is

(x – 3)(x + 1) = x2 – 2x – 3.

4 times (x + 1) gives 4x + 4 as the first numerator and 3 times (x – 3)

gives 3x – 9 as the second numerator.
4 − 3 = 4x + 4 − (3x − 9)
x−3 x+1 x2 − 2x − 3
= 4x +2 4 − 3x + 9
x − 2x − 3
= 2 x + 13
x − 2x − 3

exercise 2.06
Simplify these sums and differences by writing as one fraction.
1 + 1 a + b 5+ 2 + 3
1 8 15
x+2 x+3 x + 2 a x − 2b x x−1 x+3
3 2 4 + 1 2 − 3 + 5
2 x−1+ x+5 9 16
2x + 3 x + 3 x−1 x+2 x−3
2 3 x 3 x + x + 2x − 1
3 2 x + 3 + 3x − 1 10 x − 4 − x + 5 17
x+2 x−1 x
2 − 5 4 − x 2 + 3 − 4
4 11 18
x x+2 x−2 x+3 x + 1 x − 1 x2 − 1
3 − 2 5 − x+1 x − 3
5 12 x+1 19 x + 4 x 2 − 16
x−1 x 3
4x + 5 3x + 2 x 5x − 2 + 4
6 13 20 x 2 + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2
x+2 x 3x − 1 x + 2
x + x x + x−1+ 4
7 14
x+1 x+4 2 x x−2
 3
3 Factorising and
quadratic expressions

Factorising exercise 3.01

The reverse process to expanding brackets is
where a sum is changed to a product involving Factorise these expressions by taking out one or
brackets. This is called factorising. more common factors.
1 2x + 6y 16 a2bc – ab2c + abc2
TIPSTER 2 3a – 9b 17 2x2 + 4x – 12
3 4x – x2 18 5x2 + 10x + 25
When factorising, always look for a common
4 ax + a 19 6y2 – 12z2
factor first.
5 12x + 18y 20 91x – 13yx
6 2x – 3x2 21 24x2y2 – 32y
Example Factorise the following.
7 ax + ay – az 22 4xy2 – 2x2 + 6x3
a 5a – 10b
8 x2 + xy + x 23 12ab + 9a – 15b
b x2 – 2x
9 5 – 15x2 24 3x + x(y – 1)
c 3x2 + 9x
10 10x – 21xy 25 2(x + 3) – y(x + 3)
d 3x + 6y + 12
11 2x2 – 4x 26 a(p + q) + b(p + q)
= Answer a 5a – 10b = 5(a – 2b) 12 4x2 + x 27 x(y – 2) + x2
(common factor is 5) 13 3abc + 6ab – 9ac 28 p(x + 1) + x + 1
b x2 – 2x = x(x – 2) 14 a2b – ab2 + abc 29 (a + b)2 – 2(a + b)
(common factor is x) 15 x2 – xy2 30 2x(x + y)2 – 3(x + y)3
c 3x2 + 9x = 3x(x + 3)
(there are two common factors
– both must be taken outside
the brackets)
d 3x + 6y + 12 = 3(x + 2y + 4)
(common factor is 3)
 3 Factorising and quadratic expressions 23

Two-stage factorising
TIPSTER
In some types of problem, factorising needs to be
done in two stages. Instead of looking for a common factor for all
terms, examine pairs for a common factor.

Example Factorise pr + qr + ps + qs.

= Answer Clearly there is no single factor common to all terms. So, factorise in pairs.
3
pr + qr + ps + qs = r(p + q) + s(p + q)
Now note that r(p + q) + s(p + q) has a common factor of p + q:
= (p + q)(r + s)

Example Factorise wx + zy – wy – xz.

TIPSTER
= Answer Rewrite as wx – wy + zy – xz
= w(x – y) + z(y – x) Some rearrangement may be
needed first, to obtain convenient
= w(x – y) – z(x – y) Note: (y – x) = –(x – y) pairs.
= (w – z)(x – y)

exercise 3.02 Quadratic expressions

Recall the expansion:
Factorise the following expressions.
1 ab + ac + bd + cd (x + 3)(x – 2) = x2 + x – 6.
2 xy + xz + wy + wz Another expansion is:
3 st – su + rt – ru (2x – 3)2 = 4x2 – 12x + 9.
4 ef + dh + eh + df Expansions like these with one variable, x,
5 ce + cf – 2de – 2df and two pairs of brackets each with linear
6 3pq – 3pr – 2qs + 2rs expressions, are often called quadratic
7 8c – 4d + 2cx – dx expansions. The result of the expansion is one
where the expression has x2 as the highest power
8 6fg – 28eh + 8gh – 21ef of x.
9 2ax + 2y – ay – 4x
10 a + b – bc – ac
11 3xy + 6ay – 4az – 2xz LECTURER
12 xy + x – 2y – 2
The numbers in front of the powers of x are
13 ab – be + ac + ed – ad – ce called coefficients. The number by itself at
14 (4x – 3y)(a + b) – 4x + 3y the end is called the constant term.

Example In the quadratic x2 + 3x – 2:

• the coefficient of x2 is 1,
• the coefficient of x is 3,
• the constant term is –2.
 24 Algebra 2.1

Factorising quadratics
Quadratics have two linear factors. If the
coefficient of x2 is 1, then each of the factors in The rule is that the numbers we are looking
brackets will start with x, i.e. (x )(x ). for:
The key to factorising quadratics is to work • multiply to the constant term (the number
out the numbers at the end of each pair of at the end), and
3 brackets. • add to the coefficient of x (the number in
the middle).

Example Factorise x2 + 8x + 12. If the coefficient of x and the constant term are
not both positive, more care needs to be taken.
= Answer Write down some pairs of numbers
that multiply to 12: Example Factorise x2 – 3x – 10.

1, 12 2, 6 3, 4 = Answer Possible pairs of numbers are:

The pair that adds to 8 is 2 and 6, 10, –1 5, –2 2, –5 1, –10
so the factorisation is
The pair that adds to –3 is 2 and –5,
(x + 2)(x + 6). Note: the order of
so the two factors are
the two factors themselves is not
(x + 2)(x – 5).
important – the answer could also
be (x + 6)(x + 2). Example Factorise x2 – 6x + 5.

= Answer Possible pairs of numbers are:

5, 1 and –5, –1.
The pair that adds to –6 is –1 and
–5, so the two factors are

(x – 1)(x – 5).

INVESTIGATION
2 Complete this table.
Splitting rectangles
Number of splits Number of rectangles
When these rectangles are
split-up by adding vertical 0 1
lines, more rectangles are 1 3
formed. 2 6
For example, when 3
there are two vertical line 4
splits, there are six possible 5
rectangles altogether:
A C E G 3 Explain how you can work out how many
ABDC, ABFE,
ABHG, CDFE, rectangles are added on at each stage to the
CDHG and EFHG. ones already there.
B D F H
1 Draw the next shape in 4 Investigate to find the formula that gives
the pattern. How many the number of rectangles when there are n
rectangles are there? splits.
 3 Factorising and quadratic expressions 25

exercise 3.03
Factorise these quadratic expressions.
1 x2 + 11x + 30 7 x2 – 3x – 40 13 x2 + 11x – 60 19 x2 + 5x – 104
2 x2 – 12x + 20 8 24 + 5x – x2 14 x2 + 16x + 28 20 x2 + 4x – 140
3 x2 + 15x + 36 9 x2 + 2x – 120 15 x2 + 8x + 7 21 x2 + 23x + 60
4 x2 + 9x + 18 10 x2 – x – 56 16 x2 – 3x – 18 22 x2 – x – 20 3
5 x2 – 27x + 140 11 24 – 25x + x2 17 x2 – 8x – 20 23 x2 – 11x + 24
6 x2 + 2x – 15 12 x2 + 5x – 6 18 x2 + 21x + 108 24 x2 – 52x + 640

Quadratics where the coefficient of x 2 is not 1

It is more difficult to factorise quadratics where the coefficient of x2 is not 1. This is because the rule
about the two numbers at the end of each bracket adding to the coefficient of x no longer works.
One approach is to look for a common factor first, and then factorise.

Example Factorise 2x2 – 10x – 12.

= Answer On inspecting this quadratic, there is a common factor of 2.

2x2 – 10x – 12 = 2(x2 – 5x – 6)
= 2(x – 6)(x + 1)

inside each pair of brackets at the end have to

exercise 3.04 multiply to give the constant term of the expansion.
One approach is to examine pairs of brackets
Factorise these expressions completely,
which fit these conditions. Expand each pair to
first taking out a common factor.
discover which one gives the expansion you are
1 2x2 – 2x – 12 trying to factorise. (It is always a good idea to
2 4x2 + 16x – 48 expand the brackets to check your answer.)
3 4x2 + 20x + 16
Example Factorise 4x2 + 11x + 6.
4 16 + 6x – x2
5 7x2 + 14x + 7 = Answer Possible pairs of factors which give
6 3x2 + 3x – 90 4x2 and 6 are:
7 2x2 + 28x + 48 (4x + 6)(x + 1) (4x + 1)(x + 6)
8 6x2 – 84x – 192 (4x + 3)(x + 2) (4x + 2)(x + 3)
9 5x2 + 55x + 140 (2x + 6)(2x + 1) (2x + 1)(2x + 6)
10 72 + 18x – 2x2 (2x + 2)(2x + 3) (2x + 3)(2x + 2)
The only pair that gives
4x2 + 11x + 6 when expanded is
If there is no common factor in a quadratic (4x + 3)(x + 2).
expression, ‘guess and check’ methods can be
used. With some experience, a feeling for the numbers
Recall that the x-terms inside each pair of involved gradually develops. You will soon find
brackets at the front have to multiply to give that it is not necessary to write out all possible pairs
the x2 term in the expansion. The numbers of factors.
 26 Algebra 2.1

Here’s a two-stage method for working out the factors of quadratics where the coefficient
of x2 is not 1.
1 Recall that the quadratic can be written as ax2 + bx + c.
2 Look for two numbers that:
• multiply to ac, and
• add to b.
3 3 Call these numbers p and q.
4 Write ax2 + bx + c as ax2 + px + qx + c.
5 Now factorise ax2 + px + qx + c in two stages.

Example Factorise 12x2 + x – 6.

= Answer Two numbers that multiply to –72 (= 12 × –6) and add to 1 are 9 and –8.
Write 12x2 + x – 6 as 12x2 + 9x – 8x – 6.
12 x 2 + x − 6 = 12 x 2 + 9x − 8x − 6
= 3x(4x + 3) − 2(4x + 3)
= (3x − 2)(4x + 3)

(Source: This method came from Ross Porter of Cambridge, New Zealand.)

exercise 3.05
Factorise these quadratic expressions. Some may have a common factor.
1 2x2 + 7x + 3 8 3x2 – 10x – 8 14 10x2 – 13x – 3 20 10x2 – 25x – 15
2 2x2 + 11x + 12 9 5x2 + 19x – 4 15 12x2 + 43x + 35 21 12x2 + 36x + 15
3 3x2 – 7x + 2 10 2x2 – 13x – 24 16 20x2 + 11x – 4 22 6x2 – 3x – 30
4 5x2 – 18x + 9 11 3x2 + 20x – 7 17 16x2 + 32x + 15 23 30x2 + 45x + 15
5 3x2 + 7x + 2 12 2x2 – 3x – 20 18 41x2 + 83x + 2 24 12 + 5x – 2x2
6 3x2 + 17x + 10 13 6x2 – x – 12 19 12x2 – x – 6 25 12 – 28x + 15x2
7 7x2 – 22x + 3

Two special cases of quadratic factorisation

1 Perfect squares
When both pairs of brackets are the same, we get Example Expand (x – 3)2.
an expression called a perfect square.
= Answer (x – 3)2 = (x – 3)(x – 3)
= x2 – 3x – 3x + 9
= x2 – 6x + 9
 3 Factorising and quadratic expressions 27

Example Factorise x2 + 16x + 64.

= Answer x2 + 16x + 64 = (x + 8)(x + 8) = (x + 8)2

2 Difference of two squares

An expression such as a2 – b2 is called the difference of two squares. In this type of
expression there is no term in x. 3
The factorisation always follows the same pattern. Both factors are identical except
for the signs, one of which is + and the other –.

Example Factorise x2 – 49.

= Answer We want two numbers that multiply to –49 and add to zero.
Thus, x2 – 49 = (x – 7)(x + 7).

exercise 3.06
Factorise these expressions. (They are a mixture of perfect square and
difference of two squares expansions.)
1 x2 – 36 16 25x2 – 60x + 36 31 x 4 + 2x 2y 2 + y 4
2 y2 – 49 17 2x2 – 18 32 (x – y)2 – (y – x)2
3 x2 + 6x + 9 18 16x2 – 24xy + 9y2 33 xa2b – xb3
4 16 – x2 19 64 – 4x2 1 − 1
34
x2 4y 2
5 x2 – 10x + 25 20 ax2 – ay2
35 x 6 + 16x 3 + 64
6 x2 + 22x + 121 21 10x2 – 40y2
20a 2 − 5
7 a2 – 64 22 9x2 + 12xy + 4y2 36
b2 c2
8 81 – x2 23 4ax2 – 16ay2 37 (x – y + 3)2 – (y + x + 2)2
9 4x2 – 4x + 1 24 10 000x2 – 1400x + 49 38 3x – 12x3
10 16x2 – y2 25 81x2 – 9y2 39 x 8 + 4x 4y 2 + 4y 4
11 x2 + 4xy + 4y2 26 x 4 + 2x2 + 1 40 16x4 – 81y 4
12 25 – 9x2 27 (x + 3)2 – (x – 2)2 41 8x2 – 18y 4
13 9a2 – 4b2 28 4x 4 – 12x2 + 9 42 4x10 – 20x 5y 4 + 25y 8
14 4x2 – 4 29 (2x + 1)2 – (x + 4)2 43 (2x – 3y + 5)2 – (3x + y – 5)2
15 9x2 + 30x + 25 30 (5x – 3)2 – (6x – 3)2 44 a2 – 2ab + b 2 – c2 – 2cd – d 2
 28 Algebra 2.1

INVESTIGATION

Hollow squares
A children’s construction game uses hollow squares, each constructed from
small cubes. Each cube measures 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm. The children use
3 their imagination to build models of office blocks, tunnels, and so on.
1 The smallest possible hollow square is 3 by 3. How many cubes are
needed to make this square?
2 How many cubes are needed to make a 4 by 4 hollow square?
3 How many cubes are needed to make a 5 by 5 hollow square?
4 Investigate to find out how many cubes are needed to construct an n by n hollow square.

Painting hollow squares

The hollow square here has been made up of 12 different
cubes. Each cube has its outside faces painted. The faces
of the cubes joined directly to other cubes have not been
painted.
5 Calculate the total painted surface area for the 4 by 4
hollow square.
6 Calculate the total painted surface area for the 3 by 3
hollow square.
7 Copy and complete this table for
the number of painted and Type of hollow Number of Number of
unpainted faces on the small square painted faces unpainted faces
cubes that make up a hollow 3 by 3
square. 4 by 4
5 by 5 64 32
8 Is there a pattern that would
help you find a rule for the total 6 by 6
painted surface area for an n by n 7 by 7
hollow square? Investigate to find
out.
9 Is there a pattern that would help you find a rule for the total unpainted surface area for an
n by n hollow square? Investigate to find out.

Using factorising in cancelling

Some fractions can be simplified by looking for common factors and then cancelling.
x2 + x − 2
Example Simplify x−1 .

= Answer x 2 + x − 2 = (x − 1)(x + 2) = x + 2
x−1 (x − 1)
 3 Factorising and quadratic expressions 29

Simplify 16 − x .
2
Example
x+4
16 − x 2 = (4 + x)(4 − x) = 4 − x
= Answer x+4 x+4
Note: 4 + x = x + 4, so these are common factors and cancel.

Example Simplify x − 5x + 62 .
2 3
8 − 2x − x TIPSTER
x 2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 3)(x − 2)
= Answer 8 − 2x − x2 (2 − x)(x + 4)
Be aware of disguised changes of sign.
For example, in the following fraction,
= x − 3 × −1 the factor (x – 7) cancels with the
x+4 factor (7 – x) leaving –1 in the answer.
= 3−x x−7 −
1 (7 − x )
x+4 = = −1
7 −x 7 −x

exercise 3.07
Simplify these rational algebraic expressions by cancelling common factors where possible.

2x + 6 x2 − 1 2 x 2 − 3x − 2
1 14 1− x 27
x+3 3x 2 − 4x − 4
x−3 2x + 4 2 x 2 + 5x − 3
2 3x − 9 15 28
x 2 − 3x − 10 2 x 2 − 5x + 2
3 3x + 3 x 2 + 5x + 6 4x 2 + x − 3
16
2x + 2 x+2 29 2x2 + 7 x + 5
4 12 x − 8 x 2 − 2 x − 35 x+1 ÷ x+1
17 30
3x − 2 x−7 6 3
1− x x − 16
2 x−2 × x+1
5 18 31
x−1 x 2 + x − 12 x+1 2−x
4−x x 2 − 2 x − 15 x − x × 6x
2
6 19 32 2x + 2
2x − 8 x2 + 2x − 3 x2 − 1
5x + 7 x 2 + 5x + 6 x 2 − 5x + 6 ÷ x − 2
7 20 33
10x − 3 x2 − 9 x x 2 − 3x
1 − x2 x+3
x−5 ÷ x + 5x + 6
2
8 21 34
5−x x−1 x 2 − 12 x + 35 x−5
16x − 12 x 2 − 5x − 6
÷ x −x
x 2
9 22 35
3 − 4x x2 − x − 6 x2 +x−2 x+2
12 x + 6 x2 − 2x − 3 x+3 × x + 6x + 8
2
10 18x + 2 23 36
x 2 − 7 x + 12 x2 + 2x − 8 x+3
x 2 − 25 6a 2 b 2 − 12 a 3b x + 11x + 28 ÷ x 2 + 2 x − 35
2
11 24
x+5 37
3ab 2 − 6a 2 b x2 + x − 2 x 2 + 5x + 6
x+1
12 2−x x3 − x
x 2 + 3x + 2 25 38
x2 − 4 x+1
13 x2 + 2x − 3
x−1 x 2 + 9x + 20
26
x 2 + 3x − 4
 4
4 Rearrangements of
algebraic formulae

Note: changing the subject of a formula is assumed knowledge from NCEA Mathematics Level 1
and is not assessed directly. However, it may be required in solving problems anywhere in
Level 2 Achievement Standard 2.1.

Changing the subject of a formula

We use many formulae in mathematics. One example is the formula A = πr2 to calculate the area of a
circle. In this formula A is the area, and r is the radius.
Consider the problem of finding the radius when we know the area. In this case the formula
would be:

r = A
π
The subject of a formula is the quantity on its own before the = sign. In the formula A = πr2 the
subject is A.
Often a formula has to be rearranged to make one of the other variables the subject. The same
rules apply as in solving equations. Whatever is done to one side of the formula should be done to
the whole of the other side.

Linear rearrangements
Example The formula for changing degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius is C = 5 (F − 32).
9
Make F the subject of this formula.
= Answer C = 5 (F − 32)
9
9C = 5(F − 32) (multipl
i lyiing each side of
o the
h equatio
t n by 9)
9C 5F 5F − 160
5F 9C + 160
9C
F = 9C + 160
5
TIPSTER
Notice how all of 9C + 160 is divided by 5. The fraction line
means we don’t need to use brackets, but they are implied.
That is:
9C + 160
is the same as
( 9C + 160 ) .
5 5
 4 Rearrangements of algebraic formulae 31

exercise 4.01
1–25 Make x the subject of these expressions.
y
1 y = 3x – 1 21 x + =1
2 3
2 y = 4x + 3 y+2
22 = x+1
3 x+y–2=0 4
4 3x + 2y = 6 23 3 + p = 2q 4
x
5 y = 3(x + 1) 3y − 4
6 y = 10 – x 24 x + 1 − = 3
2 5
7 1 – 2x = 4y 25 4 y = 2x − 1
8 4y – 3x = 12 3
9 2x + 6 = 3y – x 26 (Multichoice) In the square y
shown, the area of the blue region
10 6 – x = p + x is 9 units. y
11 y = 2(x – 4) x
12 2y = 4(1 – 5x)
13 3y = 2(3x + 2)
14 4(y – 3) = 5(1 – 3x)
x
15 5(x – 3) = 2(1 – y) Which of these does x equal?
16 6 – y = 2(9 – 4x) y2 + 1 9y2 + 1
x (A) y2 + 9 (B) (C)
17 y = 9y y
2 y2 + 9 y
18 4y = 5x (D) (E) + y
y 9
19 5 y = 3 x
4
20 y = x + 1
2

Applications of linear rearrangements

exercise 4.02
1 The formula for the circumference of a circle is C = 2πr. Make r the subject of the formula.

2 An architect uses small cubes to make models of office blocks. All of the outside faces of
the models are painted. For example, a two-storey model has nine painted square
faces.
a Copy and complete this table.

Number of Number of painted

storeys (s) square faces (f )
1
2 9
b Write down a rule that links the number of
3
painted square faces (f ) with the number of
4
storeys (s). Write it in the form f = ….
5
c Make s the subject of the rule in part b.
6
 32 Algebra 2.1

3 In the English Premier League, teams receive 7 A saw-milling company uses this formula to
3 points for a win and 1 for a draw. The estimate the volume of logs (in m3) that can
formula for points therefore is P = 3W + D. be transported from a forest to the saw-mill
Make W the subject of this formula. by a convoy of n trucks:

4 V = 55nh ,
Food safety warning: 2
where h represents the height (in metres) of
Defrost this frozen turkey
4 at room temperature as follows.
the load on the trucks.
• Leave on bench for 80 minutes for each a Rearrange the formula to make h the
kilogram of weight. subject.
• Then leave an extra 20 minutes before cooking. b Estimate the height at which each of a
convoy of eight trucks should be loaded
a For how long should a frozen turkey to transport 900 m3 of logs.
that weighs 5.5 kg be defrosted before
cooking? 8 A trapezium is a quadrilateral with two
parallel sides of lengths a and b; and h is the
b Write down a rule in the form t = …
perpendicular distance between these two
minutes for this warning. Use w to
sides. The area, A, of the trapezium is given
represent the weight in kilograms of the
by the equation:
frozen turkey.
c Make w the subject of the formula in A = h ( a + b ).
2
part b.
a Make a the subject of this equation.
d A turkey is defrosted (using the advice
b Make h the subject of this equation.
in the warning) for 18 hours. Estimate its
weight.
9 A newspaper charges for classified
advertisements as follows: $3.60 per line,
5 In physics, the formula v = u + at describes
less $2.00 deducted for prompt payment.
uniform motion in a straight line. a is the
If C is the cost in dollars to the customer
acceleration, u the initial velocity, v the final
for the advertisement, and L the number of
velocity and t the time taken to reach this
lines:
velocity.
a what is the formula for C in terms of L?
a Make u the subject of this formula.
b rearrange the formula in part a to make L
b Make t the subject of this formula. the subject.

6 In rugby union, a try is worth 5 points, a 10 The formula for the area
conversion is worth 2 points, and a drop- of an ellipse is A = πab.
goal and a penalty are both worth 3 points. a and b are, respectively,
If F is the final total of points scored by a b
the shortest and longest
side, T the number of tries, C the number distances from the centre
of conversions, D the number of drop-goals to the circumference of a
and P the number of penalties: the ellipse.
a express F in terms of T, C, D and P a Rearrange the formula
b make C the subject of the formula in to make a the subject.
part a. b An ice rink has the
shape of an ellipse.
The area is 1450 m2. If the length of the
rink (longest distance across) is 37 m,
calculate the width of the ice rink to the
nearest metre.
 4 Rearrangements of algebraic formulae 33

11 The formula N = 1.32C can be used to calculate the number of dollars you
receive when changing Canadian dollars into New Zealand currency.
a How many New Zealand dollars should you receive when changing
$Canadian 240?
b Make C the subject of this formula.
c The formula can be written in the form C = aN. Calculate the value of
a to 4 decimal places.
4
12 The cosine rule states that for any triangle ABC, a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A).
Make cos(A) the subject of this formula.

Rearrangements of rational expressions

LECTURER A rational expression is a fraction where both the numerator and

denominator are polynomials.
2x − 3 6
Examples x+1 x2 − 4

All of the problems above have had x, the required subject, in one place only. It has been
straightforward to isolate x on its own and make it the new subject. However, many relations have x
in several places, so new techniques are needed to make x the subject.
When the relation is rational the best procedure is to:
1 ‘cross-multiply’ to remove fractions,
2 move all x terms to one side, and non-x terms to the other side of the equation,
3 factorise, so that x appears only once on the left-hand side of the equation,
4 divide, to make x the subject.

Example Make x the subject of the relation Example Make x the subject of the
5y = 2 . relation y = 3x − 1 .
x−3 x+2

= Answer 5y = 2 = Answer y = 3x − 1
x+2
x−3
5 y(x − 3) = 2 (cross-multiplying) xy + 2 y = 3 x − 1
5xy − 15 y = 2 (rearranging) xy − 3 x = − 2 y − 1
5xy = 15 y + 2 x( y − 3) = − 2 y − 1
15 y + 2 −1
− 2y
x = x =
5y y−3

And now a trick to simplify this answer further!

The convention is to have as few – signs as
possible.
−1 2y + 1
Multiply by − : x =
1 3−y
 34 Algebra 2.1

INVESTIGATION

Floor joists
Floor joists are long pieces of timber that run
from one wall to another in a building. They
4 are used to support floor boards.
1 Arrange these shapes of wood in order
from being the most likely to the least
likely to sag in the middle.

(A) (B)

Here is a rule of thumb that gives 50 mm

a guide for the depth of timber
needed for a floor joist which is
(C) 50 mm wide. Span
To estimate the depth in
millimetres, multiply the
span (in metres) by 5
and then divide by 3;
add 2 to this result,
and then multiply
by 25. Depth
For example,
when the span is 50 mm
3 m:
First step: 3×5÷3=5
Second step: 5+2=7
Third step: 7 × 25 = 175
When the span is 3 m, the depth of the floor joist
should be 175 mm.

2 Use this method to estimate the depth of the floor joists with these spans:
a 6m
b 10 m.
3 Write this rule of thumb as a formula, in the form D = …. Use D for the depth and x for the
span. Both units are in metres.
4 Rearrange the formula to make x the subject.
5 Carry out your own research to check whether this rule gives a close result for floor joists in
buildings. Write down the measurements involved, and show your calculations. (It may be
possible to find exposed floor joists under a prefab, for example.)
 4 Rearrangements of algebraic formulae 35

exercise 4.03
Rearrange these rational expressions to make x the subject.
2y − 1
y = x−5
y
1 y = 2 8 15 =
x x−1 2+x x+3
3
2 y = 9 y = x+1
2 4y
x+2 x−4 16 = 2
x+1 x 4
3 y = 1
10 y = 3x − 2
3x − 4 2x + 1 x − a = 2c
17
−1 x+b
4 y = 11 y = +2
x
1−x 2−x 18 4 y − 3 = 2x + 1
x−4
y = − 5x
5 y = x 6
12
x+5 x+1 19 5(x – 3) = 2y(1 – x)
2x − 3
6 y = 13 y = − 2x
1
x 4x − 3 20 3x = y( x + 4)
x+2
y − 5 = 2x + 1
7 y = 14 2 5
x+3 x−1

Rearrangements of formulae involving square roots

To make x the subject of a formula when the x term is inside a square root symbol, square both sides to
‘undo’ the effect of the square root. However, before doing this, check carefully that the square root is
on its own on one side of the equation.
Consider these two examples.
1 y = x−1
Squaring gives y2 = x – 1.
But:
2 y = x+5 +1
This is similar to y = A + 1, which squares to y2 = A2 + 2A + 1.
Squaring gives:

( )
2
y2 = x+5 +2 x+5 +1

= x+5+2 x+5 +1
= x+6+2 x+5
which does not remove the square root symbol.
 36 Algebra 2.1

Example Make x the subject of the formula y = 2x + 5.

= Answer y = 2x + 5
y 2 = 2x + 5 (squaring)
2x = y 2 − 5
y2 − 5
4 x =
2

Example Make x the subject of the formula 4 y = 3x − 1 + 5 .

= Answer 4y = 3x − 1 + 5
4y − 5 = 3x − 1 (rearranging to isolate the square root term on one side)

( 4yy − 5 )
2
= 3x − 1
16 y 2 − 40 y + 25 = 3x − 1
3x = 16 y 2 − 40 y + 26
16 y 2 − 40 y + 26
x =
3

exercise 4.04
Rearrange these relations to make x the subject.
1 y = x+2 6 y = x−1 +4 10 4y = x−2

2 y = 2x − 1 7 y = 2x + 1 − 3 x−5
11 y =
x+3
y = x 8 y = 2 x
3
3
9 2y = x+3 −2 12 y = 5 x+1
4 y+1 = x x−1

5 y−3 = x+3

Rearrangements of formulae involving perfect squares

The usual way to ‘undo’ the effect of squaring is to take the square root. We can use this approach if
there is a single, perfect square term in x in the expression to be rearranged.
Examples y = x2 y + 1 = (x – 3)2 5y = (2x + 7)2
All of the above expressions include perfect squares in x.

Example Make x the subject of the formula y + 1 = (x – 3)2.

= Answer y + 1 = ( x − 3)
2

± y+1 = x−3 (taking the square root off both sides)

x =± y+1+3
 4 Rearrangements of algebraic formulae 37

exercise 4.05
Make x the subject of the following equations.
1 y = x2 6 16y = (x + 5)2 11 y = 4(3x – 1)2 + 2
2 y = (x – 8)2 7 y = (2x – 1)2 12 3y = (2x – 1)2 – 1
3 y = x2 + 6x + 9 8 y + 6 = (3x + 2)2 13 y2 + 4y = (x + 1)2 – 4
4 y = x2 – 10x + 25 9 y – 2 = (1 – x)2 14 9y2 = (2x – 3)2 + 6y – 1 4
5 y = (x – 1)2 + 4 10 y = (2x + 3)2 + 5

Further applications of rearrangement

The area of a circle can be calculated from the formula A = πd where d is the length
2
Example
4
of the diameter.
a Rearrange this formula to make d the subject.
b Calculate the diameter of the circle that has an area of 60 m2.

= Answer a A = πd
4
2
b d = 4A
π
4 A = πd 2 4 × 60
=
π
d2 = 4A
π 240 =
= 76.39
4A π
d =
π = 8.74 m

exercise 4.06
1 The curved surface area of a cylinder is 4 One of Albert Einstein’s claims to fame is the
given by the equation SA = 2πrl. Make r the formula E = mc2, which links the energy of a
subject of this formula. particle (E) to its mass (m) by the constant c,
which is the speed of light.
2 The manager of a shopping mall uses the a Make m the subject of this formula.
formula k = 240 to estimate the number b Make c the subject of this formula.
t+2
of electrical heating units needed per hour
when the outside temperature is t °C. 5 When an amount of money, P, is invested
a How many units are used per hour when at an interest rate, R, for T years, the total
the temperature outside is 6 °C? amount, I, of interest earned is given by
b Rewrite the formula with t as the subject. I = PRT . Rearrange this formula to make T
100
c The heating is turned off when less than the subject.
12 units per hour are used. At what
temperature does this happen? 6 V = 4 πr 3 is the formula for the volume of a
3
3 The area of a triangle is given by the formula sphere with radius r. What is the formula for
A = 1 bh . What is the formula for the height the radius, r, of a sphere with volume V?
2
(h) of a triangle given the area (A) and base
(b)?
 38 Algebra 2.1

7 The Theorem of Pythagoras can be expressed as a2 + b2 = c2, where a, b and c are the lengths of
three sides of a right-angled triangle. Make b the subject of this expression.

8 The surface area of a closed pipe with radius r and length l is given by the formula
SA = 2πr2 + 2πrl. Make l the subject of this formula.

9 A regular polygon has n sides. The size, a, of each interior angle, in degrees, is given by the
4 formula a =
(n − 2)180°
.
n
a Express the number of sides, n, in terms of the size, a, of an interior angle.
b Calculate the number of sides for a regular polygon that has 170° as an interior angle.

10 A formula used to find the area of a triangle ABC when two sides
and the included angle are known is A = 1 ab sin(C).
2 8 cm
a Make b the subject of this formula. Area
b Calculate the length of the side marked x. 30 cm2
50°
11 The volume of a cone with base radius r and vertical height h is x
given by V = 1 πr 2 h .
3
a Make h the subject of this formula.
b Make r the subject of this formula.

12 A 400 m running track has two straight sections. x

These are the same length (x metres), and the
distance between them is y metres. The curved parts
of the track are semi-circles.
y
a Write down a rule that links x, y and 400 in this
context. (Hint: the circumference of a circle is πd.)
b Make y the subject of the rule in part a.

13 The surface area of a sphere is SA = 4πr2.

a Find a formula for the radius of a sphere when the surface area is known.
b A balloon has a surface area of 0.5620 m2. Calculate the
radius.

14 A child throws a stone horizontally from the top

of an office building to hit the roof of a nearby
warehouse. p is the height in metres of the
office building and q is the height in
metres of the warehouse.
The time taken, in seconds,
for the stone to hit the p
warehouse roof is given by the
p−q
formula, t = .
4.9
a Calculate the time taken q
if the office building is
135.5 m high and the
warehouse is 13 m high.
 4 Rearrangements of algebraic formulae 39

b Rearrange the formula to make p the subject.

c Estimate the height of a building if it takes 3 seconds for a stone thrown horizontally from
the top to hit the top of a tree 20 m high.

15 In physics, the formula

1 + 1 = 1
u v f
is used to describe the relationship between the focal length, f, of a lens, the distance of the 4
object, u, and the distance of the image, v, from the centre of the lens.
a Rearrange this formula to make f the subject.
b Rearrange this formula to make u the subject.

16 A circular road sign of radius R cm is made up of an inner white circle

of radius r cm with a speed limit on it, surrounded by a red ring.
a Write down a formula for A, the area of the red ring.
b Make r the subject of the formula in part a.
R
c One of these road signs has a radius of 27 cm. The area of the red r
ring is 1000 cm2. Calculate the width of the red ring.

17 A particle moves in a straight line. Its distance from the origin after
t seconds is given by the formula:
s = ut + 1 at 2,
2
where u is its initial velocity and a its acceleration.
a Rewrite this formula with u the subject.
b Express a in terms of s, u and t.

INVESTIGATION

Three squares in a row

1 Take any three consecutive whole numbers, for example 5, 6 and 7.
• Square each one.
• Add the three squares.
• Subtract 2 from this sum.
• Divide the result by 3 and write down the final number.
2 Now take another set of consecutive whole numbers, for example 10, 11 and 12. Follow the
above steps, and write down the result.
3 Without doing the calculations, predict what the final result will be for the numbers 19, 20
and 21.
4 Suppose the three consecutive numbers can be represented by n, n + 1 and n + 2. Write
down an algebraic expression and then simplify it to show how this pattern works.
 5
5 Simultaneous equations

Simultaneous equations are equations that apply at

the same time. Here we consider a pair of equations LECTURER
in two unknowns, x and y. The solution will be the
numbers x and y that satisfy both equations. Note: A linear equation is one that can be
if we have two unknowns we need two equations in represented on a graph by a straight line.
order to solve for x and y.
We start with ‘linear’ equations in x and y. There
are several methods that can be used to solve these.

Finding intersections by drawing lines

Example Draw a graph to solve these simultaneous equations.
(1) x + y = 5
(2) y = 2x – 1
= Answer y
5
y = 2x – 1

3 The graphs intersect at the point (2, 3).

x+y=5
Hence the solution is x = 2 and y = 3.

–1
2 5 x

exercise 5.01
Find the point of intersection of these pairs of lines by drawing graphs.
1 y = 3x + 1 4 2x – y = 3 7 2x + y = 0
y = 2x + 2 y = 5x y=x–3

2 y=3–x 5 y+3=x 8 y=x+2

y=x+7 3x + y = 1 2y = 5x – 2

3 2x + y = 4 6 2x = y – 5
y=x–5 x+y=2
 5 Simultaneous equations 41

Elimination method
This works by ‘eliminating’, or removing, one of the variables to get a single equation in one variable.
This is done by either adding or subtracting the two equations. This single equation is then solved,
and the result is substituted into one of the original equations to find the other variable.

Example Solve this pair of simultaneous equations.

(This shows (1) 2x – y = 7
very simple
5
(2) 3x + y = 13
eliminating
by adding.)
= Answer Add the two equations to eliminate y. Note that the x’s, y’s and numbers after the
equals sign are all added.
(1) 2x – y = 7 TIPSTER
(2) 3x + y = 13
(1) + (2) 5x = 20 When writing down working for
solving simultaneous equations,
x = 4
it helps to keep the x’s, y’s and
Substitute x = 4 into equation (2) to find y: equals signs lined up!
3 × 4 + y = 13
12 + y = 13
y = 13 – 12
y= 1
The solution is x = 4, y = 1.

Example Solve this pair of simultaneous equations.

(This shows (1) 3x – 5y = 23
simple (2) 3x + 2y = 16
elimination
by
subtracting.)
= Answer This time subtract the two equations to eliminate x. Note that adding the two equations is
not a good idea – we would just get 6x – 3y = 39, which does not eliminate either x or y.
(1) 3x – 5y = 23
(2) 3x + 2y = 16
(1) – (2) –7y = 7

y = –1
Substitute y = –1 into equation (1) to find x:
3x − 5 × − 1 = 23
3x + 5 = 23
3x = 23 − 5
3x = 18
x = 6
The solution is x = 6, y = –1.
 42 Algebra 2.1

Sometimes the coefficients (numbers in front of x and y) have to be adjusted before we add or
subtract the two equations. We do this by first multiplying one or both equations by a suitable
number, to make either the x or y terms the same.
Example Solve this pair of simultaneous equations.
(This (1) 12x – y = 21
requires one (2) 3x + 7y = 27
5 equation to
be multiplied
by a suitable
value first.)
= Answer Multiply equation (1) by 7 first, and then add the two equations to eliminate y and
find x. (Note: we could just as easily multiply equation (2) by 4 first, and then subtract
the two equations to eliminate x and find y.)
(1) 12x – y = 21
(2) 3x + 7y = 27
(1) × 7 84x – 7y = 147
(2) 3x + 7y = 27
87x = 174
x =2
Substitute x = 2 into equation (2) to find y:
3 × 2 + 7 y = 27
6 + 7 y = 27
7 y = 27 − 6
7 y = 21
y = 3
The solution is x = 2, y = 3.

Example Solve this pair of simultaneous equations.

(This (1) 5x + 2y = –2
requires both (2) 4x + 3y = 4
equations to
be multiplied
by suitable
values first.)
= Answer Multiply equation (1) by 3, and equation (2) by 2. This makes the coefficient of y equal
to 6 in both equations. Then subtract the two equations.
(1) × 3 15x + 6y = –6
(2) × 2 8x + 6y = 8
7x = –14
x = –2
Then substitute x = –2 into equation (1) to find y:
 5 Simultaneous equations 43

5 × − 2 + 2y = − 2
− 10 + 2y = − 2
2 y = − 2 + 10
2y = 8
y = 4
The solution is x = –2, y = 4. 5

exercise 5.02
Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations by elimination.
1 x+y = 6 7 x – 3y = 1 13 2x – 3y = –1
3x – y = 14 5x + 3y = 2 4x – y = 8

2 y – x = 11 8 3x – 2y = 3 14 3x + 2y = 9
y + x = –3 x + 3y = 1 7x + 5y = 20

3 x + 2y = 7 9 x + 5y = 4 15 2x + 5y = 2
3x – 2y = 5 3x + 5y = 7 3x + 2y = –8

4 x + 4y = –4 10 4x + 3y = 25 16 5x – 3y = 4
x – 4y = –6 5x – 4y = 8 2x + 18y = 8

5 x + 2y = 6 11 2x + 3y = 2 17 7x – y = 1
3x – 2y = 2 5x + 6y = 1 4x + 3y = –3

6 2x + 5y = 8 12 5x + 3y = 2 18 2x – y = 14
3x – 5y = 2 2x + y = 3 –2x+ y = 11

exercise 5.03
These are harder examples of simultaneous equations. Solve each pair of simultaneous
equations. Give all answers in integer, fraction or mixed number form.
x − y = 24 5 3x + 21y + 4 = 0 9 4x − 2 − 3 y = 8
1
3 2 12 + 9x = 5y 5 2
3x + 2y = –18 x+1 − y−2 = 4
6 3x = 4y + 5 2 3
2 5x = 28 – 10y
14x + 21 = 6y
15x = 20y – 121 10 2x + 3 − 5y = 3 − y
7 0.4x + 0.3y = 0.45 6 4
3 7x = 11y – 21
1.6x + 0.4y = –1 2x − 1 + y − 1 = 2x + 1
5x = 3y – 15 6 2 4
8 0.3x + 0.5y = 1.5
4 4x – 5y + 6 = 0
0.4x – 0.2y = 0.7
24x = 9y – 1
 44 Algebra 2.1

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Off to the freezing works
A farmer has 4250 sheep that have to be
sent to the freezing works. There are two
5 kinds of transport that can be used.
• Trucks: each one carries 109 sheep and
costs $550 for the journey.
• Railway wagons: each one carries
67 sheep and costs $338 for the journey.
Any combination of transport can used.

What is the cheapest way to arrange the

transport?

Substitution method
This is the preferred method when one equation has one of the variables as its subject. This variable
is substituted into the other equation.

Example Solve this pair of simultaneous equations.

(1) y = 2x – 3
(2) 4x – 3y = 9
= Answer Replace y in equation (2) with (2x – 3):
4x − 3 y = 9
4x − 3(2 x − 3) = 9
4x − 6x + 9 = 9
− 2x = 9−9
− 2x = 0
x = 0
Substitute x = 0 into equation (1) to find y:
y = 2 × 0 – 3 = 0 – 3 = –3
The solution is x = 0, y = –3.

exercise 5.04
Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations by substitution.
1 y = 2x – 10 3 x=y+1 5 y = 2x – 1 7 x=y–8
x+y=2 3x + 2y = 2 y=x+6 2x + 3y = 9

2 y=x+3 4 y = 3x – 5 6 y = 10x + 3 8 x=y–2

y – 3x = 13 y=x–1 5x + 3y = 16 3y – x = 0
 5 Simultaneous equations 45

9 x = 2y – 4 12 y = 3 – 2x 15 y = 5 – 4x 17 y = 5x + 2
6y + x = 2 14x + 3y = 13 10x + 7y = –1 y – 5x = 1

10 y = 2x + 1 13 x = 2y + 7 16 3x – y = 9 18 5x = 13 – y
3x – y = 1 3y – 4x = –3 y = 6 – 2x x + 5y – 17 = 0

11 x = 3 – 4y 14 y = 6x – 5
3x + 10y = 11 3x – 4y = 6
5

PUZZLE
The Boeing 757 AUSTRALIA
A Boeing 757 aircraft is used to fly a Sydney PACIFIC OCEAN
continuous clockwise route with stops Canberra
at Auckland, Christchurch, Sydney, Auckland
Auckland, etc. Hamilton
Melbourne NEW ZEALAND
• It flies 2880 km from Auckland to Tasman Sea
Sydney via Christchurch. Wellington
• It flies 4274 km from Christchurch to Christchurch
Auckland via Sydney. Invercargill
• It flies 2908 km from Sydney to
Christchurch via Auckland.
Use this information to determine the distance flown from Auckland to Christchurch.

Applications
exercise 5.05
1 Two numbers have a sum of 34 and a difference 3 A cell-phone company charges a
of 8. connection fee each month, and users also
a Use this information to write down a pair of pay for the total time they have used. This
simultaneous equations. is charged by the minute.
b What are the two numbers? • In August a user paid $16 for a total of
6 minutes use.
2 Two railway bridges have a total length of 435 m. • In September the same user paid $29
One bridge is 78 m longer than the other. for a total of 32 minutes use.
Calculate the length of the shorter bridge. a An equation that can be written down
for the use in August is
x + 6y = 16. Write down what x and y
each represent in this equation.
b Write down an equation for the use in
September.
c Solve the pair of equations in parts
a and b to work out the monthly
connection fee and the charge per
minute.
 46 Algebra 2.1

4 Taxi fares are made up of a fixed ‘flagfall’ i What does x represent in this
fee, and a cost per kilometre travelled. equation?
• Rupert paid $35 for a taxi ride from the ii What does 1500y represent?
airport to home (21 km). b Write down another equation that shows
• Shannon paid $27.50 for a taxi ride from there were a total of 320 passengers.
home to the theatre (16 km). c Solve the pair of simultaneous equations
a Using f to represent the flagfall fee and c from parts a and b to work out the
5 to represent the cost per kilometre, write number of fare-paying passengers in
down a pair of simultaneous equations each of the two classes on this flight.
for this information.
b Solve the equations to work out the 10 A jeweller holds a 2-day sale to dispose of
flagfall fee and the cost per kilometre some cheap analogue and digital watches.
travelled. On Friday she sells six analogue watches
and 11 digital watches for a total of $433.
5 An ATM machine issues $10 and $20 notes On Saturday she sells five analogue watches
only. When the machine was checked it was and 22 digital watches for a total of $733.
found that 75 notes had been issued, for a a Use this information to write down a
total value of $1260. pair of simultaneous equations.
a Use this information to write down a b Solve the equations to work out the price
pair of simultaneous equations. of each kind of watch sold.
b Solve the equations to work out how
many of each kind of note were issued.

6 Kevin buys seven tickets to a circus

performance for his family of two adults and
five children. The total cost is $140. A child’s
ticket costs $7 less than an adult’s ticket.
Calculate the cost of one adult ticket.

7 Victoria pays for 11 prints of some digital 11 DVD-Heaven offer two different deals.
photographs. Three of the prints are small • Hire a DVD player and five DVDs for
(6” by 4” in size), and eight of the prints are $32.
large (7” by 5” in size). Altogether the cost • Hire a DVD player and eight DVDs for
is $7.60. A large print costs 29c more than $41.
a small print. Calculate the cost of a large a Use this information to write down a
print. pair of simultaneous equations.
b What is the cost of hiring a DVD player
8 A tank of petrol and a refill of oil together by itself?
cost $30. The tank of petrol costs $29 more
than the refill of oil. What is the cost of each? 12 In a maths competition, each correctly
answered question gains 6 marks. However,
9 There is a total of 320 fare-paying passengers 1 mark is deducted for each incorrect
on a flight from Auckland to Cairns. The answer. Ngaire answered 25 questions
fare is $800 for economy class passengers altogether for a total of 73 marks.
and $1500 for business class. Altogether the
a Use this information to write down a
passengers have paid $285 400.
pair of simultaneous equations.
a One equation that can be written down
b Solve the equations to work out how
from this information is
many questions Ngaire answered
800x + 1500y = 285 400.
correctly.
 5 Simultaneous equations 47

13 This table has been partly filled in by the 17 An internet service provider offers users a
operator of an adventure railroad after choice of two monthly rate plans.
1 day’s operation.
Type A Each hour costs $1.50
Number of Cost of Amount Type B The first 40 (or fewer) hours cost
passengers tickets received $30
Adults $8 Hours over 40 cost $2 each
Children $5
Total 27 $147
5
Suppose x is the number of hours on-line,
and y is the monthly charge. This graph (not
a Use this information to write down a drawn to scale) is provided to users, and
pair of simultaneous equations – one for shows the equations for Type B.
the total number of passengers, the other
for the amount of money received. B
b Solve the equations to work out the

Cost per month ($)

A
number of adults and number of
children who travelled on the railroad.
y = 2x – 50
y = 30
14 1 562 604 people voted in a referendum. The 30
‘yes’ votes had a majority of 290 888 votes
over the ‘no’ votes. How many people voted
‘yes’?
40 Hours on-line
15 A property investor buys a garage and a
warehouse for a total of $500 000. After a Show that both of the equations for
1 year they have increased in value – the Type B give the same result for a user
garage by 10% and the warehouse by who expects to be connected for exactly
20%. The investor is $76 000 richer. Two 40 hours.
simultaneous equations that can be obtained b Write down the equation for Type A.
from this information are: c Solve some simultaneous equations to
x + y = 500 000 find the range of values for which Type
1.1x + 1.2y = 576 000 B is a better deal than Type A. Show
your working, and explain what you are
a Explain what the term 1.2y represents in
working out at each step.
the second equation.
b How much did the investor pay for the 18 A school uses two minibuses to take a group
garage? of students on a field trip.
• If one student moved from the first
16 A business uses different depreciation rates
minibus to the second, the two
for different items of equipment. A computer
minibuses would have the same number
decreases in value by 30% per year, while a
of students.
photocopier decreases in value by 20% per
year. • However, if a student moved from the
The business buys one computer and second minibus to the first, the first
one photocopier for a total of $10 000. At minibus would have twice as many
the end of the year they are valued at $7600 students as the second minibus.
altogether. How much did the business pay a Use this information to write down a
for each machine? pair of simultaneous equations.
b How many students are in the group
altogether?
 6
6 Quadratic equations

A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.

a, b and c can be any real numbers, but a ≠ 0. The highest power of x is x2.
Examples x2 – 5x – 17 = 0
4x2 – 25 = 0
2x2 + 5x – 18 = 0

Solving quadratic equations

Quadratic equations have two solutions. It is best to first check whether a quadratic equation can be
solved by factorising. Arrange the terms in the equation so that the quadratic expression equals zero.

Example Solve the equation x2 – 5x – 14 = 0. Example Solve x2 + 2x = 24.

= Answer Factorise first to get = Answer Rearrange the equation so that all
(x – 7)(x + 2) = 0. terms are on the left-hand side,
There are two possibilities: with 0 on the right-hand side.
either (x – 7) = 0 or (x + 2) = 0. x2 + 2x – 24 = 0
If x – 7 = 0 then x = 7. (x + 6)(x – 4) = 0
If x + 2 = 0 then x = –2. x = –6 or x = 4
The solution set is x = 7 and x = –2.

exercise 6.01
Solve these quadratic equations, given the factors.
1 (x + 2)(x + 3) = 0 9 2x(4 + x) = 0 17 (x – 5)(4x – 5) = 0
2 (x – 7)(x + 4) = 0 10 (x – 3)(3 – x) = 0 18 –x(x – 9) = 0

3 (x – 2)(x – 5) = 0 11 (1 – x)(4 + x) = 0 19 (2x + 3)(4x – 1) = 0

4 (x + 11)(x – 9) = 0 12 4x(3 – x) = 0 20 (3x – 2)(5x – 4) = 0
5 (x – 16)(x + 1) = 0 13 x(3x – 2) = 0 21 5x(1 – 3x) = 0
6 x(x + 2) = 0 14 x(4x + 1) = 0 22 –4x(3 + 2x) = 0

7 x(x – 6) = 0 15 (x – 7)(x + 7) = 0 23 (5x – 1)(1 + 3x) = 0

8 3x(x – 5) = 0 16 2(x – 1)(x – 4) = 0 24 (7x – 1)(1 – 3x) = 0
 6 Quadratic equations 49

25 3(6x + 5)(3x – 2) = 0 28 –(3 – 2x)(7 + 3x) = 0

26 (2 – 5x)(3x + 1) = 0 29 (ax + b)(cx + d) = 0
27 –4(5x – 7)(4x + 1) = 0 30 (px – q)(rx – s) = 0

exercise 6.02
6
Solve these quadratic equations by factorising first.
1 a x2 – 7x + 12 = 0 3 a 4x2 – 9 = 0 4 a 2x2 + 26x + 84 = 0
b x2 + 5x – 6 = 0 b 1 – x2 = 0 b 5x2 – 25x – 250 = 0
c x2 – 25 = 0 c x2 – 5x = 0 c 84 – 9x – 3x2 = 0
d x2 + 11x + 30 = 0 d x2 + 6x = 0
5 a 2x2 – x – 3 = 0
e x2 – 2x – 15 = 0 e 13x – x2 = 0
b 2x2 + x – 15 = 0
f x2 + 7x + 10 = 0 f 3x2 + 9x = 0
c 5x2 – 3x – 2 = 0
g x2 – 8x + 12 = 0 g 5x2 – 15x = 0
d 3x2 + 11x + 6 = 0
h x2 + 15x – 16 = 0 h 3x2 – 3 = 0
e 3x2 + 20x + 12 = 0
i x2 + x – 12 = 0 i 18x – 24x2 = 0
f 10x2 + 23x + 12 = 0
j x2 – x – 20 = 0 j 7 – 7x2 = 0
g 10x2 + 7x – 12 = 0
k x2 + 5x – 24 = 0 k 13x2 = 0
1 − 1 = 0 h 4x2 – 29x + 7 = 0
l x2 – 49 = 0 l
x2 4 i 24x2 + x – 10 = 0
2 a 40 – 3x – x2 = 0 j 15 – 32x – 7x2 = 0
b 7 + 6x – x2 = 0 k 3 – 11x – 20x2 = 0
c 8 + 2x – x2 = 0

exercise 6.03
Solve these quadratic equations by rearranging and then factorising.
1 x2 – 5x = 6 9 2x2 = 3x 16 (x – 1)2 = 9
2 x2 – 2x = 3 10 7x = x2 – 30 17 (3x – 4)2 = 25
3 x2 = 6x – 8 11 x2 – 35 = 2x 18 (x + 5)(x – 7) = 13
4 x2 = 6x + 16 12 x2 = 25 19 x(x + 4) = –4
5 26 = x2 + 11x 13 9 = 4x2 20 (2x + 3)(x – 1) = x + 5
6 x2 = x 14 1 = 36x2 21 (x + 1)(x – 2) = (2x – 1)(x – 3)
7 x2 = 6x 15 x2 = 88 – 3x 22 (3x – 4)(x – 1) = (8 – 5x)(2 – x)
8 4x2 = x
 50 Algebra 2.1

Expressions that include quadratics

Sometimes it is possible to factorise polynomial expressions that contain quadratics further – to write
the original expression as a product of linear factors only.
Each linear factor of a polynomial equation gives one solution – so, for example, an equation with
three linear factors will have three solutions, or roots.
Example Solve the equation
(x + 2)(x2 – 4x – 5) = 0.

= Answer (x + 2)(x2 – 4x – 5) = 0
(x + 2)(x – 5)(x + 1) = 0
x = –2 or x = 5 or x = –1

exercise 6.04
Solve the following equations.
1 (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 7) = 0 10 (4x – 3)(x2 – 16) = 0
2 x(x – 3)(x + 4) = 0 11 (x2 + 9x – 22)(x – 11) = 0
3 (x – 8)2(x – 5) = 0 12 x(x2 – 14x + 48) = 0
4 (2x – 1)(x + 4)(x – 3) = 0 13 (2x + 9)(x2 + x – 56) = 0
5 (3x + 2)(x – 1)(4x – 7) = 0 14 6x(2x + 1)(x – 4)(x + 5) = 0
6 (x – 2)(x2 – 4x + 3) = 0 15 (x2 – 4)(x2 – 9) = 0
7 (x2 + 6x + 8)(x – 1) = 0 16 (x2 + 6x – 40)(x2 – 1) = 0
8 (x + 7)(x2 + 7x – 8) = 0 17 (x2 + 8x + 16)(x2 – 16) = 0
9 (x2 – 4)(x + 2) = 0 18 (x2 – 3x – 4)(x2 + 5x – 6) = 0
 6 Quadratic equations 51

Applications of quadratic equations

Many problems in mathematics lead naturally to the solution of quadratic equations. Several of them
come from geometry and area.

Example One side of a rectangle is 5 cm Example The squares of two consecutive

longer than the other. The area whole numbers add to 145. What are
is 84 cm2. Calculate the lengths the two numbers?
of the sides. 6
= Answer Consecutive numbers have a
= Answer difference of 1.
Two consecutive numbers can be
x 84 cm2 written as x and x + 1.
Given: x2 + (x + 1)2 = 145
x+5 x 2 + x 2 + 2 x + 1 = 145
Let the shorter side be x. Then 2 x 2 + 2 x − 144 = 0
the longer side is (x + 5). x 2 + x − 72 = 0
Area = short side × long side (x + 9)(x − 8) = 0
x( x + 5) = 84 x = − 9 or 8
x 2 + 5x = 84 Reject x = –9 as it is not a whole
x2+ 5x − 84 = 0 number.
( x + 12)( x − 7) = 0 x = 8, and the other number is 9.
x = − 12 or 7
Example The right-angled triangle drawn here
Reject the answer of –12 as it is has sides x, 3(x + 1) and 4x – 3.
not a possible length.
That is, the shorter side is
x = 7 cm, and the longer side is 4x – 3
x
(x + 5) = 7 + 5 = 12 cm.

3(x + 1)
Find x, and hence write down the
lengths of the three sides.
= Answer From the Pythagoras relation:
2
( 4 x − 3)2 = x 2 +  3( x + 1) 
( 4 x − 3)2 = x 2 + (3x + 3)2
16x 2 − 24 x + 9 = x 2 + 9x 2 + 18x + 9
6x 2 − 42x = 0
x 2 − 7x = 0
x( x − 7) = 0
x = 0 or 7
Clearly x = 0 is not a possible value.
The three sides are 7, 24 and 25.
 52 Algebra 2.1

exercise 6.05
1 The length of a rectangular hall is three 11 A home handyman xm
times the width, and its area is 75 m2. has sufficient
Calculate the length of the hall. concreting materials
to lay a total area of 6m
2 The sides of a rectangle are (x + 1) and 9 m2. He intends to
6 (x + 9) metres. If the area is 20 m2, calculate make a rectangular
the lengths of the sides. L-shaped region xm
whose overall 4m
3 A woman is 22 years older than her dimensions are 6 m
daughter. Their ages multiply to 135. and 4 m as shown in the diagram. The width
Calculate the mother’s age. of each arm is to be a uniform x metres.
a Express the area in terms of x using this
information, and hence form a quadratic
equation in x.
b Rearrange the terms to give the equation
in the form x2 + ax + b = 0, and solve the
equation.

12 The diagram shows a photograph mounted

4 Three more than a number is added to the on a piece of cardboard.
square of the same number and the total is 9. 60 cm
Find the two possible numbers.
x x
5 Two consecutive whole numbers multiply to x x
give 156. Find the numbers.
40 cm
6 Two consecutive even whole numbers have
a product of 168. x x
a Write down an equation to represent this x x
information.
b What are the two numbers? a Write down an expression in terms of x
for the area of the photograph.
7 Two consecutive multiples of 3 have a b If the area of the photograph is
product of 378. Find the numbers. 800 cm2, find the value of x, and hence
the dimensions of the photograph.
8 a Find the two positive numbers whose
difference is 7 and whose product is 228. 13 Two stations (A and B) are close together
b What are the two negative numbers that on a railway line. A train accelerates when
also have this property? leaving one station, then immediately
decelerates as it approaches the next station.
9 A rectangle has a perimeter of 48 m and an
Velocity (km/h)

area of 128 m2. Calculate its dimensions.

10 The perimeter of a rectangular playing field

is 170 m. If the length of each diagonal of the
field is 65 m, calculate the dimensions of the
field.
Time (minutes)
 6 Quadratic equations 53

One particular train’s velocity (speed) 15 A TV receiving dish

between the two stations can be modelled has a parabolic cross-
by the formula v = 72t – 12t2, where t is the section in order to
time in minutes after leaving station A and v focus signals from a
is the velocity of the train, in km/h. satellite. The equation
a What is the velocity of the train of the cross-section is:
5 minutes after leaving station A? y = 9 x2.
b Write down a quadratic equation and
25 6
solve it to find the two times at which the Both x and y are
train is travelling at 96 km/h. measured in metres.
c i Solve the equation 72t – 12t2 = 0. The greatest depth of the dish is 16 cm.
Write down a quadratic equation and solve
ii Explain what information one of the
it to work out the diameter of the dish.
solutions in part i gives about the
train and stations A and B.
y= 9 x2
25
14 One diagonal of a rhombus is 8 cm longer
than the other. The area of the rhombus is
120 cm2.
a Calculate the length of the diagonals.
b Calculate the length of each side of the
rhombus.

PUZZLE Pumpkin patch

A farmer always plants pumpkins in a grid of rows and columns forming square patterns. Each
year he plants one more row and column than the previous year.
This year there are 33 more pumpkins than last year. How many pumpkins has he planted
this year?

The quadratic formula

There is a special formula for solving quadratic equations. We use it when a quadratic equation does
not factorise easily.

In general, if the quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0 then the two solutions are:

x =
−b + b 2 − 4 ac and x =
−b − b 2 − 4 ac
2a 2a

TIPSTER
We can summarise these two results in a single It saves us writing the formula down twice,
formula by using the symbol ±. This means either firstly with a + sign, and again with a – sign.
+ or – in the same position. To find one solution use the formula with the
− + sign; then to find the other solution use the
b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x = same formula but with the – sign.
2a
 54 Algebra 2.1

Example Use the quadratic formula to solve the quadratic equation 2x2 – 5x + 1 = 0.
= Answer Here a = 2, b = –5, c = 1.

x =
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
2a
5 ± ( − 5)2 − 4 × 2 × 1
=
2×2
6
= 5 ± 25 − 8 LECTURER
4
= 5 ± 17
Sometimes the solutions of a quadratic
4 equation are called roots.
Now take each case:
5 + 17 = 2.281 (3 dp) 5 − 17 = 0.219 (3 dp)
4 4

exercise 6.06
Use the quadratic formula to calculate the roots of these quadratic equations correct to 2 dp.
1 x2 + 6x + 2 = 0 8 x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 15 7x2 – x – 4 = 0
2 x2 + 3x + 1 = 0 9 x2 – 7x + 4 = 0 16 2x2 – 4x + 1 = 0
3 x2 + 11x + 5 = 0 10 4 – 9x + x2 = 0 17 5x2 – 11x + 3 = 0
4 x2 + 8x + 3 = 0 11 3x2 + 5x + 1 = 0 18 3x2 + 4x = 6
5 x2 – 6x + 4 = 0 12 2x2 + 9x + 3 = 0 19 5x2 = x + 2
6 x2 – 8x – 1 = 0 13 3x2 + x – 5 = 0 20 7x – 4 = 2x2
7 x2 + 3x – 5 = 0 14 5x2 + 3x – 6 = 0

PUZZLE Minding your p’s and q’s

p and q are two numbers with these three properties:
• p≠q
• p2 – 1908p + 159 = 0
• q2 – 1908q + 159 = 0
1 1
What is the value, exactly, of + ?
p q
 6 Quadratic equations 55

Applications from geometry and area

exercise 6.07
1 One side of a rectangle is 3 cm longer than 4 The top surface of a rectangular table has an
the other. If the area is 50 cm2, calculate the area of 6 m2. It is covered by a rectangular
length of the shorter side correct to 2 dp. tablecloth measuring 3.5 m by 2.5 m. The
tablecloth is placed symmetrically on the 6
2 The cross-section of a water-trough has the table so that the overhang at each edge is the
shape of a trapezium, and its area is same. Calculate the overhang – that is, the
1000 cm2. The top part of the trough is 6 cm vertical distance from a top edge of the table
wider than the bottom, and the depth is the to the edge of the tablecloth.
same as the width at the top.

6 m2

5 The diagram shows a pair of intersecting

a Copy the diagram and add the secants. They have the property that
measurements x and x – 6 in the correct AX × BX = CX × DX. Calculate the value of
places. p to 2 dp.
b Write down a quadratic equation in x A
using this information. Note: the formula
8 B p
for the area of a trapezium is:
h (a + b), X
2 5
where a and b are the lengths of the
6 D
parallel sides and h is the distance
between them. C
c Calculate the depth of the trapezium.
6 The diagram shows a secant and a tangent
3 A rectangular swimming pool measures intersecting outside a circle. They have the
13 m by 5 m. It is surrounded by a concrete property that AX × BX = XT2. Calculate the
path, which is the same width on each of the value of q to 2 dp.
four sides of the pool. The area of concrete is B
78 m2. Calculate the
width of the path. 6
A
q
Pool
X
10 T
 56 Algebra 2.1

7 One side of a rectangle is 3 cm less than 9 The area of circle A, radius r, is proportional
another side. The area is 117 cm2. Calculate to the circumference of circle B, radius 3
the perimeter of the rectangle. units more than circle A, in the ratio of 4 : 5.
Calculate the value of the radius of circle A
8 The three sides of a right-angled triangle are correct to 4 sf.
x, x + 2 and x + 5.
a Calculate the value of x correct to 2 dp. 10 The two shorter sides of a right-angled
6 b Hence calculate: triangle are x – 7 and x + 2. If the area of the
i the perimeter, and triangle is 60 m2, calculate the length of each
of the three sides correct to 4 sf.
ii the area of the triangle.

INVESTIGATION

The Golden Ratio

The Golden Ratio was known to the ancient Greeks,
and used extensively in their art and architecture.
It can also be seen in the paintings of Leonardo da
Vinci. It is defined in a rectangle as:
‘The ratio of the long side to the short side is the
same as the sum of the long and short sides to the
long side’.
If the longer side is x and the shorter side is 1, then
we have: x : 1 = (x + 1) : x
x
x = x+1
1 x
x2 = x + 1 1
x2 − x − 1 = 0

1 Use the quadratic formula to 2 There are

work out the Golden Ratio from two ways of
this equation (x2 – x – 1 = 0). displaying
pictures – as
x =
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac landscape or
2a portrait.
A picture-
Give your answer in two ways: framer makes
Portrait Landscape
a expressed using surds rectangular
b as a decimal. frames that are
70 cm wide. The sides fit the Golden Ratio.
Calculate the height of the frames in each case.
a To be used as portrait.
b To be used as landscape.
 6 Quadratic equations 57

Other applications of quadratic equations

exercise 6.08
1 s = 0.9v + 0.09v2 is an approximate rule 3 A stone is thrown up into the air and its height
for estimating the stopping distance (s metres) above the ground at any time
in metres for a car travelling at v m/s (t seconds) is given by the formula s = 40t – 5t2.
when it brakes in ideal road and weather At what time will it first reach a height of 6
conditions. 70 m? Give the answer correct to 1 dp.
A road-accident researcher investigates
an accident where skid marks show that a 4 A private security firm plan to offer a property
car has taken 120 m to stop. Write down a surveillance service in a large city. Their market
quadratic equation and solve it to estimate research shows that:
the speed at which the car was travelling. • 800 people will pay for the service if the
Give your answer to the nearest whole price is $20 per month,
number in: • for each 50c increase in the monthly price,
a m/s 10 of these 800 people will change their
b km/h. minds and decide not to pay.
The security firm is paid a total of $12 000
2 As altitude increases, water boils at a in the first month. Suppose x represents the
lower temperature. The following formula number of 50c increases in the price.
gives an approximate relationship a What does the expression (800 – 10x)
between the altitude of a point (h) in represent?
metres and the boiling point of water (t) in b What does the expression (20 + 0.5x)
degrees Celsius: h = (100 – t)(385 – t) or represent?
h = 38500 – 485t + t2.
We want to find out the number of people that
a At the top of Mt Everest water boils at are paying for the service.
about 72 °C. The height of Mt Everest
c Solve the equation
is 8848 m. What value does this
(800 – 10x)(20 + 0.5x) = 12 000.
formula give for the height of
(Hint: expand the left side, then rearrange
Mt Everest?
and use the quadratic formula.)
b Write down a quadratic equation and
d How many people are paying for the
solve it to estimate the temperature at
service?
which water boils at the top of
Mt Cook (3754 m). 5 Franz takes a bowling ball and propels it up
a sloping ramp. The ball slows down, due to
gravity and the friction of the ramp surface,
stops gently at the top and then rolls back
down the ramp at a constant speed.

• On the upward journey the relationship

between the length in metres of the
ramp, d, and the time taken in seconds, t,
is given by d = 3t2.
 58 Algebra 2.1

• On the downward journey the bowling • The speed of sound in air is 344 m/s.
ball moves at a constant speed of 2 m/s. • The two operators make their
• It takes 12 seconds between the time calculations independently and
Franz propels the ball and the time when neither knows what the other person’s
it returns. stopwatch shows.
Calculate d, the length of the ramp. • Their final estimate of a safe distance is
the mean of their estimates, less a 5 m
6 6 Two bungy jump operators are conducting safety margin.
an experiment to estimate the length of latex
Calculate the safe distance for a vertical
rubber required, when fully extended, for
bungy jump from this bridge. Show your
a safe vertical jump off a bridge towards a
calculations and explain each step in your
river below. Here is what happens.
working.
• Operator 1 drops a boulder from the
bridge, and uses a stopwatch to time 7 A high-speed pump and a low-speed pump
how long it takes before he sees the can be used together at the same time to fill
splash in the river below. This takes a swimming pool in 8 hours. However, if
4.2 seconds. only the low-speed pump is used, it takes
• Operator 2 uses a stopwatch to time how 3 hours longer than if only the high-speed
long it takes before she hears the splash. pump is used. How long does each pump
This takes 4.5 seconds. take to fill the swimming pool if used alone?
• The relationship between the distance
the boulder has fallen and the time taken
is d = 4.9t2.

Further properties of quadratic equations

Nature of the roots of a quadratic equation
Quadratic expressions have parabolas for their graphs. The roots y
(solutions) of a quadratic equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 are
given by the x-values where the parabola crosses the x-axis. This is y = ax2 + bx + c
because when a graph crosses the x-axis, the value of y is 0.

Example Draw the graph of y = (x + 1)(x – 2) and hence give × ×

Root Root x
the roots of the equation (x + 1)(x – 2) = 0.
= Answer y

–1 x
2

The x-intercepts are –1 and 2. These are the roots of this quadratic equation.
 6 Quadratic equations 59

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION

Quadratic equation solver

Let’s create a spreadsheet that automatically solves quadratic equations
(in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0) when we type in the values of a, b and c into
columns A, B and C. We’ll use columns D and E for the two solutions. 6
The spreadsheet extract shows what the headings and part of the first row should look like.

The formula for the first root is:

–b +b 2 − 4ac
x = .
2a
We enter a similar formula using cell references in cell
D3: =(-B3+SQRT(B3^2-4*A3*C3))/(2*A3) Here are the 10 quadratic
equations we will solve
1 Open a spreadsheet program and type in the headings
using the spreadsheet.
and the values 1, 4 and -7 (for the first equation) in cells
A3, B3 and C3. 1 x2 + 4x – 7 = 0
2 3x2 + x – 8 = 0
2 Enter the formula in cell D3. If you don’t get the value
1.31662479 check that you have typed the formula 3 8x2 – 24x – 23 = 0
correctly! 4 x2 – 14x + 49 = 0
3 Write down the formula for the second root. Enter it in 5 2x2 + 8x + 21 = 0
cell E3. What value do you get? 6 9x2 + 6x + 1 = 0
4 Enter the values of a, b and c for equations 2–10 in the 7 –6x2 – x – 8 = 0
block of cells A4:C12. 8 x2 + 5x – 6 = 0
5 Copy the formulae in cells D3 and E3 downwards nine 9 6x2 – 5x – 3 = 0
times. 10 x2 + x + 1 = 0
6 Print out the result.
7 Which three equations have no solution?
8 Which equations have both roots the same?
9 Add the heading b^2-4ac to column F. Then enter a formula that calculates the value of
b2 – 4ac for each equation.
10 Suggest a relationship between the value of b2 – 4ac and whether a quadratic equation has
two solutions or no solutions.
11 What is the value of b2 – 4ac when both solutions are the same?
 60 Algebra 2.1

There are three possibilities when drawing a parabola for a quadratic expression

1 The parabola may cross the 2 The parabola may only 3 The parabola may not
x-axis at two points. touch the x-axis at a single cross the x-axis at all.
point.
y y y
6

x x x

The associated quadratic The associated quadratic The associated quadratic

equation is said to have equation is said to have equation is said to have
two real roots. one repeated real root. no real roots.

LECTURER
We talk about ‘real roots’ meaning that the roots concerned are real numbers. If you study
Mathematics further, you will learn that quadratic equations can also have so-called ‘complex
roots’, sometimes called ‘imaginary roots’. Indeed it is a fundamental property in algebra that every
quadratic equation has two roots, be they real or complex, the same or not.

The discriminant of a quadratic equation

The discriminant of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the number: b2 – 4ac.

The discriminant is important because it is the number under the square root sign in the quadratic
formula:
–
b ± b 2 − 4ac
x = .
2a

Again there are three cases, which tell us the number of real roots.
1 b2 – 4ac > 0 The number under the square root sign is positive, so there are two real roots.
–b
2 b2 – 4ac = 0 The square root part of the formula is zero, so one repeated root for x is .
2a
2
3 b – 4ac < 0 The number under the square root sign is negative. It is not possible to calculate
the square root of a negative number within the real numbers, so there are no real
roots.
 6 Quadratic equations 61

Combining these discriminant results with the

parabola graphs, we have: exercise 6.09
1–13 Calculate the value of the discriminant (i.e.
1 y 2
y b2 – 4ac), and hence state the number of real roots
for each of these quadratic equations.
1 x2 + 7x + 3 = 0
2 x2 + x + 7 = 0
6
3 3x2 – 2x – 1 = 0
x x
4 x2 – 20x + 100 = 0
5 4x2 + 5x – 2 = 0
b2 – 4ac > 0 b2 – 4ac = 0 6 x2 + 11x + 3 = 0
Two real roots One repeated root 7 x2 – 7x + 8 = 0
3 y 8 3x2 – 24x + 48 = 0
9 4x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
10 x2 – 2x + 3 = 0
11 x2 + 2x – 7 = 0
12 2x2 + 8x + 8 = 0
x 13 3x2 – 5x + 1 = 0

b2 – 4ac < 0 14–20 Rearrange these equations to the form

No real root ax2 + bx + c = 0 and hence state the number of
real roots for each.
Example Calculate the value of the 14 x2 = 6x – 9
discriminant of the quadratic
equation 3x2 – 4x + 5 = 0, and 15 x2 = 7x – 11
hence state the number of roots for 16 x2 = 5x – 7
this quadratic equation. 17 4x2 + 6x = 3
= Answer For the equation 3x2 – 4x + 5 = 0, 18 –5 = 2x2 + 3x
a = 3, b = –4 and c = 5. 19 8x – 7 = x2
b2 – 4ac = (–4)2 – 4 × 3 × 5 20 2x2 + 6 = 3x
= 16 – 60 = –44
Here the discriminant is negative 21–27 State the value of the discriminant for
(< 0) and so this quadratic each of these quadratic equations.
equation has no real roots.
21 px2 + qx + r = 0
22 dx2 – ex – f = 0
23 mx + l – nx2 = 0
24 ax2 + 4ax – 3a = 0
25 px2 – x – 5p = 0
26 qx2 + 4qx – 5q = 0
27 4rx2 – 3rx – r = 0
 62 Algebra 2.1

Applications of properties of the discriminant

Example The equation 3x2 – 4x + q = 0 has two real roots. Find the range of possible values for q.
= Answer To have two real roots we require b2 – 4ac > 0.
For this equation:
( − 4)2 − 4 × 3 × q > 0
6 16 − 12q > 0
− 12q > − 16
− 16
q < − 12
(Note:: the inequality reverses on division by a negative number)

q < 4
3

exercise 6.10
1 For what values of p will the roots of 9 For what values of a will the roots of
px2 – 2x + 5 = 0 be real? x2 + ax + 9 = 0 be real and distinct?

2 Find the range of values for q for which the 10 Find the value(s) of q such that the equation
equation 2x2 – 8x – q = 0 has two real roots. 4qx = 2x2 + 7 has equal roots.

3 For what value of a will the roots of 11 For what values of d will the roots of
ax2 – 2x + 5 = 0 be equal? 1 x 2 + dx − 8 = 0 be real?
4
4 Find the values of q for which the equation
12 (Multichoice) The equation 25x2 – px – 1 = 0
4x 2 + 3x − q = 0 has no real roots.
5 has real roots:
(A) for all real values of p
5 The equation x2 – rx + 25 = 0 has two equal (B) for no real values of p
roots. Find the two possible values of r. (C) if p = 5 only
(D) if p = ± 5 only
6 What condition must be placed on p if the
roots of the equation x2 + 8x + p = 0 are real (E) if p lies between –5 and 5 only.
and unequal?

7 The equation 4x2 – 3x + 2a = 0 has two real

roots. Find the range of possible values for a.

8 The polynomial (s + 1)x2 – (s – 2)x + 1 is a

perfect square. Find the value(s) of s.
 7
Non-linear 7
simultaneous equations

Intersection of lines and curves

Algebra (solving equations) can be used to find where a straight line crosses a curve such as a circle,
hyperbola or parabola.
Given the equation of the line and the equation of the curve, we solve these simultaneously. If
the line equation is in the form y = f(x) and the curve equation is in the form y = g(x), solve these
simultaneously by writing f(x) = g(x). Each of f(x) and g(x) is equal to y, so they are equal to each
other.

TIPSTER
There could well be more than one point of intersection. So, it is
quite likely that the eventual equation to be solved will be one
such as a quadratic equation, which can have more than one
solution. Remember to find both the x- and the y-co-ordinates.

Example Where does the line y = 2x – 2 = Answer Solve the two equations y = 2x – 2
cross the parabola y = x2 – x – 6? and y = x2 – x – 6 simultaneously.
Do this by replacing y in the
y y = 2x – 2 quadratic equation with 2x – 2:
2x − 2 = x2 − x − 6
0 = x2 − x − 6 − 2x + 2
x2
y= –x–6 x 2 − 3x − 4 = 0
= (x – 3)(x + 2)
(x − 4)(x + 1) = 0
x = 4 or − 1
–2 3 These two x-values can be substituted
x
into either y = 2x – 2 or
–2
y = x2 – x – 6 to obtain the y-values:
y=2×4–2=6
y = 2 × –1 – 2 = –4
–6 That is, the co-ordinates of the two
points of intersection are
(4, 6) and (–1, –4).
 64 Algebra 2.1

Example Show how to locate the co-ordinates of the point of intersection of the line y = x – 2
with the graph of y = x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 2 without drawing a diagram.
= Answer Solve by substitution. Replace y in the cubic equation with x – 2:
x − 2 = x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 2
x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 2 − x + 2 = 0
x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 x = 0
7
x(x 2 − 3x + 2) = 0
x(x − 1)(x − 2) = 0 (factorising)
x = 0 orr 1 or 2
These three possible x-values lead (by substituting into y = x – 2) to corresponding
y-values of –2 or –1 or 0. This gives three points of intersection: (0, –2), (1, –1) and (2, 0).

No points of intersection
There may not, of course, be any points of intersection. The two simultaneous equations may lead to
an equation that has no solution. This equation with no solution will often be a quadratic equation.
If the discriminant, b2 – 4ac, is negative, there is no solution (in the real numbers), and hence no
point(s) of intersection (see Chapter 6, pp. 60–61).

Example Draw the graphs of the hyperbola y = 1 and the line y = –x on the same diagram.
x
Show, by attempting to solve simultaneously, that there are no points of intersection.
= Answer y

y = 1x

x
y= –x

Solve simultaneously by writing 1 = − x (each equals y):

x
1 = −x
x
1 = − x2
x2 + 1 = 0
This quadratic equation has no solution. The discriminant (b2 – 4ac) = 0 – 4 × 1 × 1 = –4.

LECTURER
It should be obvious that the equation is also equivalent
to x2 = –1 which has no solution; x2 cannot be negative.
 7 Non-linear simultaneous equations 65

Intersection of a line and a parabola

There are three possibilities for the intersection of a line and a parabola. We look at what happens
both:
• from a graphical point of view, and
• by using algebra to solve equations.
7
When solving an equation of a line and an equation of a parabola simultaneously, a quadratic
equation always results. If the resulting quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0, then:
1 b2 – 4ac < 0
The parabola and line do not intersect.
No intersection.

2 b2 – 4ac = 0
The line touches the parabola at one point only.
The line is a tangent to the parabola.

3 b2 – 4ac > 0
The line cuts the parabola at two different points.
Two points of intersection.

Example Find the points of intersection of the line y = 2x + 1 and the parabola with equation
y = x2 + 1.
Draw the line and parabola on a graph, labelling the points of intersection.
= Answer Solve simultaneously the equations y = 2x + 1 (1)
2
y=x +1 (2)
2
Do this by substituting x + 1 for y in the equation y = 2x + 1:
y = 2x + 1
x2 + 1 = 2x + 1
x2 + 1 − 2x − 1 = 0
x2 − 2x = 0
x(x − 2) = 0
x = 2 or 0
y
Substitute each of these x-values into either y = x2 + 1 y = 2x + 1
(1) or (2) to find the corresponding (2, 5)
y-values:
y = 22 + 1 = 5
y = 02 + 1 = 1
The two points of intersection are (2, 5) and (0, 1). (0, 1)

x
 66 Algebra 2.1

Example Use algebra to find the points Example Draw the graphs of
of intersection of the line y = 2 – x2 and y = x + 3 on the
3x – y + 11 = 0 and the parabola same diagram. Use algebra to
y = x2 + 4x + 5. show that the curve and line
do not intersect.
= Answer Solve simultaneously the equations
3x – y + 11 = 0 (1) = Answer y

7 y = x2 + 4x + 5 (2)
y=x+3
3
2
Do this by substituting x2 + 4x + 5
y = 2 – x2
for y in equation (1).
–3 x
Equation (1) becomes:
3x − (x 2 + 4x + 5) + 11 = 0
Attempt to solve
3x − x 2 − 4x − 5 + 11 = 0 simultaneously:
− x2 −x+6 = 0 x + 3 = 2 − x2
x2 +x−6 = 0 x2 + x + 1 = 0
(x − 2)(x + 3) = 0 This quadratic equation
x = 2 or −3 has discriminant
Substitute each of these x-values b2 – 4ac = 12 – 4 × 1 × 1 = –3,
into either (1) or (2) to find the and hence has no solution.
corresponding y-values:
y = 22 + 4 × 2 + 5 = 17
y = (–3)2 + 4 × (–3) + 5 = 2
The two points of intersection are
(2, 17) and (–3, 2).

exercise 7.01
1 a Sketch the graphs of the parabola 3 a Sketch the graphs of the parabola
y = x2 and the line y = x + 2 on the same y = (x – 2)(x – 4) = x2 – 6x + 8 and the line
diagram. y = –2x + 4 on the same diagram.
b Form a quadratic equation that gives the b Use algebra to show that the line is a
x-values of the two points of intersection. tangent to the parabola.
c Hence give the co-ordinates of the points c Find the co-ordinates of the point where
of intersection. the line touches the parabola.

2 a Sketch the graphs of the parabola 4 Calculate the number of points of

y = –x2 and the line y = x + 3 on the same intersection of the line y = 6 – 3x and the
diagram. parabola y = x2 + 2x – 8, and find the
b Rearrange the equation x + 3 = –x2 to the co-ordinates of the point or points.
form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
c Using algebraic reasons, explain why the 5–18 Find the point(s) of intersection (if they
two graphs do not intersect. exist) for each given line and parabola.
5 y = x2
y = 5x – 4
 7 Non-linear simultaneous equations 67

6 y = x2 14 y = 2x2 + 5x + 4 20 How many points of intersection are there

y = 2x + 63 y = 2x + 3 between the line 2y = 6x – 17 and the
parabola y = 2x2 – 3x – 4?
7 y = x2 15 y = (6 – x)(4 + x)
y = 16 – 6x 2x + y – 12 = 0 21 Draw diagrams to show pairs of parabolas
which:
8 y = x2 + 7x – 10 16 y = (x + 1)(x + 2) a intersect at one point
y = 3x + 11 y = 5x + 1 b intersect at two points 7
c do not intersect.
9 y = x2 – 2x + 6 17 y = 2x2
y+x=3 y=x+3
22 a Draw the graphs of the two parabolas
given by the equations y = (x – 2)2 + 1
10 y = (x + 2)(x + 1) 18 y = 3x2
and y = (x – 4)2 – 3.
y = 4x + 8 14x – y – 8 = 0
b How many times do the graphs
19 Calculate the intersect?
11 y = x2 – 7x + 18
number of points c Calculate the co-ordinates of the
y = 3x – 7
of intersection point(s) of intersection.
12 y = x(x + 6) between the
parabola 23 Calculate the co-ordinates of the point(s) of
y = –5
y = 2x2 – x + 1 intersection of the parabolas given by the
and the line equations y = x2 – 2x + 4 and y = 5 – (x – 1)2.
13 y = (x + 3)(x – 1)
y=x–1 2y + 6x = 1.

Intersection of a line and a circle

There are three possibilities for the intersection of a line and a circle (as is the case for a line and
a parabola).
When solving an equation of a line and an equation of a circle simultaneously, a quadratic
equation always results. If the resulting quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0, then:

1 b2 – 4ac < 0
The circle and line do not intersect.
No intersection.

2 b2 – 4ac = 0
The line touches the circle at one point only.
The line is a tangent to the circle.

3 b2 – 4ac > 0
The line cuts the circle at two different points.
Two points of intersection.
 68 Algebra 2.1

Example Show that the line y = 4 is a tangent to the circle (x – 3)2 + y2 = 16. Find the co-ordinates
of the point of contact.
= Answer Solve simultaneously by substituting y = 4 into the circle equation:
( x − 3)2 + ( 4)2 = 16
x 2 − 6x + 9 + 16 = 16
x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0
7 This quadratic equation has discriminant (–6)2 – 4 × 1 × 9 = 0, and hence has one
repeated real root. Thus, the line touches the circle, and is therefore a tangent.
x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0
( x − 3)2 = 0
x = 3 and y = 4
The point of contact is (3, 4).

Example Find the co-ordinates of the point(s) of intersection of the line y = x – 3 and the circle
x2 + y2 = 5. Illustrate by drawing a diagram.
= Answer Solve simultaneously by substituting y = x – 3 into the circle equation:
x2 + y 2 = 5 y

x 2 + (x − 3)2 = 5 x 2 + y2 = 5
x 2 + x 2 − 6x + 9 = 5
2 x 2 − 6x + 4 = 0
1 2 x
x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0 –1
(x − 2)(x − 1) = 0 –2

x = 2 or x = 1 y=x–3

There are two points of intersection. To find the y-co-ordinates,

substitute each of x = 2 and x = 1 in turn into the line equation y = x – 3:
y = 2 – 3 = –1 or y = 1 – 3 = –2
The two points of intersection are (2, –1) and (1, –2).

exercise 7.02
1 a Sketch the graphs of the circle 2 a Sketch the graphs of the circle
x2 + y2 = 25 and the line y = –x + 7 on the x2 + y2 = 16 and the line y = x + 6 on the
same diagram. same diagram.
b How many points of intersection are b How many points of intersection are
there? there?
c Form a quadratic equation that gives the c Substitute y = x + 6 into the circle
x-values of the point(s) of intersection. equation to obtain a quadratic equation
d Hence give the co-ordinates of the in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
point(s) of intersection. d Use algebraic reasons to justify your
answer to part b.
 7 Non-linear simultaneous equations 69

3 a Sketch graphs of the circle 5–13 Find the point(s) of intersection (if they
x 2 + y 2 = 100 and the line 3x – 4y – 50 = 0 exist) for each given line and circle.
(i.e. y = 3 x − 25 ) on the same diagram. 5 x 2 + y 2 = 13 10 x 2 + y 2 + 2y = 9
4 2 y=x+5 y=x–3
b Use algebra to show that the line is a
tangent to the circle. 6 x 2 + y 2 = 10 11 x2 + y2 = 2
( )
2
Hint: 3 x − 25 = 9 x 2 − 75 x + 625 . y=x+2 y = 2x + 1
4 2 16 4 4 7
2 2
Substitute this into x + y = 100, and 7 x 2 + y 2 = 20 12 x 2 + y 2 + 9x = 11
multiply through by a common multiple y=x–2 y = 2x – 3
of 16.
c Find the co-ordinates of the point where 8 x 2 + y 2 = 37 13 x 2 + y 2 – 2x = 49
the line touches the circle. y=x–5 y=x+5

4 How many points of intersection are there 9 4x 2 + 4y 2 = 25

between the circle x 2 + y 2 = 18 and the line 2y = 2x + 1
y = x + 6?
14–15 Show that the line is a tangent to the given
circle, and find the point of contact.
14 x 2 + y 2 = 25 15 x 2 + y 2 – 2x = 24
y = 3 x + 25 4x – 3y – 29 = 0
4 4

Intersection of a line and a hyperbola

There are three possibilities for the intersection of a line and a hyperbola.
When solving an equation of a line and an equation of a hyperbola simultaneously, a
quadratic equation always results. If the resulting quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0, then:
y
1 b2 – 4ac < 0
The hyperbola and line do not intersect.
No intersection. x

y
2 b2 – 4ac = 0
The line touches the hyperbola at one point only.
The line is a tangent to the hyperbola. x

y
3 b2 – 4ac > 0
The line cuts the hyperbola at two different points.
Two points of intersection.
x
 70 Algebra 2.1

Example Find the co-ordinates of the point(s) of Example Show that the line
intersection of the line y = 2x – 1 and the y = 4x + 8 is a tangent to the
−
hyperbola xy = 15. Illustrate by drawing hyperbola y = 4 . Find the
a diagram. x
co-ordinates of the point of
= Answer Solve simultaneously by substituting contact.
y = 2x – 1 into the hyperbola equation:
= Answer Solve simultaneously:
7 xy = 15 −
x(2 x − 1) = 15 4x + 8 = 4
x
2 x 2 − x − 15 = 0 4 x + 8x = 4
2 −

(2 x + 5)(x − 3) = 0 4 x 2 + 8x + 4 = 0
−5 x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0
x = or x = 3
2
( x + 1)2 = 0
There are two points of intersection. To
find the y-co-ordinates substitute each This quadratic equation has
− one (repeated) solution only.
of x = 5 and x = 3 in turn into the line
2 Thus, the line touches the
equation y = 2x – 1: hyperbola, and is therefore a
−5 tangent.
y=2× – 1 = –6 or y = 2 × 3 – 1 = 5
2 The x-co-ordinate of the
The two points of intersection are point of contact is –1. To find
 −5 −  the y-co-ordinate substitute
 , 6  and (3, 5). x = –1 into either the line or
 2 
hyperbola equation:
−
y y = −4 = 4
5 xy = 15 1
The point of contact is (–1, 4).

–2.5 –1 3 x
y = 2x – 1
–6

exercise 7.03
1 a Sketch the graphs of the hyperbola 2 a Sketch the graphs of the hyperbola
y = 3 and the line y = x + 2 on the same xy = –2 and the line y = x on the same
x diagram.
diagram.
b How many points of intersection are
b How many points of intersection are there?
there?
c Substitute y = x into the hyperbola
c Form a quadratic equation that gives the equation to obtain a quadratic equation
x-values of the point(s) of intersection. in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
d Hence give the co-ordinates of the d Use algebraic reasons to justify your
point(s) of intersection. answer to part b.
 7 Non-linear simultaneous equations 71

3 a Sketch the graphs of the hyperbola xy = 6 12 xy = –3 and y = x + 2

and the line 3x + 2y – 12 = 0
−
(i.e. y = 3 x + 6) on the same diagram. 13 y(x + 4) = –33 and y = 2x – 9
2
− 21
b Use algebra to show that the line is a 14 y = and y = x + 8
x−2
tangent to the hyperbola.
c Find the co-ordinates of the point where 15 y = 9 and y = 5x + 1
x+1
the line touches the hyperbola. 7
16 Draw diagrams for each of the following
4 Show that the line y = x + 6 does not cases, where possible.
−
intersect the hyperbola y = 10 . a A pair of hyperbolas which do not
x
intersect.
5–10 In the next six questions there are two b A pair of hyperbolas with one point of
examples each of a line intersecting, touching, intersection.
and missing a hyperbola. In each case establish
c A pair of hyperbolas with two points of
the co-ordinates of the point(s) of intersection, if
intersection.
they exist.
− 12
5 y = and y = x + 7 17 Find the point(s) of intersection, if they exist,
x
for each of these pairs of hyperbolas.
6 xy = 6 and y = –2x + 3 –1
a xy = 1 and y =
x−2
4
7 y = and x+y=4 4
x b xy = 6 and y =
−1 x
8 y = and y=x+3 c x(y – 1) = 10 and y = 4
x+1 x+1
−9
9 y = and y = 2x – 7 18 Do a hyperbola and parabola always
x−2
intersect?
10 y = 8 and y = 3x – 1
x−2
19 The parabola y = x2 + 6x + 5 intersects the
11–15 Find the point(s) of intersection (if they hyperbola xy = 12 at three points. Two of the
exist) for each given hyperbola and line. points are (–4, –3) and (–3, –4). Find the
11 y = 6 and y = x – 5 co-ordinates of the third point.
x

Applications
exercise 7.04
1 The number of people listening to an all-night radio
station declines after midnight until about 6 am.
The number of listeners in thousands (N) is related
to the time in hours (t). Here are two possible
models for this relationship.
20
• Model 1: N = t
• Model 2: N = 24 – 4t
a Which model has a hyperbola for its graph?
b What kind of graph does the other model have?
 72 Algebra 2.1

c Which model gives a sensible result for 4 The relationship between the rise (r cm) and
midnight? What is this result? tread (t cm) of a staircase can be modelled
d Which model gives the more likely result by different equations for some values of r
for 6 am? What is this result? and t.
e Which model gives the greater number
of listeners at 4 am? By how many does Tread
this exceed the number given by the other Rise
7 model?
f Solve the equations for the two models
simultaneously. That is:
20 = 24 − 4t . • Equation 1: t = 60 – 2r
t • Equation 2: t = 420
g Explain the meaning of the solution(s) to r
part f in this situation. a A staircase has a rise of 18 cm. Estimate
the tread:
2 A section of gutter has a i using equation 1
parabolic cross-section and ii using equation 2.
is 6 cm wide at the top. b Write down the kind of graph that each
A nail has fallen in, and is of equations 1 and 2 has.
wedged at right-angles to 6 cm c Suppose equation 1 and equation 2 give
the length of the gutter.
The diagram shows a side view. the same result, that is:
If we take the origin (0, 0) as the bottom 60 − 2r = 420 .
point of the gutter, then the sides can be r
modelled by the equation y = x2 and the Express this equation as a quadratic
profile of the nail by the line with equation equation in its simplest form.
y = x + 2. d Use the quadratic formula:
a If the gutter was filled with water how −b ±
b 2 − 4ac to solve the
x =
deep would it be in the centre? 2a
b Solve the equations y = x2 and y = x + 2 equation in part c.
simultaneously, and then use the distance e Write down both values of the tread for
formula d = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 which equation 1 and equation 2 give the
same result.
to calculate the length of the nail correct to
the nearest millimetre. 5 A round radar screen shows objects
accurately up to a distance of 15 km in all
3 The stopping distance (y) (measured in directions. It picks up an aircraft at a bearing
metres) of the Waiata (a harbour ferry) is of 030°.
N
related to its speed (x) (measured in km/h).
An approximate model linking x and y
if the ferry is travelling in still water is 030°
y = 2x(x + 5). Another ferry (the Wainui) has 15 km
more powerful reverse thrusters, but they
take longer to engage. Its stopping distance is W E
given by the formula y = 24x.
a Solve these two equations simultaneously.
b At what speed do the ferries take the same
distance to stop? What is this distance?
S
 7 Non-linear simultaneous equations 73

The circumference of the screen can be a How wide is the tunnel at ground level?
modelled by the equation x2 + y2 = 225. b Calculate the shorter of the two distances
Any object on a bearing of 030° from the from the foot of the ladder to the tunnel
radar station can be located on the line wall.
y = 1.732x. c Use the quadratic formula to solve the
a Show some working (using two equations x2 + y2 = 25 and
trigonometry) to explain why the y = 3x – 6 simultaneously. Explain what
gradient of this line is 1.732. information the positive solution for y 7
b Solve these two equations gives in this situation.
simultaneously.
c Explain what information the solution 7 An accountant is looking at two possible
gives in this situation. formulae to explain the depreciation of a
computer that was purchased for $12 000.
The value of the computer is $y after x years.
• Formula 1 is a straight line
y = 12 000 – 2000x.
• Formula 2 is y = 12 000 .
x+1

6 The cross-section of a road tunnel can be

modelled by a semi-circle. The semi-circle
is the top half of the circle given by the
equation x2 + y2 = 25. Each unit in the model
represents 1 m. Sometimes a maintenance
crew needs to replace lights in the tunnel
roof. They reach the light by climbing up a
ladder placed on the flat road. The equation
that models the position of the ladder is a What kind of graph would you expect
y = 3x – 6. formula 2 to have?
y b Calculate the value of the computer after
1 year using:
i formula 1
x2 + y2 = 25
ii formula 2.
c Draw the graph of formula 1.
d For what range of values of x does
formula 1 give a sensible result?
x e Explain what the gradient of the line in
formula 1 represents in this situation.
f Solve the two equations simultaneously,
and explain what the solutions represent
in this situation.
 74 Algebra 2.1

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION

The acoustic concert hall

Part of a concert hall has been designed so that the cross- y
section of the walls and ceiling can be modelled by a Anchor
7 parabola. One of the properties of a parabola is that it points
‘focuses’ sound very clearly. At the top of the ceiling, but
not symmetrically, a section of material has been hung Wall
from two anchor points to alter the sound absorption. The
diagram shows a side view. Hanging
material Wall
The curve of the walls and ceiling can be modelled
by the equation y = 1 x(10 − x). The outline curve for
2
the material can be modelled by the equation x
y = (x – 8)2 + 6. x represents the horizontal distance from
a point where the floor meets the sloping wall, and y
represents the height above the ground. Both measurements are in metres.

1 Use a graphics calculator, graphing software or a spreadsheet to produce a graph

showing both curves.
2 Investigate, using technology, to estimate the co-ordinates of the points of intersection
correct to 1 dp.
3 Estimate the difference in height between the two anchor points.
4 Solve the two equations simultaneously to calculate the difference in height in question 3
correct to the nearest millimetre. You will need to use the quadratic formula.
 8
Indices

Using the power button on your calculator

Scientific calculators have a button that calculates powers. On most models this will be the x y key.

exercise 8.01
1 Evaluate these powers. 5 Evaluate.
a 42 b 73 a (52)3 b (53)2
c (–5)4 d (–1)19 c (32)0.5 d (30.5)2
e 2 6 f (1.8)2
6 Calculate the following.
1
2 a Evaluate these powers. a 63.5 b (6 2 )7
i 6 –1
( 6)
7
ii 2—1 c 67 d
iii 5–1 1

b Explain what effect an index of –1 has.

e ( 67 ) 2
7 Calculate the following.
3 a Evaluate these powers. 1
a 42.5 b (4 5 ) 2
i 50 ii 160
iii 182 0 iv (0.9)0 8 Evaluate these combinations of powers of 2.
b Explain what effect an index of 0 has. a 20
–
b 21 −
d ( 22 )
1
c 20 + 21 + 22
4 a Evaluate these powers. −1
i 250.5 ii 370.5 e ( 23 + 24 )
1 1
iii 6 2 iv 17 2 1 9 Use a calculator to evaluate the following.
1
v 64 2 vi 112 2 Write your answers correct to 4 sf if they do
1
b Explain what effect an index of 0.5 or 2 not come out exactly.
has. a (–2)8 b (0.34)–2
c 17 2.4 d 16 0.75
– –
e (0.71) 0.2 f 15 3.1

PUZZLE This century base 3

What is the last digit of the number 3 2005 (3 2007 + 1) when expressed in full?
 76 Algebra 2.1

Negative powers
What does a negative index mean? How do we interpret
expressions such as x–3 or 2–4? A power with a negative
x4 index is the same as the
Consider the division of 6 . If written out in full, this represents: reciprocal of the same power
x
x×x×x×x with a positive index:
= 12 .
x×x×x×x×x×x x x−n = 1n
8 x
But if we follow the division rule for powers, and subtract the
–
indices, we get x 2.

Example Write the following with a positive index.

a x –3 b 2x–1

= Answer = 13 2 x−1 = 2 × 1 = 2
−3
a x b
x x x
Example Evaluate:
a 2–4 b (0.5)–3

()
−2
2
= Answer a 2−4 = 14 = 1
2 16 Example Write 3 as a fraction.
−3 1 = 1 = 8
b (0.5) =
(0.5)3 0.125 = Answer Note: the reciprocal of 2 is 3 .
3 2
() ()
−2 2
Alternatively: 2 3 9
= =
()
−3
3 2 4
(0.5) 3 = 1
−
= 23 = 8
2

exercise 8.02
1 Write the following expressions using 3 Evaluate the following. Write all answers as
positive indices only. fractions or integers.
a x–4 b y– 7 a (– 2)– 3 b (– 5)– 2
c x–1 d 5x– 3 c (– 7)– 1 d (– 1)– 4
e 7x – 2 f 4x– 2 + 2x– 5 e (– 3)– 4 f (– 1)– 1
–2 –3
g 3a b h 4a– 1 b– 4 –
g (– 4) 3 h (– 2)– 7
– – – – –
i 4a 3 + 2b 5 j 5x 3 + 2x 2 – x 1
4 Use a calculator to evaluate the following.
2 Evaluate the following. Write all answers as Give all answers correct to 4 sf.
fractions or integers. a (2.16)– 4 b (0.56)– 3
– – –5 –
a 2 4 b 3 2 c (0.0267) d (12.1) 1
c 4–1 d 5–3
e 2–5 f 4–3 5 Evaluate the following. Write all answers as
g 1
–3
h 5 2
– fractions or whole numbers.

()
−2

()
−1
i 6–1 j 2–3 3
a 2 b
5 4
k 10 – 2
()
−2

()
−2
2 5
c d 2
3

() ()
−3 −2
1 2
e f
4 5
 8 Indices 77

()
−1

()
−3
2 1
g h c Plot the points from the table in part a.
3 3
Use the symmetry shown by the answers
i ( ) ( 1 45 )
−3 −2
1 j
–
in part b to sketch the graph of y = x 2.
10
d Give the equation of the axis of
k ( ) ( 2 34 )
−1 −1
41
–
l symmetry for the graph of y = x 2.
2
e Is this graph a hyperbola?
m (1 1 )
–2

4 7 Use negative indices to write each of these 8

6 This question is about investigating the expressions with their power parts in the
graph of y = x–2. numerator rather than the denominator.
1 1
a Copy and complete this table. a x2 b
x
–2
x x 2
c a d 3
0.2 y
0.5 1
e f 4
0.6 2x c2
0.7 −5
0.8 g h 64
c3 x
0.9
i 4 j 1
1.0
9x 3x 2
2.0
20 1
3.0 k 5 l
x 7x6
4.0
b Calculate: m 15 n 4
x 3x 2
i (–0.2)– 2 ii (–0.8)– 2
iii (–3)– 2 o 12
5x
8 Simplify 3n – 2 × 3–n.

The rules of indices

Expressions with negative indices follow the same rules as ones with positive indices.
• Multiplication: When multiplying numbers with the same base in power form, add the indices.
• Division: When dividing numbers with the same base in power form, subtract the indices.
• Powers of powers: When a base to a given index is raised to another index, simplify by
multiplying the indices.

Example Simplify:
a 3x– 2 × 4x– 3
b (xy2)– 4
Write both answers with positive indices only.
12
= Answer a 3x
–2
× 4x
–3
= 12x
–5
=
x5
1
b (xy2)– 4 = x– 4y– 8 =
x4 y8
 78 Algebra 2.1

exercise 8.03
5x 2
1 Simplify these expressions. Leave all e (4x2)– 2 f
15x 3
answers in power form. − −
1 x2 y 4
a x– 4 × x2 b x– 1 × x3 g 4 x− 3 h
− 10 2x x3 y 2
c x −5
( )
d x– 3 ÷ x– 1 3x
−1

8 x i (x– 1y2)– 3 j
– – 4
e x5 ÷ x 3 f (x 3)2
( x3 )
−1 −2
k  4 x 
–1 –2 2
g (x4) h 4x × 5x3 l
 5 
− 20x − 2
i j 2x3 × 4x– 2 × 6x– 1  2y 
−2
 3
−2
4x m 2 n  5x2 
x   y 
2 Simplify these expressions. Write all answers −1 −4
 −2  −3
with positive indices. o  4x  p  2 a −2b 
()
−2
a x2x– 3 b
1  3y 5   3a 1b 5 
x
−4
c x 12 d (2x– 1)3
x

PUZZLE
Car number plates
Here are two different systems of numbering car number plates. Both systems use a total of six
letters and numbers.

Last century: to
AA 0000 ZZ 9999

This century: AAA 000 to ZZZ 999

1 How many different letters are possible for the first position?
2 How many different numbers are possible for the last position?
3 Write, in index form, the total number of different number plates that are possible using last
century’s method.
4 Write, in index form, the total number of different number plates that are possible using this
century’s method.
5 Calculate the difference between the two numbers in questions 3 and 4.
 8 Indices 79

Fractional indices
1
What does a fractional index mean? How do we interpret expressions such as x 3 ? What is the value
1 3
of 64 2 ? What meaning do we give to 8 2 ?
Fractional indices are used to express roots of numbers. Recall that the square root of a number
has the property that, when multiplied by itself, it gives the number concerned. For example:
y × y = y 5 × 5 = 5 etc. 8
Now consider equivalent expressions with indices. For example:
1 1
y 2 × y 2 = y1 = y (adding indices)
1 1
52 × 52 = 51 = 5 (adding indices)
Clearly the power of 21 is the same as ‘square root’. In the same way a power of 31 gives ‘cube roots’,
and so on. Collectively, square roots, cube roots, fourth roots, etc. are called surds.

In general:
1
x
ax = a
Index form Surd form

Note: there is a special key for roots on a calculator. Depending on the make and model of
the calculator, it will either be x y or x1/y . It often needs the ‘inverse’ or ‘F’ key pressed first.
1
Example Write x 5 in surd form.
1 4
= Answer x5 =
5
x Example Write
1
x in index form.

1
= Answer 4
x = x4
Example Evaluate 64 3 . 1
= Answer
1
64 3 = 3
64 = 4 Example Simplify 64 x 6( )2 .
1
= Answer ( 64x6 ) 2 = 8x 3

Combining powers and roots

2
Powers and roots can be combined in the same index. For example x 3 means ‘the cube root of x
squared’.
p
q q
In general: x = xp

3
Example Evaluate 16 2 . Example Write x 5 in index form.
1 5

= Answer
3
16 2
 1
3
=  16 2  = 4 3 = 64
= Answer ( )
x5 = x5 2 = x 2
  (on multiplying the indices)
 80 Algebra 2.1

exercise 8.04
1 Rewrite these expressions in surd form. 6 Evaluate the following. Give all answers as
1 1
a x3 b y6 either fractions or mixed numbers.
3 2
1 1
c a4 d 5b 2 a  1  2 b  1 3
 27 
1  4
8 e 2x 3 5
 13
2

c  1  4
d  8 
2 Evaluate the following.  16 
1 1 3
4
a 42 b 16 4  243  5
e  27  3 f  32 
1 1  8 
c 125 3 d 64 3 4 3
1
g  125  3 h  6 1 
1 2
e 81 4 f 36 2
 216   4
1 1
g 83 h 256 2
1 7 Rewrite these expressions in index form.
1  12
i 256 8 j  4  a 3
x5 b y4
1 1
4
 9 2  27  3 c x3 d x3
k   l  64 
 16  e 3 y2 f 2 4 x3
1 1
 81  4  1 2 g 12 x 4 h −5 3 x7
m   n  6 
 16  4
1
o ( 1.331 ) 3 8 The temperature, T (in degrees Celsius), of a
cup of coffee decreases with time, t,
3
3 Rewrite these expressions in index form.
according to the formula T = 16t 3 + 1000 .
2
3
a x b y t 2 + 10
Calculate the following.
c 5
d d 44x
a The initial temperature.
e −2 6 y b The temperature when t = 10.
c The temperature after a long time.
4 Rewrite these expressions in surd form.
2 3
a x3 b a4 9 Initially, a long-life insecticide sprayed on a
2 3 kitchen surface kills 98% of all insects, and
c 3x 5 d 2y 2 then the ‘kill-rate’ reduces by 5% each week.
5
e 5x 4 The formula for the percentage killed after
t weeks is K = 98 × (0.95)t.
5 Evaluate the following. a Complete this table for the ‘kill-rate’ over
2 4 the first five weeks.
a 83 b 32 5
2 3
c 64 3 d 36 2 Weeks (t ) 1 2 3 4 5
3 3 Kill-rate (K)
e 81 4 f 49 2
5 4 b What percentage of insects are killed
g 42 h 125 3
3 3 after 10 weeks?
i 92 j 16 4 c After how many weeks will fewer than
2 5
k 32 5 l half of the insects landing on the surface
83
be killed?
 8 Indices 81

PUZZLE
Last digit
Write down the last digit in each of these.
1 5100
2 6100
8
3 7100
4 3100 + 2100

Fractional and negative indices

It is possible to use both negative indices and fractional indices at the same time. An approach that
works well is to first deal with the negative index by taking the reciprocal of the base and changing
the sign of the index at the same time.
−2
Example Write x 3 in surd form.
−2

= Answer x 3 = 12 = 1
3
x3 x2
−3

()
−1
4 2
Example Evaluate: a 625 4 b 9

() () ()
−3 3 3 3
−1
 9
= Answer a 625 4 = 1
1
= 4 1 = 1
5
b 4
9
2
= 9
4
2
= 
 4 
= 3
2
= 27
8
625 4 625

exercise 8.05
−5 −1
1 Rewrite these expressions in surd form. i 92 j 100 2
–1 −2 −2 −4
a x 2 b y 3 k 64 3 l 32 5
−1 −4 –2 −3
c a4 d 6a 3 m 243 5 n 256 8
−5 −3
e 4x 4 f 2y 2
3 Evaluate the following. Give all answers as
−7
g 5a 3 either whole numbers, fractions or mixed
numbers.
−1 −1

2 Evaluate the following. Give all answers as

fractions.
a ( ) 1
16
−1
4
b ( )
1
25
2

−1

( 649 ) ( 1251 )
−1 −1
2 3
a 42 b 36 2 c d
−1 −1
−3 −3
c 81 2

e 27
−2
3
d 64 3

f 16
−3
4
e
( 91 ) 2
f ( 161 ) 4

−2

( 1258 )
−1

( 491 )
−5 3
−3
g 2 h
g 16 2 h 64 6
 82 Algebra 2.1

−1

( )
−5 −1

i 125
216
3
j
( )
9
16
2 6 Simplify ( 4a 2 ) 2 .
−3 −3
7 Use the rules of indices to simplify the
k (4) ( 3625 )
2 2
l following expressions.
9
−3 −3
a xn + 1 × xn – 2 b x 4n ÷ x n

8
m ( 36 )
49
2

−1
n ( 1 79 ) 2
c
x 3n × x 2n
x 4n
d
x7n × x 2n
x 9n
o ( 12 1 )
−2

( 1000
343 )
2 3 1 2
p −
x 2×x 1
−
x5 × x5
4 e − f 4
x4 × x 6 x5
4 Simplify the following, using surd form. −1 1 1 1
−3 x 2 × x4 x3 × x6
( )
1 9 2 g 3 h 3
a −1 b x8 × x2 x4
x4 4x
2 − 12

16 1 x5  14 31 
i j  x y 
c −1 d −1 1 1
x2 2x 5 x3 × x5
−3
1 3 4
 31 
k  2x 2 
−1
e −1 f −2 l  3x 
8x 3 x 3  
−5 27 −4 −2
g 5x 3 h −1  1 1
m  2x 2 y 4  n  3x 2 y 4 
3 3
2 64x 3    
5 Rewrite these expressions in index form. − 30
 21 31 
1 1 x y
a b 3 4 o  3 
x3 x  z5 
 
1 1 1 −1
c d
 −3 
8 Simplify  27 a 4 
4 3 3 2
5
x2 x3 ×  9a 2  .
2 4    
e f −2
x3 1 .
x5
7
9 Calculate the value of ( )3
−a when a =
64
g 1 h 3 5
3 x 4 x

Expressing numbers as powers of the same base

Many numbers can be written quite simply as a power of another number. For example, 9 can be
written as a power of 3, i.e. 32. 1 can also be written as a power of 3, i.e. 3 – 3.
27
A useful approach when simplifying expressions where some bases are powers of another base is
to express all terms as powers of the smaller number.
3n
Example Simplify 4 5n .
2
= Answer First note that 4 = 22. Therefore, replace 4 by its equivalent 22.
4 3n = ( 2 2 )3n = 26n = 26n − 5n = 2n
2 5n 25n 25n
 8 Indices 83

exercise 8.06
1 Express the following as powers of 2. 6 Solve these equations.
a 8 b 32 a 3 x = 81 b 5 − x = 25
c 1 d 1 c 2 x + 1 = 8x − 4 d 8 x − 1 = 16 x − 2
2 4 1 1
e 1 e x2 = 5 f 3x 2 − 1 = 20
8
2 Express the following as powers of 4. 7 Given that 8n = 2p, write down an expression
a 2 b 8 for p in terms of n.
1 1
c d 8 Simplify the following expressions by
4 16
e 1 changing some powers to the same base.
32 8 4n 4n
a b 9 2n
3 Express the following as powers of 9. 16 2n 81
n 8n × 16 2n
a 27 b 3 c 64n d
1 1 4 256n × 64 2n
c d
3 81 n+ 2 n−1
e 3n − 2 × 27 n + 1 f 52 n × 125n − 1
e 3 3 × 27 625n + 2
62 n + 1 2 2 n + 1 × 4 3n − 2
4 Express the following as powers of 5. g n+ 2 h 8n + 4 × 162 n + 1
4 × 32 n − 1
a 25 b 625 n 3n n
81 4 × 27 3
i 32 n +×1 8 3n
n–3
c 5 d 1 5
j
e 0.2 f 1 128 ×4 243n × 32 − 4n
125
(3 × 2 n ) × (3 × 8n )
k
5 Express the following as powers of 1 . 3 × 161 − n
3
a 3 b 9
1
c 3 d
27
e 243
 9
9 Logarithms

What are logarithms?

Logarithms are indices of special base numbers. These base numbers are usually either:
• 10, which gives so-called common logarithms, or
• e, a special number in mathematics, which gives so-called natural logarithms (e ≈ 2.72).
In Year 12 we work with common logarithms only, and leave natural logarithms until Year 13.
Calculators can work out logarithms. The abbreviation for logarithm is log. Log can also stand for
common log (to base 10).
We say that log(2) = 0.3010, because 100.3010 = 2.
0.3010 is the power of 10 needed to give 2.
In exactly the same way, log(1000) = 3, because 103 = 1000.
TIPSTER
Example Calculate log(5).
= Answer log(5) = 0.6990 (from calculator) Note: the base must be a positive
number, and not equal to 1.
Historical background
Imagine a world without readily available and affordable electronic calculators and computers. This
was Planet Earth within the memory of most adults over 50!
In such a world, multiplication and division of numbers was difficult and time-consuming.
Although you may have been taught how to do long multiplication and division, the chances are that
you have not had recent practice at it. Unless you are particularly expert and careful, you would find
it difficult to carry out without making mistakes.

Logarithms were invented by John Napier Spain he came up with the concepts of the
(1550–1617), a Scottish mathematician. He is submarine, the tank and machine gun. Napier
also famous for inventing the decimal point. was also a keen farmer, and particularly
Without the work pioneered by Napier, it interested in increasing production by
would have been difficult for subsequent spreading fertiliser on fields.
mathematicians like Isaac Newton to have John Napier was reputed to be a magician,
made their discoveries. and stories are told of his supernatural
Napier’s work on logarithms was activities in a small room at the top of his
somewhat of a hobby, and he is famous for home, called Merchiston Tower, in Edinburgh.
much more than his mathematical discoveries. Folklore says that he carried a spider in a box,
To defend Scotland against King Philip of and had a black rooster as a spiritual familiar.
 9 Logarithms 85

This rooster features in a famous story told about Napier.

One day Napier realised that some tools had
disappeared. They were going missing little by little. So,
one day he spread some soot on the back of the black
rooster, and then ordered all of his employees to go inside
his barn one by one and pet the magic black rooster. He
told them it would be able to tell who was stealing the
tools. When everyone came out he told them to hold their 9
palms up, and all but one had black palms. Napier knew
that one was the thief because he was afraid to pet the
rooster.

Another story relates how John Napier was annoyed by

his neighbour’s pigeons pecking in his field. The neighbour
told Napier that if he could catch the pigeons he could have
them. So Napier soaked some peas in brandy, and spread
them in his field for the pigeons to eat. The pigeons ate
them, got drunk, and Napier was able to gather them up in
his hands and put them in bags.

Here is what Napier wrote in 1614 about his discovery of logarithms. This was published in a
Latin text called Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio, and has been translated into English.

Seeing there is nothing (right well-beloved Students some excellent brief rules to be treated of (perhaps)
of the Mathematics) that is so troublesome to hereafter. But amongst all, none more profitable than this
mathematical practice, nor that doth more molest and which together with the hard and tedious multiplications,
hinder calculators, than the multiplications, divisions, divisions, and extractions of roots, doth also cast away
square and cubical extractions of great numbers, which from the work itself even the very numbers themselves
besides the tedious expense of time are for the most that are to be multiplied, divided and resolved into roots,
part subject to many slippery errors, I began therefore and putteth other numbers in their place which perform
to consider in my mind by what certain and ready art as much as they can do, only by addition and subtraction,
I might remove those hindrances. And having thought division by two or division by three.
upon many things to this purpose, I found at length

Logarithms have been used for hundreds Example

of years in multiplication and division Here is a very simple multiplication problem:
problems. Their great advantage is that
they turn a multiplication problem into 2×3
an addition problem, and a division 2, as a power of 10, is 100.3010 – i.e. log(2) = 0.3010.
problem into a subtraction problem. 3, as a power of 10, is 100.4771 – i.e. log(3) = 0.4771.
Here is an example of how logarithms This multiplication problem could be rewritten as:
were used.
100.3010 × 100.4771
= 100.7781 (adding indices)
= 5.999 (4 sf) (using 10x key on a calculator)
 86 Algebra 2.1

Mathematicians had access to special tables of logarithms for these purposes. They also needed
tables called anti-logarithms to convert back from logarithms to ordinary numbers. Nowadays, we
use calculators for multiplication and division.

Formal definition of logarithms

9 If bp = q then logb(q) = p
Index form Log form
b is called the base, p is called the logarithm and q is the number.
We say logb(q) as ‘log of q to base b’.

Example Write a log statement equivalent to Example Solve the equation log3(x) = 2.
34 = 81.
= Answer This equation is equivalent to
= Answer 34 = 81 is the same as log3(81) = 4. 32 = x.
Example Write the statement log2(128) = 7 in i.e. x = 32 = 9
index form. Example Find the value of p when
= Answer log2(128) = 7 is the same as logp(64) = 6.
27 = 128. = Answer logp(64) = 6 is a solution of the
In some cases we can use our knowledge of equation p6 = 64.
powers of numbers to find logarithms of whole- To solve this equation take the
number bases and to solve simple equations. ‘sixth root’ of both sides.
Example Work out: Note: (–2)6 = 64, but p must be
positive (bases of logarithms are
a log5(125) positive numbers) so we take
b log10(100) p = 2, not –2.
= Answer a 5 to what power gives 125?
53 = 125. Therefore,
log5(125) = 3.
b What power of 10 gives 100?
102 = 100. Therefore,
log10(100) = 2.

exercise 9.01
1 Write a log statement equivalent to each of 2 Write the following statements in index form.
these index statements. a 3 = log5(125) b log7(2401) = 4
a 36 = 62 b 125 = 53 c log0.2(0.000 064) = 6 d 5 = log2(32)
c 73 = 343 d (1.2)5 = 2.488 32 e log4(64) = 3 f log2(256) = 8
– 1 1 = 3 –3
e 61 = f g logb(a) = c h q = logr(p)
6 27
–
g 0.001 = 10 3
–
h 5 3 = 0.008 i 8 = log (16) j log ( 25) = 4
2 5
–x
i ab = c j 4 =y
 9 Logarithms 87

3 Find the value of q in each log statement. 7 Write down the value of these logarithms.
a log5(q) = 2 b log3(q) = 4 a log2(8) b log3(81)
c log4(q) = 3 d log10(q) = 2 c log5(25) d log3 (9)
e log2(q) = 5 f log4(q) = 4 e log4(64) f log2(32)
g log7(q) = 1 h log3(q) = 0
8 Find the value of x in each of these
4 Solve these equations. equations.
a log2(x) = 5 b log5(x) = 2
9
a log3(4x) = 5 b log4x(64) = 2
3
c log16 ( x) = d log64 ( x) = 1
2 2 9 Use the properties of surds and indices to
e log 2 ( x) = 8 f log 1 ( x) = − 2 evaluate these logarithms.
−
h log8 ( x) = 2
3
g log 1 ( x) = −4 a log ( 27) b log 1 ( 243)
3
3 3
4
c log 2 (32) d log 1 ( 27)
5 Find the values of p in each log statement. 9
a logp(64) = 3 b logp(25) = 2 e log 1 ( 256) f log3  1 
 27 
c logp(9) = 2 d logp(32) = 5 4
e logp(1000) = 3 f logp(16) = 4 g log  1  h log10(0.0001)
5  125 
g logp(64) = 6 h logp(1) = 0

6 Solve these equations. 10 Solve these equations.

a logp(256) = 4 b logp(125) = 3 a log2(x) = –3
b log10(x) = 0
 1 
c logp(49) = 2 d log p   = 4 c log2(x + 1)3 = 3
 81 
e log p ( 16 ) =
4
f log p ( 27 ) =
3
3 4

g log p  1  = −2 
h log p  1  = 3
−
 25   27  2

Properties of logarithms

Logarithms obey three rules.

1 log(ab) = log(a) + log(b)
When multiplying numbers, add their logarithms.

2 log  a  = log(a) – log(b)

 b
When dividing numbers, subtract their logarithms.

3 log(an) = n log(a)
When raising a number to a power, multiply the logarithm by that power.

TIPSTER
Because these rules apply to logarithms of all
bases, there is no need to write in a base.
 88 Algebra 2.1

Example Simplify log(3) + log(5).

= Answer From rule 1 above,
log(3) + log(5) = log(3 × 5) = log(15)

Example Simplify log(12) – log(2).

= Answer From rule 2 above,
 12 
log(12) – log(2) = log   = log(6)
 2
9
Example Write 3 log(2) as the log of a single number.
= Answer 3 log(2) = log(23) = log(8)

Harder examples involve using more than one property at a time.

Example Simplify 4 log(2) + log(3) – log(48).

= Answer 4 log(2) + log(3) – log(48) = log(24) + log(3) – log(48)
= log(16) + log(3) – log(48)
= log(48) – log(48)
= 0
log(64)
Example Simplify .
log( 4)
log(64) log( 4 3 )
= Answer log( 4)
=
log( 4)
3 log( 4)
=
log( 4)
= 3

exercise 9.02
1 Write the following as the log of a single g log(5) – log(30)
number. h log(7) – log(63)
a log(2) + log(3) i log(4) + log(6) – log(3)
b log(6) + log(8) j log(2) – log(12) + log(6)
c log(4) + log(5) k log(18) – log(9) – log(2)
d log(p) + log(q) l log(54) – (log(6) + log(9))
e log(x) + log(y)
f log(2) + log(5) + log(3) 3 Write the following in terms of log(a), log(b)
g log(4) + log(8) + log(2) and log(c).
h log(6) + log(6) a log(abc) b log  ab 
 c 
 b
2 Write the following as the log of a single c log   d log  1 
number.  ac   abc 
a log(6) – log(3) 4 Write the following as the log of a single
b log(18) – log(2) number.
c log(64) – log(16) a 2 log(5) b 6 log(2)
d log(14) – log(7) c 3 log(5) d 2 log(10)
e log(c) – log(d)
f log(8a) – log(4a)
 9 Logarithms 89

5–7 Simplify the following by writing as the log 10 If log(3) = p, log(4) = q and log(11) = r, find
of a single number. expressions for:
5 a 3 log(4) – 2 log(2) a log(12) b log(132)
b 5 log(2) + 2 log(6)
c 2 log(3) – 3 log(2) c log  11  d log(16)
 4
d 3 log(5) – log(10) + 3 log(2)
e log(99) f log(2)

6 a 1 log(16) b
1 log(27) 9
2 3 11 Simplify.

c 3 log(81)
4
d 1 log 1
3 125 ( ) a
log(36)
log(6)
log(32)
7 a 1 log(25) + 2 log(10) − 3 log(5) b
log( 2)
2
1 log(125)
b 3 log(64) − 5 log(2) + 3 log(4) c
log( 25)
c 2 log(27) + 4 log(64) d
log(7)
3 3 log( 49)
d 3 log(32) − 3 log(16) log(64)
5 4 e
log(32)
e 5 log(4) − 1 log(64)
2 2 3 log(2) + log(4)
f
f
1 log(625) + 2 log(5) + 1 log 1
4 2 100 ( ) g
log(8)
log(5) + 2 log(4) − log(10)
2 log(4) + log(2)
8 Write the following in terms of log(p), log(q)
and log(r).
h
log(3) + 2 log(10) + 1 log 1
2 ( )
144
a log(p2) b log(pq3) 3 log(10) − 3 log(2)
c log ( pqr ) d log( p 2q 3r 4 ) 12 Simplify the following log expressions. You
e log(r p ) f (
log p 2 3 q ) may need to use the properties logx(1) = 0 and
logx(x) = 1.

g log ( p × 4 q × 6
r )  pq 
h log 
 r 
a log5(5)
b 2 log6(6)
 q  p3  c log2(4) + log2(16)
i log   j log  4  1 log ( 27) + log (3)
 pr   q  d
3 3 3

e log4(64) + log4(16) – log4(4096)

9 Use the values log(2) = 0.301 and
log(5) = 0.699, to find: f log7(117 649) – log7(40 353 607) + log7(2401)
a log(10) b log  5  g 2 log 2 (12) − 1 log 2 (16) − log 2 (36)
 2 2
c log(0.4) d log(4) h log3(27) – log3(243)

e log(125) f log(20) i log2(1024) – log2(32 768)

1 log (100) − log (10)
10 10
j 2
log 2 ( 4) + log 2 (32)
 90 Algebra 2.1

13 Solve this equation for x: log(4) + log(x) = log(8)

14 Solve these equations.

a log(x) – log(3) = log(6)
b 2 log(x) – log(4) = log(9)
c log(x – 4) = log(x) – log(4)

9
Index equations
Logarithms can be used to solve ‘index’ equations; these equations have x in the exponent or index.
The approach is to take logarithms of both sides.
Example Solve the equation 2x = 17.
TIPSTER
= Answer 2 x = 17
log(2 x ) = log(17) Note that the 4.087 here
was calculated using the full
x log(2) = log(17)
calculator values for log(17) and
log(17) 1 . 2304 log(2). But if 1.2304 is divided
x = = = 4.087
log(2) 0.3010 by 0.3010, then the result is
4.088. This shows that it is
Example Evaluate log4(32).
best not to round an answer
= Answer Let x = log4(32). until the end of a problem.
x
This is equivalent to solving the equation 4 = 32.
4 x = 32
log(4 x ) = log(32) (taking logs of both sid
des)
x log(4) = log(32)
log(32) log(2 5 ) 5 log(2)
x = = = = 5
log(4) 2
log(2 ) 2 log(2) 2
Alternatively, log(32) ÷ log(4) = 2.5 on a calculator.
i.e. log4(32) = 5
2

exercise 9.03
1 Solve these equations. Give answers to 4 sf.
a 3n = 12 b 5x = 3 e log0.1  1  f log 1 (81)
 100 
3
c 2y = 6.4 d 3x = 2.3 g log (16) h log 1 (64)
1
e 8x = 92 f 5x = 28 2 4
y
g 2 = 10 h 3x = 18.5 i log10(0.1) j log7(1)
i 7y = 24 j 6x = 256
3 Solve these index equations. Give answers to
2 Evaluate these logarithms. 4 sf.
a 2 x + 1 = 39 b 3 x − 5 = 18
a log2(8) b log2(32)
c 7 2 x + 3 = 60 d 13 4x − 5 = 6
c log5(125) d log7(49)
 9 Logarithms 91

4 Evaluate these logarithms, correct to 4 sf. 6 Solve these index equations. Give answers to
a log3(5) b log2(6) 4 sf.
c log0.1(18) d log29(42) a 4x × 5x = 60
b 23x × 45x = 120
5 Solve the equation 53x = 0.04. c 2x + 1 × 3x = 68

9
Applications of index equations

STARTER
Moore’s Law roughly states that computing power
doubles every 18 months. Specifically, the law refers to the
number of transistors on a computer chip. For example,
the number of transistors on the fastest available micro-
processor could increase from 8 million to 16 million in
18 months.
1 Assuming Moore’s Law holds, how long does it take
for the number of transistors to quadruple?
One year is 2 of 18 months. This means that in one year
3
2
the number of transistors increases by a factor of 2 3 .
2
2 Evaluate 2 3 correct to 4 sf.

Example Moore’s Law (see Starter box) can also be expressed as an index equation:
Number in the future = number now × 1.6t, where t is the number of years from now.
Solve the equation 1.6t = 10. Explain what the solution represents in the context of
Moore’s Law.

= Answer (1.6)t = 10
log(1.6t ) = log(10)
t log(1.6) = log(10)
log(10)
t = = 4.899 (4 sf)
log(1.6)
It will take 4.9 years (i.e. slightly less than 5 years) for the number of transistors to be
10 times the number now.
 92 Algebra 2.1

exercise 9.04
1 Blood donors are not supposed to give blood 5 The profit at a lunch bar has been increasing
within a certain period after taking aspirin. at a steady 12% per year. This year the profit
Suppose a typical dose of aspirin is 325 mg was $85 000. How many years will it take for
and that the Blood Service requires that this the profit to exceed $400 000?
drop to 5 mg before a donation can be given.
9 The level of aspirin drops by 20% each hour 6 200 mL of a chemical solution is poured into
– that is, at the end of an hour the level is a beaker. The solution evaporates so that at
80% of the level at the beginning of the hour. the end of each day the amount remaining
Solve the equation 325 × (0.8)t = 5 to in the beaker is 92% of the amount present
calculate the time period required before at the beginning of the day. How many days
a patient can donate blood after taking a does it take for the amount of solution to
typical 325 mg dose of aspirin. drop to less than 15 mL?

2 The population of a colony of Argentine 7 A new ATM (automatic teller machine) was
ants, under ideal conditions, doubles every installed in a shopping mall. The bank that
10 days. Solve the equation 2n = 50 to work owned the ATM observed that a reasonable
out how many 10-day periods it takes for model for its use was as follows:
the population to be 50 times as large as it
‘The amount of cash withdrawn each month
is now. Hence write down this time to the
is 8% higher than the amount withdrawn in
nearest day.
the previous month’
3 A patient takes 500 mg of a prescribed drug. The bank has a policy of adding a second
At the end of each hour the concentration ATM when the amount of cash withdrawn
of the drug in the bloodstream is 85% of in a month exceeds $500 000. In the first
what it was at the beginning of the hour. The month a total of $115 820 was withdrawn.
patient needs to take a second dose when How many months does it take before a
the concentration reaches 120 mg. second ATM is needed?
a Solve the equation 500 × (0.85)t = 120 to
calculate the time interval between the
first dose and the second dose.
b What will be the concentration of the
drug in the bloodstream if the patient
takes the second dose as soon as the time
interval in part a is finished?
c For how long should the patient wait
before taking a third dose?

4 A sponge is rinsed under a tap and then

squeezed to remove detergent. The process
is then repeated, so that each time 75% of
the detergent is removed and 25% remains.
Originally there was 12 mL of detergent,
and it will be sufficiently removed when
there is less than 0.02 mL. By solving the
equation 12 × (0.25)n = 0.02, calculate how
many times the sponge needs to be rinsed to
remove the detergent sufficiently.
 9 Logarithms 93

8 The prototype for a marine engine has 9 When the top is left off a highlighter there is
a fuel consumption (f), measured in some evaporation as the ink in the highlighter
litres/h, that increases by about 12% dries out. If 5% of the ink evaporates each hour,
for every 5 km/h increase in speed calculate the time taken for the ink level to fall
(v) over a certain range of speeds. from 7.5 mL to 6.5 mL.
The relationship between the fuel
consumption and v is given by the 10 Before the Smokefree Environments Act was
formula f = 6.5(1.023)v − 4 . passed in 2004, people were allowed to smoke 9
Use the formula to write down and in enclosed bars and clubs. One particular
solve an equation to estimate, to the bar had a smoke extractor that was capable
nearest km/h, the speed at which the of removing 40% of the smoke in the bar each
fuel consumption is 12 litres/h. minute, assuming the bar was empty and the
smokers had left. How many minutes would
the extractor take until 99.99% of the smoke
had been removed?

(There are further applications of index equations in Chapter 28: Growth and decay.)
94 Algebra 2.1

NCEA 2.1 Revision exercises

▼

1 Expand and/or simplify. 7 The demand for oil in a certain country is

a (2x – 3)(x2 + 4x – 1) increasing by a steady rate of 6% per year.
This year the demand is 450 million bbl per
b x − 22 x − 15
2
ACH year. Solve the equation 450 × (1.06)n = 1000 to
x −9
1 calculate how many years it will take for
 25x 6  2 the demand to increase to 1000 million bbl
2 Simplify   . ACH
 4  per year. MRT

3 Write log(20) + log(20) as log of a 8 The cost of making items often depends on how
single number. ACH many items are made. A manufacturer of beach
umbrellas uses this formula to estimate the cost
4 Solve these equations. of making each umbrella:
a 3x(2x + 1)(x – 5) = 0 Cost in dollars = C = 25n + 230
b logx(343)=3 n+4
c 4(2x – 1) = 16 – 3x ACH a What number of umbrellas should be
made so that the cost of making each
one is $27? MRT
5 Use the quadratic formula to solve the
equation 5x2 + 7x – 3 = 0. MRT b Is it possible to make one of these
umbrellas for $20? Explain by writing
6 A hotel has a mixture of single rooms which sleep down an equation, solving it, and
one person, and double rooms which sleep two interpreting your answer. EXC
people.
9 A busy parent wants to heat up two shrink-
wrapped TV dinners. One goes in the oven, and
Type of room Tariff the other is put into a saucepan of hot water at
Single $90 the same time.

Double $120 • The formula y = 4t gives the temperature of

the meal in the oven.
–
1200
a The hotel has 40 rooms altogether. When the • The formula y = + 100 gives the
t + 12
hotel is full it sleeps 63 people. How many temperature of the meal in the hot water.
rooms are single and how many are double? y represents the temperature in °C and t is
b One night there are 25 rooms occupied. the time in minutes since the start of heating.
Altogether the guests have paid $2520. For how many minutes is the meal in the
Assuming that there are two people saucepan warmer than the meal in the oven? EXC
in each double room, how many
guests are there altogether? MRT 10 Determine the value(s) of p for which one
root of the equation x2 – 12x + p = 0 is 2 more
than the other root. EXC
 95

2.2 Non-linear graphs

Draw and interpret straightforward non-linear graphs

Contents
10 Factored polynomials and their graphs 96 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs 130
Parabolas 96 Exponential curves 131
Properties of parabolas 97 Decay curves 132
Parabolas in factorised form 100 Features of exponential graphs 133
Applications of parabolas 101 Changes of scale – the form y = b × a x 134
Cubics 104 Applications of exponential graphs 136
Cubics in factorised form 104 Logarithmic graphs 139
Logarithmic functions where the base is
not 10 141
11 Hyperbolas and circles 109
Simple hyperbolas 110
Translations of the hyperbola 113 13 Transformations of graphs and modelling 144
Finding the equation of the hyperbola General transformations of graphs 145
given the graph 117 Translations 146
Circles 121 Changes of scale 149
Circles with centres elsewhere than the Reflections 151
origin 124 Several transformations at once 152
Modelling 126 Interpreting features of models with
exponential and logarithmic graphs 154

NCEA 2.2 Revision exercises 158

 10
Factored polynomials and
their graphs
10

STARTER
1 Make a drawing to show what a slice (or
cross-section) of this satellite dish across its
widest part would look like.
2 Give the mathematical name for the shape
you have drawn.
3 Can you explain why this kind of shape is
used for satellite dishes?

In this chapter we cover the graphs of parabolas and cubics.

Parabolas
Quadratic functions are polynomials where the highest power of x is x2. They always have graphs
called parabolas.
You can use graphing software or a spreadsheet to draw parabolas, or the equation
often gives you information that gives the position and shape of the parabola.

Example Use spreadsheet software to draw the graph of y = x2 – 3x + 2.

= Answer The spreadsheet makes the calculations and gives some points on the curve:
(–1, 6), (0, 2), (1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 2), (4, 6). The Chart Wizard then joins these up with a
smooth curve.

TIPSTER
This approach substitutes x-values near 0 into the parabola equation to calculate the corresponding
y-values. This gives x- and y-co-ordinates of points on the curve, and these are plotted on a graph.
For example, for x = –1, y = (–1)2 – 3(–1) + 2 = 1 + 3 + 2 = 6. That means (–1, 6) is a point on the graph.
 10 Factored polynomials and their graphs 97

10

Properties of parabolas

1 y = x2 y 3 y = ax 2
The basic parabola is the Numbers in front of the x2 alter the steepness
one for y = x2 drawn here. of the parabola. Two examples are y = 2x2 and
Any other parabola will 2
relate to this one in some y = x or 1 x 2 .
3 3
way.
x y
y
y= 2x2

y = 13 x2
2 y = –x 2 y
x x
If there is a minus sign in
front of the x2 term, the x
parabola will be inverted
(upside-down). The basic
example is the graph of
y = –x2.
 98 Non-linear graphs 2.2

4 y = x 2 ± c (c > 0)
Adding or subtracting a number from x2 moves the basic parabola up or down.

y y
y
3

y = x2 + 2 x
2
–4 y= x2 –4
10 x y = 3 – x2

5 y = (x ± c ) 2 (c > 0)
Adding or subtracting a number to or from x before squaring (i.e. in brackets) moves the basic
parabola sideways. Adding moves the basic parabola to the left, and subtracting moves it to the
right. Always check by substituting the x-value of the vertex (bottom point). You should get 0.

y y y

y = (x + 4)2 3
x

y = (x – 2)2
y = –(x – 3)2
x –4 x
2

6 y = (x ± c ) 2 ± d
y
The types mentioned in 4 and 5 above can both occur together.
Example Draw the graph of y = (x – 1)2 + 2.
= Answer This will be a basic parabola shifted 1 to the right, and then moved
upward 2 units. The vertex of the parabola is at the point (1, 2).
2

1 x

exercise 10.01
1 Draw graphs of these quadratic functions. e y = x2 + 5 f y = (x – 3)2
x2 g y = 6 – x2 h y = –(x + 2)2
a y = 2x2 b y =
4 i y = –(x – 1)2 j y = –x2 + 3
− x2
–
c y = 3x 2 d y =
2
3 Draw graphs of these quadratic functions.
2 Draw graphs of these quadratic functions. Label the vertex of each graph.
a y = x2 + 2 b y = (x – 4)2 a y = (x – 3)2 + 2 b y = (x + 4)2 + 5
c y = x2 – 1 d y = (x + 1)2 2
c y = (x + 2) – 1 d y = (x – 1)2 – 4
 10 Factored polynomials and their graphs 99

e y = (x + 2)2 + 6 f y = –(x – 3)2 + 5 i y

g y = –(x + 2)2 – 1 h y = –(x + 1)2 + 3
–2 x
i y = –3 – (x + 4)2 j y = 6 – (x – 5)2
–2
4 The parabolas drawn below are similar to
the graph of y = x2. Write down the equation
for each one.
a b
y
y 5 Describe the transformation of the basic
parabola y = x2 needed to obtain the graph
of these quadratic functions. Use language 10
from the list {up, down, left, right, upside-
down}.
1 a y = x2 – 5
–3 x
b y = –x2
x
c y = (x + 12)2
d y = –x2 + 8
c d e y = (x – 10)2 + 2
y f y = –(x + 3)2 – 17
y
6 (Multichoice) Which graph shows
f (x) = (x – 4)2 + 3?
x
(A) (B)
y y
–3 x 3
4
3
–4 x
e f
4 x
y y
1
(C) y (D)
2 x
x y

–4 x
3
–3

g h –4 x
y y
(E)
y

1 3
4 x
x –1
–1
4 x
 100 Non-linear graphs 2.2

Parabolas in factorised form

When a quadratic function is supplied already factorised it is particularly easy to work out the
intercepts. The parabola will have one or two x-intercepts, and one y-intercept.
• The x-intercepts are the one or two numbers that make the expressions in the brackets equal to 0.
• The y-intercept is the constant term when the brackets are expanded (multiplied out).
Alternatively, substitute x = 0 and work out y.
• The vertex (bottom point) of the parabola will have its x-co-ordinate exactly half-way between the
x-intercepts. To calculate the y-co-ordinate of the vertex, substitute the x-value into the quadratic.

Example Draw the graph of y = (x + 1)(x – 3). y

10
= Answer x-intercepts are at –1 and 3.
3
Expand (x + 1)(x – 3) to get x2 – 2x – 3. –1 x
1
The y-intercept is at –3.
The vertex is half-way between –1 and 3, i.e. at x = 1.
–3
The y-co-ordinate of the vertex is at
–4
y = (1 + 1)(1 – 3) = 2 × –2 = –4.

Example Draw the graph of y = x(2 – x). y

= Answer x-intercepts are at 0 and 2. 1

The y-intercept is found by putting x = 0 to get 0(2 – 0) = 0.
1 2 x
The vertex is half-way between 0 and 2, i.e. at x = 1.
The y-co-ordinate of the vertex is y = 1(2 – 1) = 1.
Note: the parabola is upside-down. This is to be expected –
when expanded, it starts with –x2.

exercise 10.02
1–24 Draw the graphs of these quadratic functions, labelling the intercepts on the x- and y-axes.
Label the vertex for each parabola.

1 y = (x + 2)(x – 4) 9 y = (x + 3)(3 – x) 17 y = x(x + 4)

2 y = (x – 3)(x + 1) 10 y = (x + 3)2 18 y = x(x – 5)
3 y = (x – 2)(x + 4) 11 y = (x – 4)2 19 y = x(3 – x)
4 y = (x + 1)(x + 5) 12 y = (x + 1)2 20 y = x(2x + 3)
5 y = (x – 1)(x + 2) 13 y = (3 – x)2 21 y = x(4 – 3x)
6 y = (x + 2)(x – 2) 14 y = (x – 5)2 22 y = (x + 3)(2x – 1)
7 y = (x – 3)(x – 2) 15 y = –(x + 2)2 23 y = –x(x + 3)
8 y = (2 – x)(x + 1) 16 y = –(x – 4)2 24 y = –x(1 – x)
 10 Factored polynomials and their graphs 101

25 Write down the equation, in factorised form, g h

for each of the parabolas drawn below. y y
Assume each graph is similar to y = x2.
a b
y y

–1 4 x –4 5 x
–2 2 x
–4
6 x

i
y 10

c d
y y
–6 –3 x

4x
3 6 x
26 Write down the equation of this parabola
when it is known that A is the point (–3, 0),
B is the point (1, 0) and C is the point (0, –3).
e f
y y y

A B
–2 x 2 5 x –3 1 x

C –3

Applications of parabolas
exercise 10.03
1 A curtain rod is 3 m long. It is supported at A parabola makes a good model for the
each end, but has no support in the middle relationship between the distance (x) in
and has therefore developed a sag. metres from one end of the rod and the sag,
or distance (y), in centimetres of the curtain
y rod from the true horizontal. The equation
of the model is y = x(x – 3).
Distance

True horizontal
a Draw the graph of y = x(x – 3) twice.
x
Curtain rod
i Where all values are possible.
ii For values that are suitable in this
situation.
 102 Non-linear graphs 2.2

b Write down the co-ordinates of both 3 A parabola makes a good model for the
x-intercepts. path of a golf ball. When a golfer hits the
c When x = 1 the value of y is –2. Explain ball from a tee at the top of a small hillock
what these values represent in this towards the green, the ball’s height above
situation. What is the significance of the the green is given by the equation
negative sign? y = 4 + 19x – 5x2, where y is the height in
d Write down the co-ordinates of the vertex metres above the green and x is the time in
of the parabola given by y = x(x – 3). seconds after the ball is hit.
e Explain what the answer to part d y
represents in this situation.
10 2 The photo shows the entrance to the Canary
Wharf Underground station in London. The
height above the ground of the first curved
girder can be modelled by a parabola. If we
take the origin (0, 0) as being the point on
the left where the girder meets the ground, 0 x
then the equation of the parabola is
2 a Copy and complete this table of values to
y = 1 x(40 − x) or y = 4x − x , where x
50 5 50 show the height of the golf ball at various
and y are both in metres. times.

Time in seconds (x) 0 1 2 3 4

Height in metres (y)

b What is the difference in height between

the tee and the green?
c Show that when (1 + 5x)(4 – x) is
expanded it gives 4 + 19x – 5x2.
d Draw the graph of y = (1 + 5x)(4 – x).
Label both x-intercepts and the
y-intercept.
e What values of x would be appropriate
for the graph of the path of the golf ball?
a Draw the graph of y = 4x − x .
2 f Use your answers to parts d and e to
5 50 draw a graph for the path of the golf ball.
Use an appropriate scale on each g Calculate the maximum height that the
axis. You could use graphing golf ball reaches:
software or other technology to
i above the green
help with this.
ii above the hill.
b What is the width of the entrance at
ground level?
c What is the height of the girder above the
ground at the highest point?
d It is possible to model the curve of the
girder differently. What would be the
equation if the origin (0, 0) was taken to
be the midpoint of the entrance at ground
level?
 10 Factored polynomials and their graphs 103

4 A manufacturer sells a round plastic pet-

food bowl. It has straight sloping edges, Rim Rim

Height (cm)
and a curved indentation in the middle. The
d
diagram, not drawn to scale, shows a side
view.
If we take the position of the left end as
being at the origin then we can model the
outline of the bowl with three equations. In 3 Floor 13
each equation x and y represent measurements Distance from edge (cm)
in centimetres.
(1) y = 2x (for values of x between 0 and 3)
1 10
(2) y = ( x − 8 ) + 1 (for values of x between 3 and 13)
2
5
(3) y = px + q (for values of x between 13 and r)
a What is the distance across the bowl at floor level?
b What is the height of the rim above the floor?
c Calculate d, the maximum depth of the inside of the bowl.
d What is the equation of (3)? – that is, find the values of p and q, and give the value of r.
e The manufacturer decides to reduce the depth of the bowl to 4 cm, while keeping all other
measurements the same. Determine the equation (2) required to give this result.

5–6 Use a spreadsheet or graphing software/graphics calculator to help solve these

questions.
5 The operators of a toll road need to set a toll 6 A diver plunges down from a springboard
to charge users. They can set the toll at any into a pool that is 5 m deep. It takes the
amount, but want to make as much money as diver 12 seconds from jumping off the
possible. If the toll is too low, too many cars springboard until reaching the side of the
will use the road for very little income and pool. The height (in metres) of the diver
the operators will still have expenses; and if above the water (after t seconds) can be
the toll is too high, few people will use the modelled by three rules.
road. The estimated profit or loss depends (1) h = 19.6 – 4.9t2 (when above the
on the toll, t, and can be modelled by the water)
equation:
(2) h = t2 – 7.5t + 11 (when below the
–

10( 2)
Profit = 1 t − 1 ( t − 3 )
(3) h = 0
water)
(when swimming to
where the profit is in millions of dollars and the side)
the toll for users is in dollars.
a Draw a graph of all three rules on the
a Draw the graph of this equation, with the
same sheet.
toll on the horizontal axis and profit/loss
on the vertical axis. b What is the value of the y-intercept?
Explain what it represents in this
b What is the value of the y-intercept?
situation.
Explain what it represents in this situation.
c For how long is the diver below the
c What are the values of the two
water?
x-intercepts? Explain what information
they give. d After the diver reaches the surface, how
long does it take to swim to the side?
d Investigate to find a toll that you would
recommend to the operators. Explain your e What is the closest the diver gets to the
reasoning. bottom of the pool?
 104 Non-linear graphs 2.2

Cubics
A cubic is a polynomial with x3 as its highest power of x. In graph questions it will usually be given
to you in factorised form – in general as:
y = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c)
There are three factors. This means that if the factors are all different, the graph of the cubic will cross
the x-axis in three places.

The basic cubic y = x 3 y

10 The graph of y = x3 should be learned, but is not particularly helpful for

drawing other cubics unless all three factors are the same.

Example Draw the graph of y = (x – 1)3. Example Draw the graph of y = x3 + 2.

= Answer The graph is the y = Answer The graph is the y
same as the basic same as the basic
cubic but moved cubic but moved
1 unit to the right. 2 units upwards.
2
1 x
x

Cubics in factorised form

First note that:
• if the equation starts with x3 when expanded, the general trend is for the graph
to go up from left to right,
• if the equation starts with –x3, the graph will trend down from left to right.
x3… – x3 …

The factors of the cubic give us the x-intercepts.

They are the three numbers that result when the
expressions inside each bracket are equated to 0.
Upward trend Downward trend The y-intercept is the number that results when
Up–Down–Up Down–Up–down 0 is substituted into the cubic instead of x.
 10 Factored polynomials and their graphs 105

Example Draw the graph of the cubic y = (x + 1)(x – 1)(x – 2).

= Answer x-intercepts are –1, 1 and 2.
y-intercept is:
y = (0 + 1)(0 – 1)(0 – 2)
= 1 × –1 × –2
=2
Plot these points, and impose the up-down-up pattern on them to obtain a smooth
curve.
y y
2× 2 10

× × × –1
–1 1 2 x 1 2 x

Up–Down–Up

Pattern + Points = Graph

Two special cases

1 If one factor is x, the cubic passes through the 2 If one factor is repeated, the graph of the
origin (0, 0). cubic touches the x-axis instead of cleanly
Example Draw the graph of cutting through. The repeated factor may be
y = x(2x + 1)(1 – x). written twice, or may be a squared bracket.
= Answer x-intercepts are given by: Example Draw the graph of
y = (x – 2)2 (x + 1).
x=0 2x + 1 = 0 1− x = 0
2x = – 1 –x = –1 = Answer x-intercepts are at 2 (twice) and –1.
– x = 1 y-intercept is at
x = 1 (0 – 2)2 (0 + 1) = 4 × 1 = 4.
2
If expanded the cubic would start
The three x-intercepts are { 21 , 0, 1} .
–

with x3. So, the general trend is

The y-intercept is upwards from left to right.
0 × (2[0] + 1) × (1 – 0) = 0 × 1 × 1 = 0. y
Note: if this cubic was expanded, it 4
would start with –2x3. So, the general
trend is downwards from left to right.
y
–1 2 x

–1
1 x TIPSTER
2
You don’t have to draw these graphs extremely accurately
and exactly to scale. What is important is to represent
the shape and to label the intercepts correctly.
 106 Non-linear graphs 2.2

exercise 10.04
1 Draw the graphs for each of these cubics, 5 Write down the co-ordinates of the
labelling the intercepts on the x- and y-axes. y-intercept for each of these cubics. You do
a y = x3 not have to draw the cubic.
b y = –x3 a y = x3 – 4
c y = (x – 2)3 b y = x3 + 3
d y = (x + 1)3 c y = (x – 2)3
e y = –(x – 3)3 d y = (x + 4)3
f y = –(x + 2)3 e y = (x – 3)(x + 2)(x – 1)
10 f y = (x + 2)(x – 5)(x + 1)
2 Draw the graphs of these cubics. g y = x(x – 4)(x – 6)
a y = x3 + 4
b y = x3 – 3 6 Each of the cubics below is given in
factorised form. Draw each one, labelling
3 Match each graph a to d with the correct intercepts on the x- and y-axes.
equation (A) to (D). a y = (x + 1)(x – 2)(x + 3)
b y = (x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 2)
a y b y c y = (x + 5)(x – 1)(x + 1)
1 1 d y = (x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 3)
e y = (x + 2)(x – 2)(x – 1)
–1 x –1 x
f y = x(x + 2)(x – 4)
g y = x(x – 2)(x – 5)
h y = x(x – 4)(x + 1)
i y = (2 – x)(2 + x)(1 + x)
c y d y
j y = (x + 3)(x + 1)(1 – x)
k y = (x + 4)(1 – x)(1 + x)
l y = –(x – 1)(x + 3)(x + 1)
1 x 1 x
–1 –1 m y = –(x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 2)
n y = –x(4 – x)(1 + x)
o y = –x(2 – x)(2 + x)

(A) y = (x – 1)3 7 Each of the cubics below has a repeated

(B) y = x3 + 1 factor. Draw each one, labelling intercepts
(C) y = (x + 1)3 on the x- and y-axes.
(D) y = x3 – 1 a y = (x + 2)2(x – 1)
b y = (x + 3)(x + 1)2
4 Work out where these cubics cross the x-axis. c y = (x + 1)(x – 3)2
You do not have to draw them. Each one has d y = (1 – x)(x + 2)2
three intercepts. e y = (x – 2)2(x + 1)
a y = (x – 6)(x + 1)(x – 1) f y = (x + 1)2(2 – x)
b y = (x – 5)(x + 4)(x – 3) g y = (3 – x)(x – 1)2
c y = (x – 1)(x – 4)(x + 2) h y = (2 – x)(1 + x)2
d y = x(x + 2)(x – 3) i y = –(x – 2)2(x + 3)
j y = –(1 + x)2(4 – x)
k y = x(x – 3)2
 10 Factored polynomials and their graphs 107

l y = –x(x + 2)2 g y h
y
m y = x2(x – 1) 4
n y = x2(x + 4)
–2 x
o y = x2(2 – x) 1

–2
8 Write down the equation, in factorised form,
for each of the cubics drawn below. –1 2 x
a y b y
i y
2

–3 4 x
10
–1 2 x
–1 1 2 x

–6

9 (Multichoice) If (x + 2)(x – 5)2 ≥ 0, then which

c y d must be true?
y
(A) x ≥ –2
(B) x ≥ 2
–2 3 (C) x ≤ 5
x –1 1 2 x
(D) –2 ≤ x ≤ 5
2 (E) x ≥ 5 or x ≤ –2

10 Draw the graph of y = x3 – 4. Use a calculator

to determine the x-intercept correct to 4 sf.

e f y
y
6

–2 4 x –3 –2 –1
x
 108 Non-linear graphs 2.2

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
The roller-coaster
Part of a roller-coaster ride can be modelled
by a cubic expression. The height (h) above
the ground in metres is approximately:
h = 1 (x – 20)(x – 60)(x – 80) + 10,
1000
where x is the distance from the start of
10 the ride (in metres). This formula holds for
values of x from 30 to 75.
Set up a spreadsheet with headings as
shown below. The values for the distance
from the start should go from 30 to 75. To
calculate the height of the roller-coaster ride
use the expression given above which in a
spreadsheet should be entered as:
=0.001*(A2-20)*(A2-60)*(A2-80)+10
Copy the height formula downwards.

1 Produce the spreadsheet showing the distances from the start (30 to 75) in column A, and
the heights of the ride in column B.
2 Draw a graph to show the ride over this section (30 to 75 m).
3 What is the maximum height of the ride?
4 When is the ride at its lowest point?
5 At what distance from the start is the roller-coaster ride at its steepest?
6 Explain how the table of values in column B shows where the ride is steepest.
 11
Hyperbolas and circles

11
We explore the properties of several mathematical relations in this chapter. Many of these relations
can be plotted directly as a graph by evaluating them on a calculator, or by using graphing software.
However, it is also important to understand the effect that different numbers have on the shape and
position of the graphs.

STARTER
Check-out queues
Twelve customers are waiting to have their
groceries scanned at a supermarket. The
supermarket has several cash registers, but
they are not all open. If, for example, there
were six cash registers open, there would be
two customers waiting at each one.

1 Copy and complete this table.

Number of cash Number of people 2 Plot the points from the table on
registers open (x) in the queue (y) a graph like the one below and
join them with a smooth curve.
12
6 2 y
12
Number of people in each queue

4
3 10
2
8
1
6

3 What do you notice about each pair of numbers 4

in the table?
2 ×

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
Number of cash registers open
 110 Non-linear graphs 2.2

Simple hyperbolas
Any mathematical relation where x × y = number has a graph called a hyperbola.
Examples xy = 6 xy = 1 xy = –12 etc.

In general, the equation of a hyperbola is:

xy = k

All the points where the x-value and y-value multiply to the given number k lie on the hyperbola
graph.
11
Example Draw the graph of xy = 6 by plotting points and joining them with a smooth curve.
= Answer First write down all the pairs of numbers that multiply to give 6. Some will be
negative.

x y x y
y
1 6 –1 –6 6 ×
2 3 –2 –3
4 xy = 6
–3 –2
×
3 2 2 ×
–6 –1 ×
6 1
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 x

×
–2

×
Note: there are other pairs of numbers which are not

×
–4
integers – e.g. 5 and 1.2, or 0.5 and 12, etc.
Graphing these points, we get two distinct branches. ×–6

TIPSTER
Hyperbolas always have two branches. You must
draw both of them unless the context of the
question means some values can be excluded.

Important points about hyperbolas

1 All hyperbolas have two distinct 3 An alternative way of writing the equation
branches. The graph of a hyperbola is not for a hyperbola is to make y the subject.
continuous. xy = k is equivalent to y = k .
x
2 The branches of a hyperbola get very close Example
to the x- and y-axes, without ever actually
xy = 4 is equivalent to y = 4 .
touching these lines. A line that a graph x
gets very close to for extreme values is 4 When x and y multiply to a negative
called an asymptote. Asymptotes are not number, the hyperbola still has two
part of the graph itself, but are drawn in as branches but they are in the other two
an indication only. quarters of the diagram.
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 111

Example Draw the graph of xy = –2.

= Answer y

xy = –2
2

×
×
–2 2
× x

–2 ×
11

exercise 11.01
1 Copy and complete this table, and then 3 Draw the graphs of these hyperbolas.
join the points on a graph with two smooth a xy = 2 b xy = 4
branches of a curve. c xy = –12 d xy = –9

x xy = 8, i.e. y = 8 4 Draw the graphs of these hyperbolas.

x 5 − 10
8 a y = b y =
x x
4 2
2 5 Match each graph a to d with the correct
1 equation (A) to (D).
–1
a y b
–2 y
–4
–8 –1
x x
2 Copy and complete this table, and then
join the points on a graph with two smooth
branches of a curve. c y d y

−
x xy = –6, i.e. y = 6
x x x
6
3 –2

2 −6
(A) xy = 6 (B) y =
1 x
–1
(C) y = 1 (D) xy = –1
–2 x
–3
–6 1
 112 Non-linear graphs 2.2

6 Draw the graphs of these hyperbolas. 12 These two rectangles both have an area of
− 11
20 square units.
a y = 3 b y =
2x 2x
7 Draw the graphs of the line y = x and the 2
5
hyperbola xy = 4 on the same set of axes. 10
Write down the co-ordinates of the two
4
points where they intersect.
Draw a set of axes with values from 0 to 20
8 A youth group you belong to is selling bags as shown.
of sweets as a fundraiser. Your task is to
y
11 raise $12 exactly. The number you have to
20
sell to raise this amount of money depends
on the price you charge. Let x be the price in 18
dollars you charge for each bag and y be the 16
number of bags sold. 14
12
a How many bags would you have to sell
10
if you charged $4 for each one?
8
b If you sold 24 bags, what would you 6
charge for each one? 4
c Explain, with an equation linking x and 2
y, what the relationship is between the 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 x
number sold and the price.
d If you decrease the price of each bag,
what happens to the number that you a Draw a rectangle measuring 10 units (x)
have to sell? by 2 units (y) with its bottom left corner at
the origin (0, 0).
e Draw a graph that shows the
relationship. b On the same set of axes, draw a rectangle
measuring 4 units (x) by 5 units (y) with
9 Draw the graphs of the line y = 3x + 3 and its bottom left corner at the same point – i.e.
the origin (0, 0).
the hyperbola y = 6 on the same set of axes.
x c Add four more rectangles to the same
Write down the co-ordinates of the two diagram, each with an area of 20 square
points where they intersect. units, and each with its bottom left corner
at (0, 0).
10 Draw the graphs of xy = –12 and y = x – 7
d What is the locus of the top right corner of
on the same set of axes. Write down the
these rectangles?
co-ordinates of the two points where they
intersect. e Explain why the curve through the top
right corners will never touch the y-axis.
11 Write down the equations of these simple
hyperbolas.
a y b y c y
× (1, 4)
× (1, 3)
(–1, 1)
×
×

(–3, –1) x × (1, –1) x x

×

(–2, –2)
×
×
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 113

Translations of the hyperbola

Vertical translations
y y ×
Consider the hyperbola given by y = 8 + 2. 8 × 8
x 8
After dividing 8 by x, the result has 2 added to it. 8 ×y= +2
y= x x
4 × 4 ×
× ×
This moves each y-value up by 2 compared with ×
–8 –4 × ×

×
the graph of y = 8 .

×
×
4 8x –8 –4 4 8x

×
x

×
×

×
Important note: the horizontal asymptote has also –4 –4

×
moved up by 2, i.e. the equation of the 11

×
horizontal asymptote is y = 2. –8 –8

×
In general, the graph of y = k + a is the same shape as the graph of y = k but moved up by a units.
x x
–
Example Draw the graph of y = 4 − 3. Write down the co-ordinates of the x-intercept.
x –4
= Answer This has a graph the same shape as y =
x
but moved down 3 units.
To calculate the x-intercept substitute y = 0.
− y y
0= 4−3 × 2
–
y= 4 –3
x 4
y=
–4 x
−4 × x –4 –2 ×
3= × ×
x 2 4x
× × ×
2
3x = 4−
× – × 2
−4 1 –4 –2 2 4x
x = or −1
×

3 3
×

–2 –4

×
×

×
The x-intercept is  − 1 1 , 0  .

×
 3  –4

×
×

Horizontal translations
Consider the hyperbola given by y = 8 . Here is the graph, with the graph of y = 8 as a
x+1 x
The effect of adding on 1 before dividing into comparison.
8 is not immediately obvious, so we will y y
investigate the properties of this graph by 8 × 8× 8
y=
plotting points. y= 8 x–1
4 × x 4 ×
8 –8 –4 × × –8 –4 × ×
x y = × ×
x+1
4 8x 4 8x
×
×
×

–5 –2
×

–3 –4 –4 –4
×
×

–2 –8
–8 –8
×
×

–1 undefined
0 8
1 4
It should be clear that the graph of y = 8 has
x
3 2 been moved 1 unit to the left. Note that y = 8
x+1
7 1 is undefined when x = –1. This is what we would
expect, because there is an asymptote when x = –1.
 114 Non-linear graphs 2.2

TIPSTER
This property, of having an asymptote for the value of x which makes the
denominator 0, is very useful when drawing the graphs of hyperbolas.

In general, the graph of y = k (b > 0) is the same shape as the graph of y = k but:
x±b x
• moved to the left by b units if the denominator is x + b,
11 • moved to the right by b units if the denominator is x – b.

–4
Example Draw the graph of y =
x−2
. State Example Draw the graph of y = 12 . State
x+4
the equations of both asymptotes the equations of both asymptotes
and write down the co-ordinates of and give the co-ordinates of any
the y-intercept. intercepts.
= Answer This graph is the same as the
–
= Answer This graph is the same as the
graph of y = 4 , but moved graph of y = 12 , but moved
x x
2 units to the right. 4 units to the left.
y y y y
×4 –4 4 × 12 × × 12
×
y= ×
x –4
y = 12
y= 8 y = 12 8
× 2 2× x–2 × x x+4 ×
× × × × 4 × 4
–12 –8 –4 × –16 –12 –8 –4 ×
× ×
–4 –2 2 4x –2 2 4 6x 4 8 12 x 8x
×

4
×
×

×
–4 –4
×
×

×
×

–2 –2
×

–8 –8
×

×
× ×

× ×

–4 –4 –12 –12
×

The asymptotes to the graph of The asymptotes to the graph of

–4
y = are y = 0 (the horizontal y = 12 are y = 0 (the horizontal
x−2 x+4
asymptote) and x = 2 (the vertical asymptote) and x = –4 (the vertical
asymptote). asymptote).
To calculate the y-intercept There is no x-intercept (because
substitute x = 0. the x-axis is an asymptote) and the
−4
y = y-intercept is (0, 3).
x−2
−4 −
= = −4
0−2 2
= 2
The y-intercept is (0, 2).
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 115

Both horizontal and vertical translations

It is possible to have both horizontal and vertical translations operating in the same question.
Sometimes there will need to be some rearrangement of the given equation before this is obvious.

Example Draw the graph of y = 2 + 1. y y

x−2 4 × 4
= Answer The basic shape of this hyperbola y= 2
x ×
is that of y = 2 . It has been 2 × 2 ×
x –4 –2 × ×
moved 1 unit upwards and 2 units ×

×
to the right. The graph of y = 2 4x

×
2 2 4 6x

×
x
–2
11

×
has been drawn as a comparison. –2 –2 y= 2 +1

×
x–2

×
4 – –4

×
Both asymptotes have moved also:
the new ones are y = 1 (the horizontal asymptote) and x = 2
(the vertical asymptote). y
4 ×
Example Draw the graph of the hyperbola given by y= 6 –2
x–1
y = 6 − 2 . Give the equations of both 2
x−1 ×
asymptotes and write down the co-ordinates ×
of any intercepts. –6 –4 –2 2 4 6x ×

= Answer The basic shape is that of y = 6 but moved

x
–2

1 unit to the right and 2 units down. × –4

×
The two asymptotes are x = 1 and y = –2.

×
–6
For the x-intercept, For the y-intercept,
substitute y = 0: substitute x = 0: –8
6 y = 6 − 2 ×
0 = − 2
x−1 0−1
y = −6 − 2
2 = 6
x−1 y = −8
2x − 2 = 6
2x = 8
x = 4
exercise 11.02
1 Write down the equations of the asymptotes and the co-ordinates of any intercepts with the axes
for each of these hyperbolas.
a b c d
y y y y
6 6 6
8
4 4 4
2 2 4 2
–4 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–4 –2 2 4 6 8x –6 –2 2 4 6x x
–2 –2 –2
2 –4 4 8 12 x
–4 y= 4 –1 –4 y = x + 3 + 1
x–2 –4
–4
–6 –6 –6
 116 Non-linear graphs 2.2

2 Draw the graph for each of these 6 Describe the transformation of the simple
–
hyperbolas. Give the equations of both hyperbola y = 5 needed to obtain the
asymptotes and write down the co-ordinates x
graph of these hyperbolas. Use language
of the x-intercept.
−6
from the list {up, down, left, right}. You are
a y = 12 − 2 b y = − 2 not required to actually draw the hyperbola.
x x
−8 −5 −5
c y = 4 + 3 d y = + 4 a y =
x
− 11 b y =
x − 20
x x
−5 −5
3 Draw the graph for each of these c y = + 13 d y = −8
x+2 x − 15
hyperbolas. Give the equations of both
7 Draw the graphs of these hyperbolas.
11 asymptotes and write down the co-ordinates
State the equations of both the vertical and
of the y-intercept.
−4 horizontal asymptotes, and write down the
a y = 2 b y = co-ordinates of the intercepts with the axes.
x+3 x−2
−8
−3 3 + 2
c y = d y =
12 a y = b y = x+4 − 2
x+2 1−x x−1
−4
4 Write down the co-ordinates of both c y = + 3 d y+3 = 1
x−1 x+2
the x- and y-intercepts for each of these 1 2
hyperbolas. e y−1 = f y+2 =
x−1 3 − x
12 − 1 −
a y = b y = 10 + 2 8 What are the co-ordinates of the point where
x−4 x+5
5 Describe the transformation of the simple the hyperbola given by y = 5 + 2
x−1
intersects the y-axis?
hyperbola y = 8 needed to obtain the graph
x
of these hyperbolas. Use language from 9 What is the equation of the horizontal
the list {up, down, left, right}. You are not asymptote of the graph of y = 1 − 8?
required to actually draw the hyperbola. x−6
a y = 8 +2 b y = 8 10 What is the equation of the horizontal
x x+7 −2
asymptote of the graph of y = − 1?
8 8 + 10 x+3
c y = −1 d y =
x+4 x−6
11 State the equations of the two asymptotes to
the curve given by y = 2 + 9 .
x−6
12 The equation of a curve is y = 2 + 1.
x−2
Write down the equations of the two
asymptotes.

13 State the equations of the two asymptotes to

–
the curve given by y = 1 + 1 .
x 2

(There is a selection of questions that include using the graphs of hyperbolas as models in various
contexts in Exercise 11.06.)
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 117

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
The dance floor
School balls are held at the Shangri-La reception lounge. The lounge
has 36 m2 of parquet flooring which is going to be laid out as a 36 m2 y
rectangular dance floor. The edge of flooring will be contained by
strips of copper edging, and the owners want to keep the length of x xy = 36
the edging as short as possible. The equation linking the two sides of
the rectangular floor is xy = 36.
11
1 Rewrite this equation as y = _________
2 Use a spreadsheet program to place values of x from 1 to 36 in
column A, and use a formula and copy it downwards to obtain
the values of y in column B. Here are the first few rows:

3 Block cells A2:B37 and draw the graph of xy = 36.

4 In column C set up a heading and a formula for the perimeter.
The formula in cell C2 should be =2*A2+2*B2. Copy it
downwards 35 times so that every possible combination of x
and y has a perimeter calculation. The first few rows should look like:

5 What is the smallest possible perimeter of a rectangle that has an area of 36 m2?
6 What shape should a rectangle with a fixed area be to have the smallest possible
perimeter?
7 If the area of a rectangle is A, write down an expression for the smallest possible
perimeter in terms of A:
Perimeter = _________

Finding the equation of the hyperbola given the graph

If sufficient information is given with the graph
of a hyperbola it is possible to write down
the equation of the hyperbola. At this level LECTURER b and c can be either
the general equation of a hyperbola will be positive or negative
expressed in the form: numbers, so it is not necessary to write
a
y = a + b. the general form as y =
x±c
± b , but it
x−c is equivalent.
 118 Non-linear graphs 2.2

Useful information includes: Example Write down the equation of this

• the equation of the vertical asymptote (in the hyperbola.
form x = c),
y
• the equation of the horizontal asymptote (in 8
the form y = b),
6
• any intercepts on the axes,
4
• the co-ordinates of any points on the (5, 2)
hyperbola. 2 ×

The connection between the information on the –6 –4 –2 2 4 6x

–2
graph and the equation of the hyperbola (in the
11 form y = a + b) is as follows: –4
x−c
y = Answer The general form is y = a + b.
x−c
The vertical asymptote is x = 2,
y= a +b so c = 2.
x–c
b The horizontal asymptote is y = 1,
so b = 1.
y-intercept
c Substitute b = 1 and c = 2 into the
x
x-intercept
equation:
y = a +1
x−2
Now note that the graph passes
• c is the value given in the equation of the through (5, 2), so x = 5 and y = 2
vertical asymptote – that is, x = c. satisfy the equation:
• b is the value given in the equation of the 2 = a +1
horizontal asymptote – that is, y = b. 5−2
• a is calculated by substituting b and c and the 2 = a +1
3
co-ordinates of any intercept, or point on the
a =1
hyperbola, into the equation y = a + b.
x−c 3
a = 3
The equation of the hyperbola is
LECTURER y = 3 + 1.
x−2
Example Write down the equation of this
• Why does x = c give the vertical
hyperbola.
asymptote? The hyperbola is undefined y
for one x-value only, the value that gives 10
the vertical asymptote, and this occurs 8
when dividing by zero in the fraction, 6
that is when x – c = 0, so when x = c.
4
• Why does y = b give the horizontal 2
asymptote? The horizontal asymptote 2 4 6 8
is the line y = b, because when larger –12 –10 –8 –6 – 4 –2 x
–2
and larger x-values are substituted into
a
this fraction approaches 0, and –4
x −c
we are left with y being very close to b. –6

–8
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 119

= Answer The general form is y =

x−c
a + b.

The vertical asymptote is x = –3, so c = –3, and the denominator in the

hyperbola equation will be x + 3.
The horizontal asymptote is y = 0, so b = 0.
Substitute b = 0 and c = –3 into the equation: y = a
x+3
Now note that the y-intercept is 2, so x = 0 and y = –2 satisfy the equation:
–

–2 = a
0+3
–2 = a
3 11
a = –6
–6
The equation of the hyperbola is y = .
x+3

exercise 11.03
1 Write down the equations of these 2 Write down the equations of these
hyperbolas. Each one can be expressed in hyperbolas. Each one can be expressed in
the form y = a . the form y = a + b.
x−c x
a a y
y
8 10
6 8
4 6
2 4
–8 –6 –4 –2
2
2 4 6 8x b y –8 –6 –4 –2 b y
–2 8
2 4 6 8x 12
–2
–4 6
–4
10
–6 4
–6
8
–8 2
–8 –6 –4 –2 6
2 4 6 8x 4
–2
2
–4 –8 –6 –4 –2

c –6 c y 2 4 6 8x
y –2
8 –8 6
–4
6 4
–6
4 2
–8 –6 –4 –2 –8
2 2 4 6 8x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 –2

×– x –4 d
( 5, –1) –2 y
y
–4
d –6 8
8 –8 6
–6
6 4
–8
4 2
–10 –8 2 4 6
2
2 4 6 8 –6 –4 –2 x
–2
–8 –6 –4 –2
× x
–2
(7, –1) –4
–4 –6
–6 –8
 120 Non-linear graphs 2.2

3 Use the information given by the c d

y y
asymptotes and y-intercepts to write down 32
the equations of these hyperbolas. Each one 16 28
can be expressed in the form y = a + b. 12
24
x−c 20
y 16
a 8 12
×
(–7, 10) 8
4 4
7
–16 –8
–4 5 8 16 24 x
–12 –8 –4 4 8 12 x
×
–4 (8, –2)

11 x
b 5 The equation of this y
y
hyperbola can be 6
written in the form 4
(0, 1.8)
y = d + 1, where 2
e(x − 3)
d and e are integers. –6 –4 –2 2 4 x
–2
c 2
y Write the equation as –4
x simply as possible. –6

6 The equation of each

hyperbola below can be written in the form
y = d + b, where b, c, d and e are
x d e(x − c)
y
integers. Write the equations as simply as
–5 possible.
a b y
6
y
–1 x
6 5

4 4

2 3
2
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 8x
–2 1 (0, 1.2)
–4
(0, –5.5)
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4x
–1
4 Use the information given by the –6
–2
asymptotes and a given point on the curve –8
–3
to write down the equations of these
hyperbolas. Each one can be expressed in
the form y = a + b. 7 The equation of the hyperbola below can
x−c be written in the form y = 6 + b. Two
a b ( x − c)
y y points on the hyperbola y
10 10 are (1, 1) and (5, –1).
8 8 Calculate the values
6 6 of b and c and hence
4 4 write down × (1, 1)
2 2 the equation. × x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6x (5, –1)
–2 –2
×
–4 (1, –3) (–5, –3) × –4

–6 –6
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 121

8 The equation of this y 9 One of the general forms for the

(1, 10)
hyperbola can be written × equation of a hyperbola is
in the form y = a + b. Express the x-intercept
–4 x−c
y = + b. Two
( x − c) and the y-intercept in terms of a, b
points on the hyperbola × (3, 2)
and c.
are (1, 10) and (3, 2).
Calculate the values of x

b and c and hence write

down the equation.

11
(There is a selection of questions that include using the graphs of hyperbolas as models in various
contexts in Exercise 11.06.)

Circles
Simple circles, with their centre at the origin (0, 0),
have an equation in the form:
x2 + y2 = number

Examples x2 + y2 = 4 x2 + y2 = 25 etc.
How does this work?
Points lie on a graph if their co-ordinates ‘satisfy’ the equation. So for example, (3, 4) will be a point
on the graph that has equation x2 + y2 = 25, because 32 + 42 = 25.

STARTER
The table shows six points, each of which lie on the graph of x2 + y2 = 25.
1 Write down the co-ordinates of six more 2 Use a compass to draw a circle through the
points which fit the equation x2 + y2 = 25. 12 points.
3 What is the radius of this circle?
(3, 4) (–3, –4) (0, 5)

(4, 3)

(–4, 3) (–5, 0)

TIPSTER
The radius of the circle x2 + y2 = number is number .
 122 Non-linear graphs 2.2

Example Draw the circle x2 + y2 = 9. Example What is the equation of a circle

= Answer The centre is at the origin which has its centre at (0, 0) and a
(0, 0). Some points which fit the radius of 4?
equation are (3, 0), (0, –3), etc. = Answer x2 + y2 = 16
The radius is 3.
y
3

–3
3 x
11
–3

exercise 11.04
1 Consider the relation x2 + y2 = 9. Making y 4 The diagram shows y
the subject: y = ± 9 − x 2 . the circle A
x2 + y2 = 16. What are
a Copy and complete the table below. the co-ordinates of
A and B? B
x
x y =± 9− x2
–3
–2 ±2.236
–1
y
0 5 What is the equation 9
1 of this circle?
2
3
–9
9 x
b Rule up a set of axes, then plot the points
represented by the pairs in the table. Join –9
up the points with a smooth curve.
6 Write down the equation of a circle which
2 Draw these circles. has its centre at (0, 0) and a radius of
a x2 + y2 = 4 b x2 + y2 = 36 12 units.
c x2 + y2 = 100 d y2 = 1 – x2
7 Write down the equation of a circle which
3 What is the radius of each of these circles? has its centre at (0, 0) and a diameter of
14 units.
a x2 + y2 = 49 b x2 + y2 = 100
c x2 + y2 = 64 d x2 + y2 = 625 8 The co-ordinates of the end points of the
diameter of a circle are (–5, 0) and (5, 0).
Write down the equation of this circle.

9 The point (6, 8) lies on the circle x2 + y2 = k.

Calculate the value of k.
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 123

10 The point (–12, 5) lies on the circle x2 + y2 = k. b The boundary that separates the blue and
Calculate the value of k. black annuluses can be modelled by the
equation x2 + y2 = 324. Explain what the
11 The point (8, 15) lies on a circle with its equation x2 + y2 = 144 represents in this
centre at the origin (0, 0). model.
a Work out the equation of the circle. c In its simplest terms, what fraction is
b Calculate the radius of the circle. the area of the red part of the target
compared with the area of the blue part?
12 Work out the co-ordinates of the two points
where the circle x2 + y2 = 64 crosses the
x-axis.
LECTURER
11
13 A circle, centre (0, 0), has a diameter 7 units An annulus is the ring left when a
long. Write down the equation of this circle. small circle is removed from a large
Make sure the equation has whole-number circle with the same centre.
coefficients.

14 Explain whether (–7, –24) lies on the circle

18 A ladder, 6 m in length, is resting against a
x2 + y2 = 625.
vertical wall. Let y be the distance the end of
15 Explain why x2 + y2 = –16 could not possibly the ladder reaches up the wall, and x be the
be a circle equation. distance, in metres, of the other end of the
ladder from the base of the wall.
16 Explain whether (5, 6) lies inside or outside a Use the Pythagoras relation to complete
the circle x2 + y2 = 64. this table relating the distance up the
wall to the distance from the wall of the
17 In the sport of archery, contestants use a bow two ends of the ladder.
to shoot an arrow at a circular target.

Distance from Distance up the

the base (x) wall (y)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

The target consists of an inner circle and b Use graphing software to draw
nine concentric annuluses. The inner circle the graph of y against x.
and annulus are yellow, the next two are red,
and so on. The diameter of the target is
60 cm and the width across each annulus
from the inner to the outer circumference is
3 cm.
a Write down the equation of a circle that
could model the circumference of the
target. Explain carefully where the x- and
y-axes are positioned in the model.
 124 Non-linear graphs 2.2

19 A group of five rugby players are practising a Plot these five points on a graph.
their skills by passing a ball to each other. b What is the equation of the circle?
They are standing on the circumference of a c When a player passes directly to another
circle. One way of describing their positions player, does the ball ever pass exactly
is to give them co-ordinates relative to an x- over the origin (0, 0)?
and y-axis as given in this table, where x and d Which two players are furthest apart?
y are measured in metres.
e If the players are allowed to move
anywhere on the circumference of
Player Position the circle, what is the longest possible
distance of a pass from one player to
A (–4, 3)
11 B (3, 4)
another?
f The players each move 2 m in a straight
C (5, 0)
line away from the origin. What is the
D (3, –4)
equation of the circle they are standing
E (–3, –4)
on now?

Circles with centres elsewhere than the origin

We can use a locus property to obtain the Example Draw the circle given by the equation
equation of a circle. (x – 3)2 + (y – 1)2 = 36.
Recall that the locus of a point that
is free to move in a plane at the same = Answer The centre is y
distance from a fixed point is a circle. The at (3, 1). The
‘same distance’ is the radius of the circle, radius is 5
and the ‘fixed point’ is the centre of the 36 = 6 .
circle. (3, 1)
×
Suppose the fixed point is (a, b) and the 5 10 x
radius is r. (x, y) is the point that is free to
move anywhere on the circle.

(x, y) y
Example Write down
the equation 12
r (y – b) of the circle 10
shown.
(a, b) × 8
×
(x – a) 6
4
2
–8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6x

(x, y) must satisfy the equation below = Answer The centre is (–2, 7).
– obtained from considering the right- The radius is 5.
angled triangle in the diagram and
The equation of the circle is
applying Pythagoras.
(x – –2)2 + (y – 7)2 = 52.
(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2 This simplifies to
(x + 2)2 + (y – 7)2 = 25.
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 125

exercise 11.05
1 Draw the circles given by these equations. c d
a (x – 4)2 + (y – 2)2 = 9 y y
b (x – 5)2 + (y – 1)2 = 16 6 2
c x2 + (y – 3)2 = 1 4 –8 –6 –4 –2
–2 2 x
d (x – 6)2 + y2 = 36 2
× × –4
2 Draw the circles given by these equations. 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2 –6
a (x + 5)2 + (y – 2)2 = 4
b (x – 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 25
–4
–8 11
–6
–10
c (x + 6)2 + (y + 5)2 = 9
d (x + 8)2 + y2 = 16 7 Describe the transformation of the simple
circle x2 + y2 = 16 needed to obtain the graph
3 Write down the co-ordinates of the centre of of these circles. Use language from the list
each of these circles. {up, down, left, right}. You are not required
a (x – 11)2 + (y – 12)2 = 49 to actually draw the circle.
b (x – 43)2 + (y + 4)2 = 100 a (x – 2)2 + (y – 6)2 = 16
c (x + 9)2 + y2 = 5 b (x + 3)2 + (y – 7)2 = 16
2 c (x + 15)2 + (y + 8)2 = 16
d  x − 1  + ( y + 8 ) = 1
2
 3 4 d x2 + (y + 1)2 = 16

4 Write down the radius of each circle in 8 Find where the two circles with equations
question 3. x2 + y2 = 25 and (x – 4)2 + (y – 4)2 = 1
intersect.
5 Write down the equation for the circles with
the given centres and radii/diameters. 9 A circle has centre (6, 8). Its equation can be
a Centre (2, 11) and radius 8. written as (x – 6)2 + (y – 8)2 = k. Determine
b Centre (–2, 3) and radius 7. the possible values of k for each case below.
c Centre (0, –4) and radius 10. a The circle passes through the origin (0, 0).
d Centre (–1, –3) and diameter 12. b The circle does not intersect either the
x- or y-axis.
6 Write down the equation of each circle. c The circle intersects one axis but not the
a b other.
y y d The circle intersects both axes.
12
10 4
8
6 2
4 × ×
2 –2 2 x
2 4 6 8 10 x
 126 Non-linear graphs 2.2

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION

Drawing a semi-circle
It is not possible to draw a full circle with a single spreadsheet formula, because the circle
equation cannot be rearranged as y = …. But it is possible to obtain a semi-circle formula. This
question investigates the semi-circle given by y = 100 − x 2 .
1 Set up a spreadsheet with x-values in column A running from –10 to 10 in steps of 1.
2 Use the square-root formula =SQRT( ) in column B.
11 3 Draw the semi-circle using the graph-drawing tools in the spreadsheet.

Modelling
Some of the mathematical graphs we have studied so far help to explain real-life situations. We can
use a mathematical formula to estimate missing values or predict values in the future. This process
isn’t exact, however. In real-life situations there are all kinds of errors and variations that can lead to
differences from these expected values.

STARTER
Marathon times
Since times were first recorded for the men’s marathon in 1908, the world record has steadily
fallen. This table gives some winning times for the marathon, and the dates.

Years since Time

Runner Place Date 1908 (minutes)
John J. Hayes London 1908 0 175.3
Hannes Kolehmainen Antwerp 1920 12 152.6
Sohn Kee-Chung Berlin 1936 28 146.7
Emil Zatopek Helsinki 1952 44 140.7
Abebe Bikila Tokyo 1964 56 132.2
Rob de Castella Fukuoka 1981 73 128.3
Khalid Khannouchi Chicago 1999 91 125.7
Paul Tergat Berlin 2003 95 124.9

One possible model would have a hyperbola for its graph. If we use x for the number of years
since 1908 and y for the winning time in minutes, then a possible model is:
y = 550 + 120.
x + 10
The spreadsheet shows the result of plotting:
• the actual dates and times,
• the dates and times predicted by the model.
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 127

11

1 What is the y-intercept of the hyperbola? Another possible model has a straight-line
–
What does it represent in this situation? graph. Its equation is y = 5 x + 175 .
9
2 What winning marathon time does the 4 What is the gradient of this line?
model predict in the year 2038? Explain what it represents.
3 What is the horizontal asymptote of the 5 Suggest which of these models is likely
hyperbola y = 550 + 120 ? to be the more realistic.
x + 10
What does it represent in this situation?

exercise 11.06
1 Some aspects of human performance are a b
related to the height, h, of a person.
• Body surface area is proportional to h2
(large individuals conserve heat well).
• Actual body weight is proportional to h3.
• Lifting one’s own body weight
is proportional to 1 (size is a
h h h
disadvantage).
• Speed of running is proportional to h. c d
Each of these graphs shows one of these
aspects. For each graph (a–d) write down
what is being measured on the y-axis.

h h
 128 Non-linear graphs 2.2

2 This table shows some ways of travelling b Use a highlighter on your answer to part
from Paihia to Russell across the water. a to show the section(s) of the graph that
applies to this model.
Time taken Average speed c What does the model give for the
(x) (y) monthly sales when no money is spent
Swimmer 180 minutes !
1.6 km/h on advertising? What feature of the
Rowboat 120 minutes 2.5 km/h graph gives this information?
Ferry 30 minutes 10 km/h d What does the model give for the
Speed-boat 10 minutes 30 km/h maximum monthly sales regardless
of how much is spent on advertising?
a What is the distance from Paihia to
11 Russell?
What feature of the graph gives this
information?
b Use the values in the table to draw a e What is the maximum amount the
graph linking x and y. company should spend on advertising if
c What name is given to this kind of it wants to spend less on advertising than
graph? it expects to make in sales? Give your
d What is the equation of the graph? answer to the nearest 100 000 dollars.
e Add two dashed lines to your graph to f Explain how you could show the solution
show how you could use it to estimate to part e on the graph.
the average speed of a yacht that takes
45 minutes to sail from Paihia to Russell. 5 A vacuum cleaner is fitted with an empty
dust-bag, and used to clean a large area
3 The Tasman High School music group are of carpet. The contents of the dust-bag are
fund-raising for a trip to Australia. They weighed at regular intervals and the data
are being paid to stuff 21 600 envelopes seem to fit a hyperbolic model. The equation
with brochures. One student can stuff 180 of the hyperbola is:
envelopes in an hour. The time it will take a + 650,
the group depends on the number that help. W =
t + 0.5
a How many hours would it take one where W is the weight in grams and t is the
student to stuff all the envelopes? time in hours.
b How long would it take eight students? W
c If the job took 4 hours, how many
Weight of dust-bag

students helped?
d Draw a graph to show the relationship
between x (the number of students who
contents (g)

help) and y (the time taken in hours).

e What is the equation of the graph in
part d?

4 A retailer suggests the relationship between 5 10 t

its total monthly sales (y) and the amount (x) Time (hours)
it spends on advertising each month can a What is the weight of the contents
–3
be modelled by the equation y = + 7, initially?
x+1
where both x and y are measured in millions b What does the model suggest is the
of dollars. The retailer never spends more maximum possible weight of the
than 8 million dollars on advertising. contents?
–3 c Determine the value of a.
a Draw the graph of y = + 7 with no
x+1 d How long does it take before the weight
restrictions on the values of x. of the contents reaches 400 g?
 11 Hyperbolas and circles 129

6 A tyre-fitter is testing a tyre to check Straight line: P = 11t for values of t between
whether it is faulty. The tyre inflates 0 and 20.
normally and then a leak occurs. The Hyperbola: P = a for values of t
pressure (P) in kPa (kilopascals) can be t−b
greater than 20.
modelled by a straight line and a hyperbola. a Calculate the pressure at the time when
P the leak occurs.
b When t = 38 seconds the pressure is
Tyre pressure (kPa)

100 kPa. Use this information to write the

equation of the hyperbola (that is, find the
values of a and b).
c Write down the equation of the horizontal 11
asymptote of the hyperbola. Explain what
it represents in the context of this model.
Time (seconds) t
 12
Exponential and logarithmic
graphs
12

STARTER
Double or quits
Your friend owes you $1. Instead of paying you,
your friend challenges you to ‘double or quits’ on
whether the Warriors will win their next game.
Your friend will either pay you $2 if they lose,
or nothing if they win. You win the challenge,
and instead of paying you $2, your friend says
‘double or quits’ again.
What happens to the amount your friend
owes you if you win each bet in a row? Draw a
graph to show the pattern.

3 Draw a Amount owed ($) 70

1 Copy and complete this table.
smooth 60
Number of bets Doubling Amount owed curve using
50
the values
0 1
from the 40
1 2×1 2 table. Use
2 2×2 22 = 4 30
axes as
3 2×4 23 = 8 shown. 20
4
10 ×
5 ×
6 0× ×
2 4 6
7 Number of bets

2 The formula for the amount owed is y = 2x. 4 Use a calculator to investigate:
a What does x represent? a how many bets take place
before your friend owes you
b What does y represent?
more than $500?
b how many bets take place
before your friend owes you
more than $1 000 000?
 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs 131

Exponential curves
We use powers to represent repeated multiplication. LECTURER
Example 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
The number a is called the base, and x is
5 is called the base, and 3 is the index, or exponent.
called the exponent. Note: a > 0 and a ≠ 1.
In general the form is (base)index.

Any function of the form y = ax is said to be an exponential function.

There is a number in the base, and x in the exponent, or index.

Example y = 2x
12
TIPSTER
2x is not the same as x2. For example 23 = 8, but 32 = 9.

Exponential functions have graphs called growth curves. This is because when y
a given value is multiplied by the same number (bigger than 1) it grows in size.
In the starter box, the amount owing ‘grows’, to give this graph.
What happens to this graph for negative values of x? What is the value of
2–3 for example? 2 ×
We could either use a calculator: 2 xy 3 ± = 1×
–3 1
which should give the result 2 = 0.125 or 8 , or we could use properties we
1 1 x
know from negative indices: 2–3 = = 1 . We can explore the shape of any
23 8
exponential graph by using a spreadsheet to plot points.

STARTER Produce the graph of y = 2x

1 Head up column A with x and column B with y.
2 Place numbers from –4 to 4 in column A.
3 In column B type in the formula which raises a base of 2 to the power of the cell in the
A column. For example, in cell B2 type in the formula =2^A2.
4 Select the block
A2:B10 and use
the graph-drawing
tools to produce
the parabola. Your
output should be
similar to the table
and graph below.
 132 Non-linear graphs 2.2

exercise 12.01
1 Use your calculator 4 The graphs of y = 5x and y = 6x are drawn
x y = 3x
to complete this table, here. Which one is the graph of y = 5x?
–3
and then draw the
–2 0.11 y
graph of y = 3x. Use a
–1 A B
scale of –3 to 3 for the
x-axis, and 0 to 30 for 0
the y-axis. 1
2 9
12 3

2 Use a calculator to work out (1.5)2, (1.5)3 and

(1.5)4, and then use these values to draw the x
graph of y = 1.5x.
y
5 Use graphing software or a
3 What is the equation of 16 × spreadsheet program to draw the
this exponential graph? It following graphs.
passes through (0, 1), (1, 4) 14
a y = (1.1)x
and (2, 16). 12 b y = (1.4)x
10
8
6
4 ×
2
×
1 2 3 x

Decay curves
Exponential graphs (equation y = ax) do not always show growth. If the base a is less than 1, the graph
slopes downwards. Then the graph is called a decay curve.

( )
x
Example Draw the graph of y = 21 . Plot these points and join them up with a smooth
curve.
= Answer A calculator helps complete this
y
table of values – work out powers
of 0.5 rather than 1 : × 4
2
× 3
x (0.5)x
–2 4 2 y = ( 12 )x
–1 2
0 1 1×
×
1 0.5 ×
2 0.25 –2 –1 1 2 x
 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs 133

exercise 12.02
1 Use your calculator to complete this table, 3 Draw these exponential curves by plotting
and then draw the graph of y = (0.4)x. Note points.
( )
x x
that (0.4)x is the same as 2 . Use a scale of a y =  3  b y = (0.7)x
5
–3 to 3 for the x-axis, and 0 to 20 for the y-axis.
 4

4 The graphs of y = (0.55)x and y = (0.6)x are

x y = (0.4)x drawn below. Which one is the graph of
–3
y = (0.55)x?
15.625
–2 y 12
A
–1 3
B
0
2
1 0.4
2
1
3
–2 –1 1 2 x
2 Use a calculator to work out (0.8)–4, (0.8)–2,
–1
(0.8)2 and (0.8)4, then use these values to
draw the graph of y = 0.8x.

Features of exponential graphs

The general form of a simple exponential graph is y = ax.
• If the base is greater than 1, we get a growth • The x-axis is an asymptote. On a growth curve
curve (a > 1), the graph slopes upwards for negative values of x the graph becomes
everywhere. If the base is less than 1, we get a very close to the x-axis but never actually
decay curve (0 < a < 1). touches it.
y y • The base number a affects the steepness of
the graph. For example, the graph of y = 3x is
steeper than the graph of y = 2x.
• An exponential function, of the form y = ax,
can take any x-value, but the y-value can only
be a positive number. Technically, we say
1 1
‘the domain of the function y = ax is the real
numbers, and the range of the function y = ax
x
is {y: y > 0, y ∈ R}’.
a>1 0<a<1

• The y-intercept is always 1. That is,

exponential graphs always pass through the
point (0, 1). This is because any number to the
power of 0 gives a result of 1.
 134 Non-linear graphs 2.2

exercise 12.03
1 Explain why the graph of y = ax always 4 Use a spreadsheet program to
passes through 1 on the y-axis. draw the graphs of y = (1.2)x and
y = (1.5)x on the same set of axes.
2 The point (1, 3) is on the graph of y = ax. Print out your graph if possible.
What is the value of a?
5 Explore what happens to the graph of y = ax
3 The point (0.5, k) is on the graph of y = 3x. when a is a number very close to 1 – either
What is the value of k? just below or just above 1.
12

Changes of scale – the form y = b × ax

Multiplying each y-value on the curve given by y
y = ax by the same constant alters the vertical scale. 16
To transform the graph of y = ax to the graph of y = 4 × (1.3)x
y = b × ax scale the height of each point from the 14
x-axis by a factor of b. 12
This is shown most clearly by the position of
the y-intercept. On the graph of y = ax the intercept 10
on the vertical axis is (0, 1). On the graph of
8
y = b × ax the vertical intercept is (0, b).
For example, each point on the graph of 6
y = 4 × (1.3)x is four times the distance from the
x-axis as the corresponding point on the graph of 4 y = (1.3)x
y = (1.3)x. 2
Two points on the graph of y = (1.3)x are (0, 1)
and (1, 1.3). x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 2 4
The points on the graph of y = 4 × (1.3)x with –2
the corresponding x-values are (0, 4) and (1, 5.2).
y
Example Draw the graph of y = 1 × 2 x .
5
= Answer 18
y = 2x
16

14
Note: the graph of y = is 2x 12
also shown for comparison.
10

4 1
y= 5
× 2x
2

–4 –2 2 4 x
–2
 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs 135

exercise 12.04
1 Draw these graphs. 5 Match each equation (a–e) y
C D E
a y = 3 × 2x with one of the graphs (A–E). 8
x
a y = 4x
b y = 5 ×  1  7
 2 b y = 4 × 2x
c y = 4(1.7)x c y = 2 × 4x
6
d y = 10(0.25)x 1
d y = × 4x 5
2
2 Draw these graphs.  1
x
4
a y = –2x e y = 4× 
 2 12
3
b y = –4(0.9)x
2
3 By drawing a graph or B
otherwise, find the 1
co-ordinates of the point(s) A
where the graph of –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
y = 2 × 3x intersects the 6 Match each equation (a–d)
graph of y = 3 × 2x. with one of the graphs (A–D).
a y = –2x y
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
x
4 Write down the y-intercept  1 
b y = −2   A x
for each of these graphs.  3 –1 B
a y = 5 × 4x c y= 3– x
x –2
b y = 2 ×  1  x
 3 d y = − 3  1 
 2 –3
c y= 8(1.6)x
–4
d y = –10(0.75)x
–5

C D
–6
 136 Non-linear graphs 2.2

Applications of exponential graphs

Many real-life situations that involve growth and decay can be represented by an exponential model.
These include compound interest, population growth and depreciation.

Example Caitlin buys a new mobile phone. Its second-

hand value (V), if she decided to sell it, can be

Second-hand value ($)

represented by V = 495 × (0.6)t, where t is the
number of years after buying the phone and V is the
value of the phone in dollars.
12 a Calculate the vertical intercept and explain what
it represents.
b Estimate how long it takes for the phone to
halve in value. Explain by referring to the
1 2 3 4 5
graph, and also support your answer with some Time after buying (years)
calculations.
= Answer a The vertical intercept is calculated by substituting t = 0 into the equation
V = 495 × (0.6)t:
V = 495 × (0.6)0 = 495 × 1 = 495.
This value gives the information that the second-hand value immediately after
purchase is $495. Note: this is not necessarily what Caitlin paid for the phone new.
b To halve in value the phone will be
worth $247.50.
Second-hand value ($)
495
The value of t that gives V = 247.5 will be
somewhere between t = 1 and t = 2. From
the graph, about 1 31 years would be a good 247.5
estimate.
We can confirm this estimate by calculating
the value of V for t = 1.2 and t = 1.5.
For t = 1.2, V = 495 × (0.6)1.2 ≈ 268.
1 2 3 4 5
For t = 1.5, V = 495 × (0.6)1.5 ≈ 230. Time after buying (years)
Given the downward-sloping property of the
graph, it seems reasonable that the t-value that gives V = 247.5 would lie between
1.2 and 1.5.

LECTURER The exact value of t that gives 247.5 can be obtained by using
logs to solve the equation 247.5 = 495 × (0.6)t. This is covered in
Achievement Standard 2.1 (Chapter 9, p. 90).

247.5 = 495 × (0.6)t

( 0.6 )t = 247.5
495
= 0.5
t × log(0.6) = log(0.5) (taking logs)
log(0.5)
t = = 1.357
log(0.6)
 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs 137

exercise 12.05
1 An investment company provides a graph 3 A motorist travelling
to show potential investors how their at a steady speed
money will grow. The company claims notices a Give Way sign
‘Triple your money in 10 years!’. The ahead and slows down.
equation of the graph is y = 1000 × (1.12)x. The equation relating
the motorist’s speed to
the time after starting
Value of investment ($)

3000 to slow down is

y = 60 × (0.7)x. The 12
2000 graph showing the relationship is drawn here.

80
1000 70
60

Speed (km/h)
0 50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time period (years) 40
30
a What does the graph show is the initial
amount invested? 20
b Is the company’s claim that an investor 10
will triple their money in 10 years 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
correct? Explain by making some Time braking (seconds)
calculations.
c Estimate how long it takes for the a What speed is the motorist travelling at
investment to double in value. Explain initially?
by referring to the graph, and also b Estimate the motorist’s speed 5 seconds
support your answer with some after slowing down.
calculations. c How long does it take for the motorist to
d How should the graph be changed if halve their speed?
the initial amount invested was only d There are several reasons why this model
$400? could be unrealistic. Give two.

2 Organic Avocados are aiming for sales 4 A share-broker is advertising the float (issue
growth of 20% each year. This means of new shares) in ABC Ltd, a public company.
that to work out sales for each year the The projected share price, in dollars, for the
previous year’s sales are multiplied by company is given by the equation
1.20. To start with their sales are $200 000. y = 3.00 × (1.05)t, where t is the time, in years,
a Calculate their sales after 1 year. after the company is first listed.
b Calculate their sales after 2 years. a Draw the graph of the equation.
c Explain why their sales after 4 years b What is the initial listing price?
would be given by the formula c What is the projected percentage increase
y = 200 000 × (1.2)4. in the share price each year if the equation
d Draw a graph to show what happens to is realistic?
their sales over a six-year period. d Estimate how long it takes, to the nearest
e Explain what is happening to the rate year, for the share price to increase by 50%.
of change of their sales.
 138 Non-linear graphs 2.2

5 Another share-broker is advertising the d The equation for the parents’ estimate of the
float in DEF Ltd, another public company. total value is T = 20 000 × (0.758)t.
The prospectus makes the claim: ‘Expected i Explain why the parents’ estimate is
growth in the share price is 13% p.a. in the correct when t = 0.
first 10 years’. The listing (initial) price is ii Comment, with some working, whether
$1.80. the parents’ estimate is correct when
a Represent this claim by writing down t = 1.
the equation of an exponential function, iii How does the graph show the parents’
in the form y = b × ax. estimate is unreliable as the cars get
b Draw the graph of the equation in part a. older?
12 c Estimate how long it takes, to the
7 Under ideal conditions a rat
nearest year, for the share price to
double. population increases at
25% per month. After five
6 Two twins, Rachel and Steve, each buy a months some bait is laid
second-hand car at the same time. that contains a contraceptive (birth control)
• Rachel buys a Japanese car for $12 000. substance and one month after that the
The value drops by 29% per year. population starts to decrease by 10% per month.
The curves and line in the diagram have the
• Steve buys a European car for $8000.
following equations:
The value drops by 17% each year.
(1) y = 200(1.25)x for values of x < 5
Their parents are interested in the total
value of both cars. The graph shows what (2) y = p for values of x between 5
happens to the value of each car after they and 6
are purchased. It also shows the parents’ (3) y = k(0.9)x for values of x > 6.
estimate of the total value of the two cars.
The equation for Rachel’s car is
2
y = 12 000 × (0.71)t, where y is the value 700
in dollars and t is the time in years after 600
Population

purchase. 1 3
500
400
20 000 300
16 000 200
100
Value ($)

12 000
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
8000 a Use equation
Time (months)
(1) to calculate
4000
the maximum population and hence find
0 the value of p.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 b Use the graph to estimate the two times (to
Time after purchase (years)
the nearest month) when the population is
a Write down the equation for the value 400 rats.
of Steve’s car. c Explain what you would expect to happen
b How does the graph show that Rachel’s to the population of rats eventually,
car loses value faster than Steve’s car? assuming equation (3) continues to apply.
In your answer mention a property of an
c Estimate when the two cars will have
exponential curve.
the same value. What is this value?
d Calculate the value of k.
 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs 139

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION

Exponential and log graphs

1 Use a spreadsheet to calculate powers of 10 for numbers
between –5 and 5 in steps of 1. This extract shows what some
of the spreadsheet should look like.
2 Use the Chart Wizard to produce a graph of y = 10x.
Now let’s investigate what happens when the co-ordinates are
reversed. 12
3 In column A of a new worksheet, place the powers of 10
from column B of the first spreadsheet.
4 In column B calculate the log of the values in column A. In
cell B3, for example the formula would be =log(A3). This
extract shows what some of the new worksheet should look
like.

5 Now produce a graph of y = log(x)

using the values in the spreadsheet.
6 Suggest what kind of a relationship
there is between the two graphs.
(Hint: try drawing them on the same
set of axes.)

Logarithmic graphs
The function y = loga(x) is the inverse of the function Graph of y = ax Graph of y = loga(x)
x
y = a . This means that its graph is obtained by y y y=x
swapping x- and y-values from the y = ax graph.
We reflect the exponential graph in the line y = x
to get the inverse graph. 1 y=x
1 x
• Note that the y-axis is an asymptote.
x
• The graph passes through the point (1, 0).
This is the x-intercept.
• The log function is only defined for positive values of x. This means a simple log graph only
passes through points to the right of the y-axis. Technically, we say the domain of the function
y = loga(x) is the set {x: x > 0, x ∈ R}.
 140 Non-linear graphs 2.2

• The log function can take on any y-value, Example Draw the graph of y = log10(x).
positive or negative. Technically, we say the
range of the function y = loga(x) is the Real
= Answer Plot points:
numbers.
x y
0.01 –2

LECTURER 0.1 –1

1 0
As we have seen earlier, the index statement 10 1
y = a x is equivalent to the log statement 100 2
12 x = loga(y). In the log statement, the subject
y
is x. With the function y = loga(x) the subject
is y, and this is equivalent to x = a y. But 2
x = a y is the inverse of y = a x; x and y have y = log10(x)
1
swapped positions.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
–1

–2
Initially it is easiest to work with logs to base 10.
Why? The log key on most calculators gives logs
to base 10. Also, when using a spreadsheet, the
=LOG() function calculates logs to base 10.

exercise 12.06
1 a Use a calculator to complete the table. 2 a Draw the graph of y = 2x. Note: the
Here log is log10. co-ordinates of some points on this graph
are (–1, 0.5), (0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 8) and
x y = log(x)
(4, 16).
b Reflect the graph of y = 2x in the line y = x
0.1
to obtain the graph of y = log2(x).
0.3
c Give the equation of the asymptote to the
0.8
graph of y = log2(x).
1
d State i the domain and ii the range of
3
y = log2(x).
8
10 3 On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of
y = 3x and y = log3(x).
b Prepare a graph with an x-axis from 0 to
10 (using a scale of 1 unit = 1 cm) and a 4 Calculate the missing y-co-ordinates for the
y-axis from –1 to 1 (using a scale of function y = (1.2)x.
1 unit = 10 cm). This means that the
{(x, y): y = (1.2)x} = {(–1, _), (0, _), (1, _), (2, _),
x-axis should be about 10 cm in length,
(5, _), (10, _)}
and the y-axis about 20 cm.
Reverse these ordered pairs to obtain the
c Plot points from part a to draw the graph
graph of y = log1.2(x).
of y = log(x).
 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs 141

Logarithmic functions where the base is not 10

In general, a logarithmic function is written as y = loga(x). We will take a as being a counting number
greater than 1. We can calculate logs to base a in at least three different ways.
1 On a spreadsheet, use the =LOG(number, base) function.
2 Use the equivalent index equation and solve it.
log 10 (x)
3 Use the conversion formula log a (x) =
log 10 (a)
(Methods 2 and 3 are equivalent.)

Example Calculate log3(47). 12

log10 ( x)
= Answer Method 1: In a spreadsheet, type =LOG(47,3). Method 3: log a ( x) =
log10 ( a)
This gives 3.504555375.
log10 ( 47)
Method 2: Solve the equation 3x = 47. log3 ( 47) =
log10 (3)
3 x = 47
= 1.6721
log(3 x )= log( 47) 0.477 12
x log(3) = log( 47) = 3.504 555
log( 47)
x = = 3.505 (4 sf)
log(3)

To draw the graph of y = loga(x) you could use graphing software, or a spreadsheet.

Example Draw the graph of y = log3(x).

= Answer (From a spreadsheet.)
 142 Non-linear graphs 2.2

If accuracy is not important, and only the key Example Draw the graph of log4(x).
features are required, you could draw the graph
of y = loga(x) as follows.
= Answer y
3
• The y-axis will be an asymptote.
2
• The graph passes through 1 on the x-axis (4, 1) y = log4(x)
– that is, the x-intercept is (1, 0). 1 (1, 0) ×
• The graph also passes through the point ×
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
(a, 1). –1

–2

12
exercise 12.07
1 Use the conversion formula: 4 Use the following three features to produce
log 10 (x) a rough drawing of the graph of
log 2 (x) =
log 10 (2) y = log2.5(x).
to complete the table and then plot points to • The y-axis is a vertical asymptote.
draw the graph of y = log2(x). • The x-intercept is (1, 0).
• The graph passes through (2.5, 1).
x log10(x) log2(x)
–0.60 –2
0.25 5 Draw the graphs of the following
0.5 logarithmic functions.
0.75 a y = log1.3(x) b y = log9(x)
1
c y = 3 log4(x) d y = 1 log 2 ( x)
1.25 2
1.5 6 Match each equation (a–e) with one of the
1.75 graphs (A–E).
2 a y = log2(x) b y = log8(x)
2 Use a spreadsheet or other method to c y = log5(x) d y = log0.7(x)
draw the graph of y = log5(x) for e y = log0.4(x)
values of x between 0.1 and 8.
y
3 Use the conversion formula: 4
log 10 (x) E
log 0.9 (x) =
log 10 (0.9)
2
to complete the table and then plot points to A
draw the graph of y = log0.9(x). C

2 4 6 8 x
x log0.9(x)
0.25 –2
B
0.5
0.75 –4
1
D
1.25
1.5 –3.85

1.75
2
 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs 143

7 The graph of y = logk(x) is upwards-sloping 8 What can you say about the slope of the
everywhere. What can you say about the graph y = logj(x) if 0 < j < 1?
value of k?

INVESTIGATION

Close to 1
Investigate what happens to the graph of y = loga(x) for values of a very close (both above 12
and below) to 1.

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION

Different bases, different curves

1 Use a spreadsheet to generate values of
log0.5(x) log0.75(x) log2(x) log3(x) log4(x)
for values of x between 0.2 and 6.
2 Use the graph-drawing tools to produce a chart showing each of the five log functions in
question 1 on the same diagram.
3 Describe two features that all of the five graphs have in common.
4 Describe what influence the value of a has on the position and shape of the graph of
y = loga(x).
 13
Transformation of graphs
and modelling
13
We explore the properties of several mathematical functions in this chapter. Many of these functions
can be plotted as a graph by evaluating them on a calculator. However, it is also important to
understand the effect that different numbers have on the shape and position of the graphs.

INVESTIGATION

Reading age
Publishers are very careful to make sure
the books they publish are suitable for the
intended readers. This is especially the
case in a subject like maths. A book written
for Year 13 Calculus would have a higher
reading age than a Year 9 maths textbook.
One way of measuring reading age is to
use a mathematical formula. The formula is:
R = n + 8.
Here is how the formula works.
• Choose a block of 15 sentences from a
book.
• Count how many words of three or Example If n = 100, then R = 100 + 8
more syllables there are in this block. This
= 10 + 8
number is n.
= 18
Example The sentence ‘Mathematics is
a very useful and
1 Test several different books and work out
enjoyable subject’ has two
the reading age of each one. You should
words, both in blue type,
photocopy a page, and indicate the block
that have three or more
of 15 sentences you have used. Highlight
syllables.
all the words with three or more syllables
math-e-mat-ics en-joy-a-ble before you count them.
• The reading age is R. Calculate R from 2 Estimate the reading age of the preface
the formula. (foreword) to this book (see page v).
 13 Transformation of graphs and modelling 145

General transformations of graphs

We will look at three different kinds of transformation here. In general, we
have the graph of a function y = f (x) which can be transformed as follows.
1 Translations y = f (x) + a or y = f (x + b)
2 Changes of scale y = a × f (x) or y = f (ax)
3 Reflections y = –f (x) or y = f (–x)
These apply to all functions, but in particular we will show these
transformations using graphs such as parabolas, cubics, hyperbolas,
exponential curves and logarithmic graphs.
13

There is a graph that shows the Further investigation

relationship between the number of
We can use a spreadsheet to do calculations
words with three or more syllables (n)
for the reading age formula and draw the graph.
and the reading age (R).
4 Produce a spreadsheet similar to this one. You
R will have to add to it by completing all the values
Reading age

in column B using a formula. To get the values in

column B, type the formula =SQRT(A7)+8 in cell
(years)

B7 and copy it downwards 10 times.

n
Number of words with three or more
syllables in block of 15 sentences

This table gives information about two

points that would be on the graph.

Number of words with Reading age

three or more syllables
(n) (R)
0 8
100 18

3 Use your results to investigate the

shape of this graph. Try drawing it.
DE LT A

DELTA
Long
M AT HE

man

S
MAATTICICS
matics Mathe
Mathe matic

MATH
an s
Longm

MMAATTHHEEM SECOND E M AT
M AT IC

AALLPPHHAA EDITIO ICS

S

N
A MMAT

tical
A Mathema for
ATHE

Journey
Students
Year 10
HEMMAT

BARTON

matical
ATIC

A Mathe ey for
ICSS

and LA

Journ udents
Year 9
St A Year
5 Use the graph-drawing tools to produce a graph
IRD

in Math13 Course
tical
A Mathema for with Ca ematics
lculus
Journey
Students
Year 11

showing how the number of words and the

DAVID

BARTON
DAVID
DAVID
BA

BA RTON
RTON

STUART

reading age are related.

LAIRD

o.nz
atics.c
 146 Non-linear graphs 2.2

Translations
These can be vertical, horizontal or a mixture of both.
Vertical translations Horizontal translations
• To obtain the graph of y = f (x) + a, move the • To obtain the graph of y = f (x + b), move the
graph of f (x) upwards by a units. graph of f (x) to the left by b units.
• To obtain the graph of y = f (x) – a, move the • To obtain the graph of y = f (x – b), move the
graph of f (x) downwards by a units. graph of f (x) to the right by b units.

Example Draw a y = x3 + 1 Example Draw a y = (x – 2)2

13 b y = log3(x) – 2 b y = 2x + 1

= Answer a y = Answer a y y =(x – 2)2

y= x2
y = x3 + 1
1
y = x3

x
x
2

b y b
y

2 y = log3(x)

2 4 6 x
–2
y = log3(x) – 2 2
y = 2x + 1 y = 2x
–4
1

–1 x

(The graphs of y = x3 and (The graphs of y = x2 and y = 2x are

y = log3(x) are shown dashed as a shown dashed as a comparison.)
comparison.)

TIPSTER
Horizontal translations can be confusing. The reason why
the graph of f (x) is moved right to get the graph of f (x – a)
is because if a was substituted this would give f (0). For
example, the parabola y = (x – 2)2 has a root at 2. Thus the
bottom of the graph is at 2, not –2.
 13 Transformation of graphs and modelling 147

Vertical and horizontal translations Example Draw the graph of

y = log2(x + 1) – 3. Write down
When asked for a mixture of both it is sometimes
the co-ordinates of the y-intercept
best to draw the basic function first.
and the equation of the vertical
Example Draw the graph of the function asymptote.
y = (x – 4)3 + 1.
= Answer First draw the graph of y = log2(x)
= Answer First draw the graph of y = x3 (shown dashed in the diagram).
(shown dashed in the diagram).
Then note that the x – 4 inside the y
6
brackets moves the graph 4 units
to the right, and the + 1 moves the 4 13
graph up 1 unit. y = log2(x)
2
y
y = (x – 4)3 + 1 y = log2(x + 1) – 3
y = x3 –2 2 4 6 8 x
–2

–4
1

4 x –6

The (x + 1) inside the log function

moves the graph 1 unit to the left,
and the – 3 moves the graph down
3 units.
To calculate the y-intercept
LECTURER substitute x = 0:
y = log2(0 + 1) – 3
Note: the asymptote translates in the
= log2(1) – 3
same direction and by the same distance
as the graph does. =0–3
= –3
The vertical asymptote is x = –1.

exercise 13.01
Most of the graphs in this exercise can be obtained by transforming these five basic ones.

Parabola Cubic Hyperbola Exponential Log

y y y y y
y = x3 y= c
x
y = x2
x
e.g. y = 2x x
x
x e.g. y = log2(x)
x
 148 Non-linear graphs 2.2

1 Draw these graphs, each is of the form 8 Describe the transformation of the graph of
y = f (x) ± a. the logarithmic function y = log3(x) needed to
a y = x3 + 2 b y = 1 +2 obtain the graph of each curve. Use language
x from the list {up, down, left, right}. You are
c y = x2 + 3
not required to draw the graphs.
2 Draw these graphs. a y = log3(x + 2) b y = log3(x) – 15
a y = 2x – 1 b y = log2(x) + 4 c y = log3(x – 4) – 7 d y = log3(x + 2) + 9
c y = 2x + 5 d y = log2(x) – 1
9 Write down the equation of the asymptote
3 Draw these graphs, each is of the form and the y-intercept for each of the graphs
13 y = f (x ± b). given by the following equations. You are not
a y = (x – 4)2 b y = (x + 1)3 required to draw the graphs.
3 a y = 3x + 2 b y = 3x − 4
c y=
x−2 c y = 3 x − 10 d y = 3x + 8
4 Draw these graphs, each is of the form e y = 3 x + 1
−3 f y = 3x − 2 + 4
y = f (x ± b). g y = 3x + 5 + 2 h y = 3x − 4 − 7
a y = 2x + 3 b y = log2(x – 4)
10 Write down the equation of the asymptote
c y = 2x – 4 d y = log2(x + 3)
and the y-intercept (if it exists) for each of the
5 Draw these graphs, each is of the form graphs given by the following equations. You
y = f (x ± b) ± a. are not required to draw the graphs.
a y = log10(x – 2)
a y = (x – 1)2 + 3 b y = (x + 2)3 – 1
b y = log10(x + 3)
c y = 1 + 4
x−2 c y = log10(x) + 4
6 Draw these graphs. d y = log10(x) – 5
a y = 2x – 1 + 1 b y = log2(x + 3) – 2 e y = log10(x + 1) + 6
c y = 2x – 3 − 5 d y = log2(x + 4) + 1 f y = log10(x + 4) – 8
g y = log10(x – 5) + 1
7 Describe the transformation of the graph of h y = log10(x – 3) – 2
the exponential function y = 2x needed to
obtain the graph of each curve. Use language 11 Write down expressions for the asymptote
from the list {up, down, left, right}. You are and y-intercept for the functions with these
not required to draw the graphs. general equations.
x
a y = 2 – 10 b y=2 x + 4 a y = 3x + b b y = 3x + c
c y=3 x + c +b
c y = 2x – 6 + 17 d y = 2x + 9 – 20

12 Write down expressions for the asymptote

and y-intercept of the logarithmic function
y = log2(x – b).
 13 Transformation of graphs and modelling 149

Changes of scale
Changing the scale of a graph is equivalent to stretching it away at right-angles from an axis or
compressing it towards an axis. When the scale is changed the distance of a point from either the
x-axis or the y-axis is multiplied by a scale factor. There are two cases.
1 Altering the vertical scale: y = a × f(x)
Here the constant a multiplies the result of the function, so the function is calculated first and then
multiplied by a.
2 Altering the horizontal scale: y = f(ax)
Here the constant a is inside the function – the constant a multiplies x and then the function
operates next. 13
a × f (x) Example Draw the graph of y = 3 ×(0.5)x .
Here the constant alters the vertical scale. To Write down the equation of the
obtain points on the graph of y = a × f (x) all asymptote and the co-ordinates of
heights above/below the x-axis on the graph of the y-intercept.
y = f (x) are multiplied by a. = Answer y
8
Example Draw the graph of y = 1 x 2 .
2
= Answer y
6

6 y = x2
4
y = 3 × (0.5)x
4 1 2 y = (0.5)x 2
y= 2
x

2 –4 –2 2 4 6 x
–2
–4 –2 2 4x
(The graph of y = 0.5 x is shown
(The graph of y = x2 is shown dashed as a comparison.)
dashed as a comparison.) The line y = 0 is the horizontal
asymptote.
Substitute x = 0 to calculate the
y-intercept:
y = 3 × (0.5)0 = 3 × 1 = 3
The y-intercept is (0, 3).
f (ax)
Here the constant alters the horizontal scale. Distances from the y-axis are reduced by a factor of a.
Example Draw the graph of y = 3x.
= Answer y y = 3x
y = x

x Note: all distances from the y-axis are reduced by

a factor of 3. (The graph of y = x is shown dashed
as a comparison.)
 150 Non-linear graphs 2.2

Example Draw the graph of y = log10(2x).

= Answer y
2

1
y = log10(2x)
y = log10(x)
Note: all distances from the y-axis are reduced by a
–1 1 2x
factor of 2 – that is, they are halved. (The graph of
–1 y = log10(x) is shown dashed as a comparison.)
13

exercise 13.02
Most of the graphs in this exercise can be obtained by transforming the five basic ones (shown on
p. 147).

1 Draw these graphs, each is of the form 5 Describe how you could transform the
y = a × f (x). graph of the exponential function y = 4x to
1 obtain the graph of each curve.
a y = 2x3 b y = x2
4 a y = 42x b y = 3 × 4x
y = 1 × 2x
c 5 d y = 3 log2(x)
6 Describe how you could transform the
2 Given the graph of y = x below, draw the graph of the logarithmic function y = log5(x)
graph of y = 4x . Note: this is of the form to obtain the graph of each curve.
y = f (ax). a y = log5(2x) b y = 1 log(x)
2
y
7 Explain whether a change of scale to an
4
exponential graph – that is, either b × ax or
3 y= x acx – has any effect on the position of the
2 asymptote.
1
8 Write down the equation of the asymptote to
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x these graphs.
a y = a log2(x) b y = log3(ax)
3 Draw these graphs, each is of the form
9 Calculate the y-intercept (if it exists) for each
y = f (ax).
of these graphs.
a y = 23x b y = log2(3x)
c y = log 2 1 x
2 ( ) d y = 20.5x
a y = 32x
c y = 0.2 × 4 x
b y = 5 × 3x
d y = 2 log10(x)
4 Write down the asymptote to each graph in
10 Write down an expression for the y-intercept
question 3.
of the graph given by the equation
y = b × acx.
 13 Transformation of graphs and modelling 151

Reflections
The reflections here are of two types – either reflection in the x-axis, or reflection in the y-axis.

Reflection in the x-axis

The graph of y = –f (x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of y = f (x) in the x-axis.

Example Draw the graph of y = –x2. Example Draw the graph of y = –log2(x).
= Answer y
y = x2
= Answer y
6 4
y = log2(x) 13
4 2

2 –2 2 4 6x
–2
–4 –2 2 4x
–4
y = –log2(x)
–2

–4 (The graph of y = log2(x) is shown

y = –x2 dashed as a comparison.)
–6

(The graph of y = x2 is shown

dashed as a comparison.)

Reflection in the y-axis

The graph of y = f (–x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of y = f (x) in the y-axis.

Example The graph of f (x) is shown. Draw Example Draw the graph of y = 2 −x.
the graph of the function f (–x).
= Answer y
y y = 2x

f(x)
1
x y = 2–x

(The graph of y = 2x is shown

= Answer y dashed as a comparison.)

f(–x)

x
 152 Non-linear graphs 2.2

exercise 13.03
1 Draw these graphs, each is of the form 4 Draw these graphs.
y = –f (x). a y = 2–x b y = log2(–x)
a y = –x2 b y = –x3
5 The graph of y = 6x is reflected in the x-axis.
2 Draw these graphs, each is of the form What is the equation of the image?
y = f (–x).
a y = (–x)3 b y = (–x)2 6 The graph of y = log8(x) is reflected in the
y-axis. What is the equation of the image?
13 3 Draw these graphs.
a y = –2x b y = –log2(x)

Several transformations at once

It is possible to have more than one kind of transformation occurring in any particular function. Two
suggested approaches are:
1 technology,
2 build up the final graph from a basic graph.
You can use a graphics calculator, or graphing software, or a spreadsheet to draw the graph.

Example Draw the graph of y = –4 × 2x + 3 + 5.

Comment: This example includes horizontal and vertical translation, reflection, and
change of scale.
= Answer 1 Using graphing software: y
2 If building up the graph y = –4 × 2x + 3 + 5 6
from basic graphs, the best 4
order to follow is the order of
2
operations as they are applied to x. The
transformations in this graph can be –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 2 x
explained in the following sequence. –2

i The basic graph is y = 2x and it passes –4

through the points (0, 1) and (1, 2). –6
ii The ‘x + 3’ moves the basic graph 3 –8
units to the left.
iii The –4 has two effects: multiplication by
4 increases all distances from the x-axis by 4, and the minus sign reflects the
graph in the x-axis.
iv The ‘+ 5’ moves the graph up 5 units.
 13 Transformation of graphs and modelling 153

Example Show how to build up the graph of y = 2 log3(–x) + 4 from the basic graph y = log3(x).
= Answer y y
6 6
4 4
2 2

–6 –4 –2 2 4 6x –6 –4 –2 2 4 6x
–2 –2

–4 –4

–6 –6
y = log3(x) y = log3(–x) 13
y y
6 6
4 4
2 2

–6 –4 –2 2 4 6x –6 –4 –2 2 4 6x
–2 –2

–4 –4

–6 –6

y=2 log3(–x) y = 2 log3(–x) + 4

exercise 13.04
1 Use the transformation properties to draw 4 Here is the graph of y = g(x). Draw each of
these graphs. (Mixed examples.) the following.
y
a y = –x2 + 7 b y = –(x + 2)3 a y = g(x) + 2
–
c y = (x – 4) 2 d y = 8 – x3 b y = g(x + 2) 1 y = g(x)
c y = 2g(x)
2 Use the transformation properties to draw d y = –g(x) –2 3 x
these graphs. (Mixed examples.)
a y = 2 – log2(x) b y = 2x – 1 – 4
–x 5 y
c y=2 +1 d y = 1 – 2–x 4
e y = –log2(2 – x) f y = –2x + 3
3 y= x
3 Here is the graph of y = f (x). Draw each of 2
the following. 1
y
a y = f (x – 1)
b y = –f (x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
c y = f (x) + 1 4 y = f(x)
Given the graph of y = x shown here,
d y = 2f (x) draw:
−
a i y = x
ii y = x − 1
2 x iii y + 2 = x
–1
 154 Non-linear graphs 2.2

b What is the equation of this 6 The graph of f (x) is drawn y

square root graph? here. Draw each of the y = f(x)
2
graphs indicated below.
y 1
a y = f (x) + 1
2 b y = 2f (x) –1
2 5 7 x
1 c y = f (x + 1)
–
d y = f (x)
–3 1 x
e y = f (–x)
y
7 Given the graph of f (x) 2
13 shown here, draw
1
y = f(x)
the graph of y = –2f (x).
–1 1 2 3 x
–1

Interpreting features of models with exponential and logarithmic graphs

Real-life applications of exponential and logarithmic models include compound interest, population
growth, decay, and so on. Sometimes the model is translated up, down or sideways to allow for fixed
values. The y-intercept usually gives information about initial conditions.

Example A freezer is installed in a supermarket and switched on. The temperature (T) in degrees
Celsius inside the freezer t hours after being switched on can be modelled by the
equation T = 30(0.85)t – 12.

T
20
16
12
Temperature (°C)

8
4
0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 t
–4
Time (hours)
–8

–12

a How does the graph show that the freezer cools fastest in the first hour?
b Calculate the value of the y-intercept. Explain what it represents in this model.
c Write the equation of the horizontal asymptote. Explain what it represents in this
model.
d A similar freezer is installed in another supermarket. The temperature inside the
supermarket is 21 °C and the freezer is set to cool to –9 °C. The freezer lowers the
temperature by 24% each hour. Express the relationship between the temperature
of the freezer and the time elapsed as an exponential model.
e Discuss whether the model is realistic.
 13 Transformation of graphs and modelling 155

= Answer a The steepest part of the graph (between t = 0 and t = 1) is when the rate of cooling
is highest.
b y = 30(0.85)0 – 12 = 30 × 1 – 12 = 18. The initial temperature of the freezer is 18 °C
– this would be the same as the temperature inside the supermarket.
c The horizontal asymptote to the graph of T = 30(0.85)t – 12 is the line T = –12. The
freezer will not cool to below a temperature of –12 °C, no matter how long it runs.
d If the freezer is lowering the temperature by 24% per hour, the base in the
exponential function (or repeated multiplication factor) will be 0.76.
The equation will be of the form T = A(0.76) t – 9.
Substitute t = 0 and T = 21 to calculate A: 13
21 = A × (0.76)0 – 9
21 = A – 9
A = 30
The equation is T = 30(0.76)t – 9.
e The model is probably not realistic. The drop in temperature each hour is more
likely to be constant as the freezer removes warm air, so a linear model, with a
negative gradient, would be more realistic. The model also implies the freezer
takes a very long time to reach its minimum operating temperature – it is more
likely to reach this temperature and then stay there.

exercise 13.05
1 Pauline has two bank accounts. One account a Write down the intercept with the
is cash and earns no interest. The other one vertical axis. Explain what information it
is a savings account, and the value of that gives about the two accounts.
increases by 5% each year. Assuming that no b What is the amount in the cash account?
withdrawals are made from either account, c In which one of the 10 one-year periods
the total amount (A) in dollars after x years is the value of the total increasing the
can be modelled by the equation fastest? Justify your answer by referring
A = 3000 × (1.05)x + 2000, over a 10-year to a feature of the graph.
period. d Write down another equation if Pauline’s
A circumstances were changed, so that
10 000
the amount in the savings account was
$5000, and it was increasing by 7.5% per
Total value of both accounts ($)

year.
8000
2 A population of locusts usually has stable
6000 numbers, but over some short periods
the growth of a swarm of locusts can be
modelled by an exponential curve.
4000

2000

0
2 4 6 8 10 x
Time (years)
 156 Non-linear graphs 2.2

For one particular swarm the equation c Give the equation of the model. (Round a
of the curve is y = 200 000 × ax + b, where to 3 significant figures.)
x is the number of days since the growth d Discuss whether this model is realistic
started and y is the number of locusts. The over a long period of time.
population grows at 7% per day. The graph is
shown here. Calculate the values of a and b. 4 An internet service provider (ISP) leases
broadband capacity from a telephone
y
company. The service is unreliable at
600 000 times, and there are frequent momentary
Number of locusts

interruptions to the service. The following

rule is used to calculate the amount paid by
13 450 000
the ISP for a month’s broadband service:
A = 6000(0.99)n + 3000, where A is the
300 000 amount paid in dollars and n is the number
of interruptions in one month.
150 000 A

10 000

Monthly fee payable by ISP ($)

2 4 6 8 10 12 x 8000
Time (days)

6000
3 Some farmers collect rain water off their roof
and it is stored in a tank. One morning after
4000
it starts to rain the amount of water in the
tank can be modelled by the equation
2000
R = a log10(t + 3) where t is the time in hours
from when it starts raining, and R is the
amount of water in the tank, measured in 50 100 150 200 250 300 n
litres. Number of interruptions
R
a Calculate the vertical intercept. Explain
12 000 what it tells us about the monthly charge.
Volume of water in tank (L)

10 000 b Write down the equation of the

asymptote to the graph of
8000 A = 6000(0.99)n + 3000. Explain what
information it gives about the monthly
6000 charges.
c The telephone company decides to put
4000
up their monthly charge. Adjust the
2000 equation so that regardless of the exact
number of faults, the ISP pays $1000
0
2 4 6
more in total.
t
Time (hours)

a Use the graph to determine the amount of

water in the tank when it starts to rain.
b Describe how the graph shows that the
rain is falling at its heaviest in the first
hour.
 13 Transformation of graphs and modelling 157

5 A telephone company charges for phone

calls using a logarithmic function. The
equation is C = 2 log10(x + 1) + b, where C
is measured in dollars and x is the time in
minutes taken for a call. The graph is shown
here.

C
4
6 An airline believes a logarithmic curve
3 makes a good model for the relationship 13
Cost of call ($)

between the distance (x km) of a flight on

a Boeing 777 and the cost of the flight, C,
2 measured in dollars. C includes fuel, crew
wages, landing fees, etc. The model is
C = P log10(x + 50) + Q.
1
C

2 4 6 8 10 x 150 000
Time of call (minutes) Cost of flight ($)

a What information does the graph give

100 000
about the rate at which a call is charged?
b A 4-minute call costs $2.00. Use this
information to calculate the value of b to
the nearest cent. 50 000
c Use the graph to estimate the cost of an
8-minute call.
d Use the equation to estimate the cost of a
20-minute call. 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000 x
e What feature of a logarithmic graph Distance flown (km)
means this model is unlikely to be
realistic? a Write a brief paragraph describing what
the graph shows about the relationship
between distance and cost.
b Determine the equation of the model
(that is, calculate the values of P and Q
correct to 3 significant figures) given the
following information:
• a flight of 0 km costs $57 000,
• a flight of 7000 km costs $100 000.
c The maximum range of a Boeing 777
is 17 450 km (equivalent to flying from
Auckland to New York non-stop). What
does the model give as the cost of flying
this distance?
158 Non-linear graphs 2.2

NCEA 2.2 Revision exercises

▼

1 Draw the graphs of each equation below. In each 5 The stopping distance (y) (measured in metres)
case show all relevant features, such as intercepts, of a harbour ferry is related to its speed (x)
asymptotes, etc. (measured in km/h). The top speed of the ferry
a y = x(x + 1)(x – 2) b y = 2x is 15 km/h. An approximate model linking x
–3 and y if the ferry is travelling in still water is:
c y = d x2 + y2 = 4
x y = 2x(x + 5).
e y = log10(x) f y = (x – 3)2 – 1 ACH a Calculate the stopping distance if the ferry
is travelling at top speed.
2 Draw the graphs of each equation below. b Draw the graph of y = 2x(x + 5) for possible
a y = 6 −3 values for the ferry’s speed.
x+1 c The ferry is travelling at 8 km/h towards
b (x – 2)2 + (y + 4)2 = 16 a wharf that is 200 m away. Add some lines
to the graph to help explain whether the
c y = 3x – 2
ferry will be able to stop in time. MRT
d y = log2(x + 3) MRT
6 A motorist returns to their car on a hot
3 Write the equation of the circle drawn here. summer’s day and drives off, turning on the air-
y
conditioning. The temperature inside the car after
driving off can be modelled by the hyperbola:
8
T = 120 + 18 ,
t−c
6
where T is the temperature in °C and t is the time
4
in minutes.
50
2
40
Temperature (°C)

–8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 x 30
–2
20
–4 MRT
10

4 Write the equation of the parabola drawn here. 0

5 10 15 20
y
Time (minutes)

8
a The intercept on the vertical axis is 42.
6 Explain what this information represents in
the context of this model.
4 b What is the equation of the horizontal
asymptote to the hyperbola?
2 c Obtain the equation of the hyperbola.
d What result does the model give for the
–8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 x temperature of the car 25 minutes after
driving off?
–2
e What feature of the model means it is
–4
probably not realistic? EXC
MRT
 159

2.3 Derivatives and integrals

Find and use straightforward derivatives and integrals

Contents
14 Introducing differentiation 160 16 Integration 179
Gradients of curves 160 Anti-derivatives 179
Derivatives of polynomials 162 The rule for anti-differentiation of
Multiples of powers of x 164 polynomials 179
Differentiating simple products and Evaluating the constant of integration 181
quotients 165 Definite integrals 183
Using index properties in differentiation 166 Areas under curves 184
Substitution into derived functions 166 Areas below the x-axis 188
Applications of area 190
Linking algebra, geometry and calculus 192
15 Calculus and curves 168
Tangents to curves 168
Finding the point where the gradient has 17 Calculus applications 194
a given value 169 Rates of change 194
The equation of a tangent to a curve 170 Kinematics: the study of motion 196
Increasing and decreasing functions 171 Common conventions in kinematics 197
Turning points 172 Kinematics – differentiation 197
Stationary points 172 Kinematics – integration 199
Maximum and minimum points 173 Kinematics using both differentiation and
Applications 175 integration 201
Applications of maxima and minima 203
Enclosed areas 204
Other applications of maxima and
minima 206

NCEA 2.3 Revision exercises 211

 14
Introducing differentiation

Gradients of curves
14 The gradient, or slope, of a line is a number that Although the gradient of the curve is
describes how steep changing all the time, we will discover soon that
the line is. On a line × a special formula, called the derived function or
the gradient is the m=1 derivative of f (x), gives the gradient at any point.
2
same regardless × The symbol for the derived function is f ’(x).
of where m=1
2
you measure it.
However, on a curve ×
LECTURER
the steepness is changing m=1 Another symbol for derivative or derived function
2
all the time. ×
dy
is dx . This is particularly useful with curves given
m=1 in the form ‘y = …’. This symbol is pronounced
‘dee why by dee ex’. The full description is ‘the
×m = 2 derivative of y with respect to x’.

Example The graph of a function f (x) is

We define the gradient of a curve at a point to shown here. A tangent is drawn
be the gradient of the tangent drawn to the curve at x = 2. Use the graph to evaluate
at that point. f ’(2), the derivative of f (x) at x = 2.
The gradient of the curve below at a is the
y
same as the gradient of the tangent at a. f(x)
5
y 4
f(x) 3
2
a 1

1 2 3 4 5 x

x = Answer The tangent passes through the

points (1, 0) and (3, 4).
y − y1
In general, the rule for the equation of the Gradient = 2
x2 − x1
curve is some function f (x).
The gradient of this curve would be different = 4−0
if we chose another point. 3−1
= 4 = 2
2
 14 Introducing differentiation 161

exercise 14.01
1 The equation of this parabola is y = x2. 3 The diagram shows the graph of
−
A = (0, 0), B = (1, 1) and C = (2, 4). y = 1 x 2 + 5.
4
y
y
y = x2
4 C

y=
–1
x2 + 5 6×
4
B × ×
3
–2 A 2 x
× ×

a Write down the gradient of the line 3 6 x 14

joining A and B.
b Calculate the gradient of the line BC.
c Complete this sentence: Use the lines drawn on the diagram to
‘If a tangent to this curve was drawn at estimate the gradient on this curve at these
B, its gradient would be between ___ and points:
___.’ a (2, 4) b (4, 1)
Estimate the gradient of the curve at these
2 a Make a reasonably accurate copy of the
points:
graph for the parabola given by y = x2 on
a square grid. c (0, 5) d (–2, 4).

y 4 The diagram shows y

the graph of y = x2 + 1. 6
y= x2 ×
×
4
y = x2 + 1
× (1, 1) 2

x
0 2 x

b Plot the two points P = (0, –1) and The gradient of this curve at (2, 5) is exactly
Q = (2, 3) on the diagram. 4. What would you expect the gradient of
c Join P and Q. Where does the line PQ the curve to be at (–2, 5)?
touch the parabola y = x2?
d Calculate the gradient of the line PQ. 5 Six points labelled A, B, C, D, E and F lie on
e What is the gradient of the parabola this graph. Write down a likely value for the
y = x2 at (1, 1)? gradient at each point. Choose from these
values:
− F×
3 1 –1 0 4 1
3 B
×
A× E×
×C
×
D
 162 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

6 A student has used tangents to y Co-ordinates of

investigate the gradient at various point on curve Gradient
× × m=6
points on the graph of y = x2. The –
( 3, 9)
gradients at these points are (–2, 4) –4
shown in the boxes. The pattern is (–1, 1)
summarised in the table. (0, 0) 0
a Use the pattern in the table to m = –4 × ×m=4 (1, 1) 2
estimate the gradient at the (2, 4) 4
other three points given in the table (3, 9) 6
for the parabola y = x2. × × m=2
× (4, 16)
b Explain in words how the gradient –2
m=0 2 x
is related to the
x-co-ordinate of the point on the
curve.
14 c Express the gradient in terms of x.

y
7 This diagram shows an accurate graph of a circle with a
radius of 5 units, and a tangent that touches the circle at 5
(4, –3). × ×
a The tangent to the circle at (4, –3) passes through the × ×
points (1, –7) and (7, 1). Calculate its gradient. ×
b Would you expect the gradient of the circle at (3, –4) to
be greater than or less than 1? –5 5 x
c Give the co-ordinates of the two points on the circle that × ×
have a gradient of 0. × ×
d Write down the co-ordinates of the other point on the
–5
circle that has the same gradient as at the point (4, –3).
×

Derivatives of polynomials
Fortunately there is a rule that gives derived functions for powers of x. This means we don’t have to
calculate gradients all the time!

The rule for differentiation (finding derived functions)

TIPSTER
of powers of x is: The rule says, ‘Take the power of x out
f (x) = xn ⇒ f ’(x) = nxn – 1 to the front, and subtract 1 from the
power’. In other words, multiply by the
index, and drop the index by 1.
Example Differentiate:
a x4 b x c 6
LECTURER
= Answer a 4x 3

b Note: x = x1. Example c shows that constant terms have

This differentiates to 1x1 – 1 = 1x0 = 1 a derived function of 0. This is what we would
expect – if the graph of f (x) = 6 was drawn
c 6 = 6x 0.
(i.e. y = 6) it would be a horizontal line with a
x0 differentiates to 0x–1 = 0.
gradient of 0.
 14 Introducing differentiation 163

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
The shrinking chord
B
We can use a spreadsheet to calculate the gradient of a chord joining two points on a
curve. We will keep one point, A, fixed and investigate what happens as the other B
point, B, moves closer to A.
Let’s consider the curve y = x2. One point (A) on this curve is (1.5, 2.25).
With the other point we will start with B = (2, 4) and then move closer to A,
using x-values that go downwards from 2 getting closer and closer to 1.5. B

y
B
Chord B× (2, 4)

B
14
A
× (1.5, 2.25)

1.5 2 x

• In column A of the spreadsheet we have the x-values getting closer to 1.5.

• The values in column B are calculated using the rule for the curve – that is, y = x2.
y − 2.25
• The formula is used in column C to calculate the gradient of the chord.
x − 1.5
This spreadsheet printout shows the formulae used.
 164 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

This spreadsheet printout shows

the resulting values that appear.

14

1 Open a spreadsheet and type in these headings, the values in column A, and the formulae
in cells B5 and C5. Copy the formulae downwards a number of times.
2 Explain what happens to the value of the gradient as the moving point (B) approaches the
fixed point (A).
3 What value would you expect the gradient of the tangent at A to have?
4 What happens if the x-value 1.5 is used in column A?
5 Use the method here to estimate the gradient of the tangent to:
a y = x2 – 4 at (1, –3) b y = 1 x 3 at (3, 4.5) c y = x2 + x – 2 at (–4, 10)
6

Multiples of powers of x

When there is a number in front of (multiplying) the

power, that number stays there when differentiating:
f (x) = axn ⇒ f ’(x) = anx n – 1

Example Differentiate y = 5x3 – 2x.

= Answer dy
dx
= 5 × 3x 2 − 2
= 15x 2 − 2

Important notes
1 The above example shows that when a function includes several terms added or subtracted
together, we can differentiate term by term.
2 We call the process in the example above differentiating by sight – that is, we use the rule for
differentiating powers of x without going back to investigating gradients.
 14 Introducing differentiation 165

exercise 14.02 exercise 14.03

Differentiate these functions by sight. Differentiate these functions by sight.
2
1 x3 14 x + 6x 1 x5 14 x 2 + x
3
2 x8 15 3x + 2x 2 2 x2 15 10 – x
3 3x 2 16 5x 4 + 1 3 10x 4
16 x 3 + 2x
4 4x – 1 6 5 4
4 x +x –x +x +x 3 2
17 x 4 + 3x 2 17 8x – 3x 4
2
5 5x – 6x 5 2x + 14
18 x 2 + 1 18 x 2 – 5x – 8
6 8 19 x 4 + 2x 2 6 3x – 6 19 4x 3 – 2x
4
20 x + 1
2
7 2x + 5x – 6 7 8x + 14
20 3x 2 + 4x 4
8 4x 4 + 2x 5 8 3x – 3
21 x 5 + 8x 2 21 4x + 2x 2
9 3x 2 + 4 3
9 2x + 6x
22 3x 2 – 6x 22 x 5 – x 4 14
10 x 4 – 2 5
10 3x + 6x 23 2x + 1
23 3x 2 – x
11 x 2 + 2x + 1 11 x – 1 24 4 – 8x
24 4x 3 – 2x
12 3x + 6 12 8x 2 – 2x 25 px + qx
25 3x
13 4x 2 + 2 13 x − 1
2

Differentiating simple products and quotients

The rules for differentiating introduced above only work on simple polynomials, with terms given
one by one. When differentiating a product, or a quotient, expand or simplify first if possible to
express as a simple polynomial before differentiating.

Differentiate f(x) = 2x + 5x .
3 2
Example Differentiate y = x 2(2x 3 – 5). Example
x
= Answer Expand first: = Answer Simplify by dividing first:
y = x 2(2x3 – 5)
f ( x) = 2x + 5x
3 2
y = 2x 5 – 5x 2 x
3 2
Then differentiate: = 2x + 5x
x x
dy
= 2 × 5x 4 − 5 × 2x = 2x 2 + 5x
dx
= 10x 4 − 10x Then differentiate:
f ’(x) = 2 × 2x + 5
= 4x + 5

exercise 14.04
By expanding out or dividing first, differentiate these expressions.
x3 12 3x 2 − 4 x
1 3(2x – x 2) 5 3(x – 1)(x + 2) 9
x2 x
2 x(x + 1) 6 2x 2(4x – 3) 3x 4 + 4 x 2 + 6x
10 12x 5 13
3 (2x + 3)2 7 x 2(3x 4 + 1) 6x 2x
4 x(2x + 3)2 8 x 3(4x – 7) 11 x2 − x 14 x 2 (3x − 5)
x 2x
 166 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

Using index properties in differentiation Substitution into derived functions

Expressions involving some fractions can be In the previous exercises we covered the process
expressed using negative indices. The techniques of differentiation for various functions. The
needed to differentiate some fraction functions function we derive this way gives a formula for
are shown in the example below. Note: the finding the gradient. To actually evaluate the
convention is to give answers in the same form gradient, we need to substitute a value for x.
as they are written in the question. Example f (x) = x 3 – 4x 2 + 5x – 6.
Example Differentiate these expressions: Calculate f ’(2).
a 1 b 5 = Answer f ’(x) = 3x 2 – 8x + 5
x x3
= Answer a First rewrite 1 as x 1.
x
–
f ’(2) = 3 × 22 – 8 × 2 + 5
−2 = 12 – 16 + 5
14 f ′( x) = − 1x
=1
= − 1 × 12
x Example f (x) = x 2 – 4x + 7.
−1
= 2 Solve the equation f ’(x) = 6.
x

b First rewrite
5 as 5x−3 . = Answer f ’(x) = 2x – 4
x3 2x − 4 = 6
−
f ′(x) = 5 × − 3 × x 4 2x = 10
−4
= − 15x x = 5
− 15
=
x4

exercise 14.05 exercise 14.06

Differentiate each expression, giving answers in 1–14 Differentiate and evaluate the derived
the same form as they are given here. functions for the given values.
1 x–2 1 1 f(x) = x3. Calculate:
13
3 x4
2 x–4 a f ′(4)
14 1
3 3x–5 b f ′(–1)
2x 3
4 5x–2
−3 c f ′(0)
15
4x 4
5 –2x–5 −1 2 y = x 2 + 7x – 4. Calculate dy for:
6 –x 5
– 16 dx
5x 2 a x=2
7 –5x 2 – x+3 b x=0
17
1 x3 c x = –3
8
18 2x − 5x
4
x2
x 3 f (x) = 4x – 3. Calculate f ′(5).
9 42 x 2 − 3x
x 19
2x 4 4 f (x) = 2 – 3x – x2. Calculate:
10 5 1
x4 20 8x 4 + a f ′(1)
x
−2 b f ′(–4)
11 1 + 43
x3 21 x 3 −
2x 2 x c f ′( 1 )
−4 2
22 4 x 2− 2
12 2
x7 x
 14 Introducing differentiation 167

5 y = x 4 – 2x 2 + 5x – 9. Calculate dy for: 15–17 Evaluate the derived functions for the

a x=0 dx given values. Give all answers in integer, fraction
b x=2 or mixed number form.
c x = –5 15 f (x) = 1 . Calculate:
x2
6 f (x) = x2 – 4x + 8 Solve f ′(x) = 0 a f ′(2)
7 f (x) = x2 – 5x + 3 Solve f ′(x) = –1 b f ′(–3)
c f ′(0)
8 f (x) = x2 + 10x – 3 Solve f ′(x) = 8
9 f (x) = x3 – 3x Solve f ′(x) = 0 –
16 f (x) = –4x 3. Calculate:
10 f (x) = x3 – 10x Solve f ′(x) = 2
a f ′(1)
11 f (x) = x3 – 6x2 – 24x Solve f ′(x) = –9
b f ′( 1 )
12 y = x2 – 4x + 8 Solve dy = 3 2
dx c f ′(–2) 14
= x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x − 17
13 f ( x ) Solve f ′(x) = 0 1 . Calculate:
3 17 f (x) =
14 f (x) = x3 – 12x2 + 6x – 8 Solve f ′(x) = –30 6x 3
a f ′(2)
b f ′(–1)
c f ′( 1 )
2
 15
Calculus and curves

Tangents to curves
15 As we saw earlier, the process of differentiation results in a ‘derived function’ which gives a formula
for the gradient at any point on a curve. Given a function f(x), we substitute the x-co-ordinate into
f ′(x) to find the gradient.

The gradient at a point on

a curve is the same as the
gradient of the tangent at
that point. (x1, y1)

Example Write down the gradient of the

curve y = x2 at the point (3, 9). TIPSTER
= Answer f ′(x) = 2x
To determine the gradient at a point we only
f ′(3) = 6 need to substitute the x-value into the derived
That is, the gradient is 6. function. The y-co-ordinate is not used.

exercise 15.01
1 Find the gradient of the tangent to the 2 Find the gradient of the following curves at
following curves at the points indicated. the points indicated.
a y = x 2 when x = 1 a f (x) = x 2 – 2x + 3 at the point (–2, 11)
b y = x 2 – 4x – 1 when x = 8 b f (x) = x 3 – 8 at the point (2, 0)
c y = 2x 2 when x = 3 c f (x) = x 2 + 3x – 5 at the point (–3, –5)
d y = 3x 2 – 5x + 4 when x = 5
3 Find the gradient of the tangent to the
e y = x 3 + 2x + 1 when x = –4
following curves at the points indicated.
f y = 3x 3 + 2x 2 – x – 5 when x = –1
a y = x 2 – 8x + 1 at the point (4, –15)
g y = x 4 + 3x – 2 when x = 1
2
h f(x) = 3x 2 + 2x – 1 when x = 1
(
b y = 2x 3 + 3x at the point 1 , 1 3
2 4 )
4
4 Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve
f (x) = 42 − x − 8 when x = –1.
x
 15 Calculus and curves 169

Finding the point where the gradient has a given value

Given the value of the gradient, it is possible to form an equation using the derived function. This
equation is solved for x (giving the x-co-ordinate of course), and then the corresponding y-value can
be calculated by substituting the x-value just found into the original function.
Example What are the co-ordinates of the point on the curve given by y = x2 – 2x – 5 where the
gradient is 6?
= Answer At the required point the gradient is 6. That is:
dy
= 6
dx
2x − 2 = 6
2x = 8
x = 4
15
The corresponding y-value is found by substituting into the original function, that is:
y = x2 – 2x – 5
y = 42 – 2 × 4 – 5
= 16 – 8 – 5
=3
The co-ordinates are (4, 3).

TIPSTER If you have a graphics calculator or y = x2 – 2x – 5 y

graphing software it is useful to draw a 16
graph to ‘picture’ what is going on. For the 14
above example, the picture looks like this: 12
10
8
6
4 × (4, 3)
2
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 8x
–2
–4
–6
–8
–10

exercise 15.02
1 Write down the co-ordinates of the point on 3 Work out the co-ordinates of the following
the curve y = x2 – 3x + 1 where the gradient is: points.
a 7 b –5 a On the curve y = x2 + 5x + 3 where the
gradient is 1.
2 What are the co-ordinates of the point on the b On the curve f(x) = 7x – 3x2 where the
curve f(x) = 4x2 – 7x + 3 where the gradient is: gradient is –5.
a 1 b –3 c On the curve y = –x2 – 3x + 4 where the
gradient is –1.
 170 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

4 Find the co-ordinates of both the points on 8 What are the co-ordinates of both points
the curve y = x − 1 x 3 where the gradient is 0. on the curve y = 5 − 4 where the
3 x
gradient is 4?
5 Find the co-ordinates of both the points on the
curve y = x3 – 9x2 + 10x – 5 where the gradient 9 The equation for a parabola is given by
is –14. y = x 2 + px + 2. Determine the value of p
so that the gradient of the parabola is –4 at
6 What are the co-ordinates of the point on the the point where x = 3.
curve y = 322 where the gradient is –1?
x 10 Find the co-ordinates of the point on the
7 What are the co-ordinates of both points on curve y = x 2 – 4x + 8 at which the tangent
to the curve is perpendicular to the
the curve y = 8 where the gradient is –2?
x tangent at the point (1, 5).

15
The equation of a tangent to a curve
To obtain the equation of the tangent to a curve, given the co-ordinates (x1, y1) of a point on the curve:
1 differentiate to obtain the derived function,
2 substitute x1 into the derived function to find the tangent gradient,
3 then use the point–gradient equation y – y1 = m(x – x1) for the tangent equation.

Example Write down the equation of the tangent to y = x2 – 6x – 2 at the point (7, 5).
= Answer f ′(x) = 2x – 6
f ′(7) = 2 × 7 – 6 = 8
That is, the gradient is 8.
Now use the point–gradient equation y – y1 = m(x – x1).
Note: m = 8, x1 = 7 and y1 = 5.
Equation of the tangent is:
y − 5 = 8( x − 7)
= 8x − 56
y = 8x − 51
or writing in the form ax + by + c = 0: 8x – y – 51 = 0.

exercise 15.03
1 Find the equation for each of these tangents: 2 What is the equation of the tangent to
a to the curve y = x2 + 4x – 7 at the point (2, 5) the curve y = x2 + 3x – 5 at the point
b to the curve y = x2 – 2x – 4 at the point (1, –5) where x = 2?
c to the curve y = x2 + x – 3 at the point (–2, –1) 3 What is the equation of the tangent to
d to the curve y = 2x2 + 3x – 5 at the point (1, 0) the curve y = x2 + 2x + 12 at the point
e to the curve y = x3 – 4x at the point (–3, –15) where x = –3?
f to the curve y = (x + 2)(x – 3) at the point (0, –6).
4 What is the equation of the tangent to
the curve f(x) = 3x2 – 9x at the point
where x = 4?
 15 Calculus and curves 171

5 Find the equations of the tangents to the 7 What is the equation of the tangent to the
curve y = x2 + 3x – 10 at the points where the curve f(x) = 2x2 – 8x at the point where the
curve cuts the x-axis. gradient is 4?

6 What is the equation of the tangent to the

curve f(x) = x3 + 7x – 2 at the point where it
cuts the y-axis?

Increasing and decreasing functions

• A function is said to be increasing when it has a positive
gradient.
• A function is said to be decreasing when it has a negative
gradient. 15

We can use calculus to work out the x-values for which a Decreasing Increasing Decreasing
function is increasing or decreasing:
• f(x) is increasing when f ’(x) > 0,
• f(x) is decreasing when f ’(x) < 0.
Example For what values of x is the graph of y = x2 – 4x + 5 decreasing?
dy
= Answer dx
= 2 x − 4 < 0 for a decreasing graph.
2x − 4 < 0
y
x < 4
2x
x < 2 Original function
4 • Increasing when x > 2
2 • Decreasing when x < 2
The relationship between the original function and × • Turning point when x = 2
the derived function can be shown by comparing –2 2 4 x
their graphs. –2

• For x-values where the original function is

increasing the derived function is positive (has y
4
positive y-values so is above the x-axis).
2 Derived function
• For x-values where the original function is • Positive when x > 2
decreasing the derived function is negative (has × • Negative when x < 2
–2 2 4 x • Zero when x = 2
negative y-values so is below the x-axis). –2

–4

Example Find the set of x-values for which the y

graph drawn here is increasing.

= Answer x < –1 or x > 2. 2

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3x
 172 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

Turning points
Suppose a function has a smooth graph (without sharp corners). Maximum
×
A turning point on the graph of a function is the point where the
function changes from being increasing to being decreasing, or from
decreasing to increasing. This means that at a turning point the gradient
is zero, i.e. f ′( x) = 0. There are two kinds of turning point: a maximum
point (plural maxima) and a minimum point (plural minima). At both ×
points f ′( x) = 0. Minimum

Stationary points Maximum

×
The definition of a stationary point is a point where
f ′( x) = 0. Stationary points include both maxima and
15 minima, but also another kind of point – a point of
inflection.
×
Minimum

×
Point of inflection

exercise 15.04
1 At each of the points marked A, B, C, D and 3 At which point on the graph is f ’(x) < 0?
E, say whether the graph of this function f(x)
drawn below is increasing, decreasing or
stationary. E
×
B× x
y
C
B E A
C ×
A D
x
D 4 For the curve y = f (x) drawn here, at which
point does the value of the gradient equal
zero?
2 At which point on the graph is f an f(x)
increasing function? C
B D
f(x) D
×
A
A C x
B
×
x
E×
 15 Calculus and curves 173

5 At which point on the graph is the gradient 7 For each of the graphs in question 6, state
a positive number? the set of x-values for which the function is
decreasing.
y
D
A ×
8 State whether the parabola given by
x y = x2 + 2x is increasing, decreasing or
×
C stationary when:
B a x=4 b x = –1
×E
c x= 5 –

6 For each graph drawn below, state the set of 9 State whether the parabola given by
x-values for which the function is increasing. y = (x + 4)(x – 7) is increasing, decreasing or
a b stationary when:
y a x = –5 b x=3
y
c x=0
15
2

5 10 Explain why the parabola given by

–3 x
3 y = 2x2 – 7x + 1 is increasing when x = 3.
2
11 Explain why the parabola given by
4 x
f (x) = x2 – 2x + 4 has a stationary point
when x = 1. What are the co-ordinates of
c d this point?
y y
12 For what values of x is the parabola given by
y = x2 + 4x + 3 decreasing?

2 4 6 8 x 13 For what values of x is the function

–1 2 4 x
–1 f(x) = 2 – 2x – x2 increasing?

14 A curve has equation y = 1 – 5x + 3x2.

a For what value of x is the tangent to the
curve horizontal?
b For what values of x is y decreasing?

Maximum and minimum points

We saw previously that there are two types of turning point on a Maximum
graph – maximum and minimum. At this stage we will consider only ×
stationary points that are not points of inflection. At each type of point,
the gradient is 0. To find the co-ordinates of a turning point:
• solve the equation f’(x) = 0, the solution to this equation gives the
x-co-ordinate, ×
• to obtain the y-co-ordinate, substitute the x-value into the original Minimum
function f(x).
You are often asked to say whether a minimum or maximum point has been obtained. Methods for
deciding the nature of the point you have found include the following two.
 174 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

1 Draw the graph – the type of point should be obvious.

2 Evaluate the function at points just above and just below x, the turning point value. If these
answers are greater than f(x) then a minimum has been found. If these answers are less than f(x)
then a maximum has been found.
Example Find the co-ordinates of the turning point on the graph of y = x2 – 6x + 7. Determine its
nature.
dy
= Answer dx
= 2 x − 6 = 0 for a turning point:
2x − 6 = 0 y
2x =6
x = 3 7

15 To find the y-co-ordinate, substitute x = 3 into the original equation:

y = 32 – 6 × 3 + 7 = 9 – 18 + 7 = –2
The turning point is (3, –2). x
3
As the graph of the function is a parabola that has branches up, –2
it is obviously a minimum point.

Example Determine the co-ordinates of the turning points of the function given by
f(x) = x3 – 3x + 2. State which point is a maximum and which is a minimum.

= Answer f ′(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 0 for turning points:

3x 2 = 3
x2 = 1
x =±1
The x-values that give turning points are 1 and –1. To calculate the y-value at the
turning points substitute x = 1 and x = –1 in turn into the original function.
f(1) = 13 – 3 × 1 + 2 = 1 – 3 + 2 = 0
f(–1) = (–1)3 – 3 × –1 + 2 = –1 + 3 + 2 = 4
The two turning points are (1, 0) and (–1, 4).
To determine the nature of the turning point (1, 0), evaluate f(x) y
for values of x either side of 1: 6
f(2) = 23 – 3 × 2 + 2 = 8 – 6 + 2 = 4 4 ×
f(0) = 03 – 3 × 0 + 2 = 0 – 0 + 2 = 2 2×
The turning point is marked orange. Both of the nearby points
×
are higher than (1, 0) so this means there is a minimum point when –2 2 4 x
–2
x = 1, i.e. (1, 0) is a minimum.
To determine the nature of the turning point (–1, 4), evaluate f(x)
y
for values of x either side of –1: 6
f(–2) = (–2)3 – 3 × –2 + 2 = –8 + 6 + 2 = 0 ×4
f(0) = 03 – 3 × 0 + 2 = 0 – 0 + 2 = 2
2×
The turning point is marked orange. Both of the nearby points
are lower than (–1, 4) so this means there is a maximum point when ×
–2 2 4 x
x = –1, i.e. (–1, 4) is a maximum. –2
 15 Calculus and curves 175

exercise 15.05
1–7 Determine the co-ordinates of the turning 16 Explain why the cubic y = x3 – 3x2 + 9x + 7
points of these curves. State whether each point has no turning points.
is a maximum or a minimum.
1 y = x2 – 6x + 6 17 The drawing shows the graph of the
2 y = x2 + 2x – 3 function f (x) = 1 x 3 − 2 x 2 + 3x + 7 .
3
3 y = 4 – x2 f(x)
4 y = x2 – 3x – 1
5 y = 6 – 5x – x2
6 y = 3x2 – 3
x
7 y = 2x2 – x – 10
8 Find the minimum value of y = x2 – 4x + 3. 15
9 Find the maximum value of y = 3 + 2x – x2. a Differentiate to find f’(x).
10 Draw the graph of y = (x – 4)(1 – 3x). Use b Find the equation of the tangent to the
calculus to find the co-ordinates of the graph of f (x) at x = 0.
turning point. c Find the values of x that give turning
points of f (x).
11–15 Each of these cubics has two turning
points. Find the co-ordinates of each one, stating d What is the local minimum value of f (x)?
whether it is a minimum or maximum. 18 Draw the graphs of these cubics, showing all
11 y = 1 x 3 + x 2 − 3x + 4 the intercepts. Give the co-ordinates of the
3 turning points.
12 y = x – 3x2 – 72x – 10
3
a y = x(x – 2)(x + 2) = x3 – 4x
13 y = 2x3 – 3x2 – 12x – 15 b y = x3 – 4x2 – 12x
14 y = x3 – 2x2 + x
19 Find the co-ordinates of the maximum and
15 f(x) = 2 + 3x – x3 minimum points, if any, on the curve
y = 1 + x , distinguishing between them.
2
x

Applications
The calculus we have used so far is helpful for working out optimum values in various simple
models.
Example The diagram shows the cross-section of a skateboard ramp. The ramp is supported
by a number of wooden struts. There is a 2-m wide walkway at the top of the ramp
on each side. The height in
il
metres above the ground of n dra
the curved part of the ramp Ha ay ay
can be represented by the
4
a lkw a lkw
W W
equation h = 0.3x2 – 3x + 8, 3
for values of x between 2 and
2 Curved
8 where x is the horizontal
ramp
distance in metres along the 1
ground from one corner of
the ramp. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 176 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

a Calculate the height above the ground of the walkways.

b What is the height of the shortest strut shown in the diagram?
c Comment on whether there are some limitations to the answer in part b.
= Answer a The height of the walkways is the same as the height of the curved part of
the ramp at its highest point. Substitute either x = 2 or x = 8 into the equation
h = 0.3x2 – 3x + 8:
h = 0.3 × 22 – 3 × 2 + 8
= 1.2 – 6 + 8
= 3.2 m
b The information in the diagram implies we need to determine the minimum value
of the function given by h = 0.3x2 – 3x + 8.
Differentiate to find h’(x):
15 h’(x) = 0.6x – 3 = 0 for turning points:
0.6x = 3
x = 3 = 5
0.6
In this case it is obvious x = 5 gives a minimum point, because the shape of the
curve is given in the diagram.
The corresponding y-value is obtained by substituting x = 5 into the original
function h = 0.3x2 – 3x + 8.
h = 0.3 × 52 – 3 × 5 + 8
h = 7.5 – 15 + 8
= 0.5 m
c There are several limitations.
(1) The answer in part b ignores the thickness of the ramp surface.
(2) The strut may not be exactly underneath the centre of the curved ramp.
(3) The strut may not be vertical.
(4) The ground may not be level.
(5) The model itself is probably unrealistic. Most skateboard ramps have a cross-
section that is flatter in the centre than a typical parabola.

exercise 15.06
1 Several tubes are bent so that they form a The rule for this parabola is y = 0.75x(4 – x),
framework for a curved garden trellis. The where x and y are the lengths in metres shown
cross-section of the trellis forms a parabola. in the diagram.
The width at the base is 4 m. a Expand the brackets in the expression
0.75x(4 – x).
dy
b Work out .
dx
c What are the co-ordinates of the maximum
point on the curve y = 0.75x(4 – x)?
y
d Use the answer to part c to explain what
information it gives about the trellis.
4m x
 15 Calculus and curves 177

2 A missile launcher fires warheads from a site 5 A Turkish restaurant y

at ground level. The height (in metres) of the has a sloping roof. 6
warhead above ground level x seconds after It is decorated with
it is fired is given by the formula a sheet of material 4
y = 150x – 5x2. that is hung from
dy
a Write down an expression for . the top of an 2
dx
b What are the co-ordinates of the interior wall and
maximum point on the curve given by somewhere on the
y = 150x – 5x2? ceiling. The height 2 4 6x
c What information does the answer to (in metres) of the
part b give about the missile? material above the floor is related to the
distance x (in metres) from the corner along
3 On a construction site, the builders have the floor by the equation
placed a plank between two concrete slabs. h = 0.2x2 – 0.6x + 2.4. The height of the roof
The plank sags in the middle. above the floor is given by the equation 15
h = 0.6x + 2.4. The diagram shows the cross-
section.
a Calculate the height above the ground of
Plank each point where the material is attached
The sag (y cm), measured at a distance of to the ceiling.
x m from the edge of the left slab, is given by b Use calculus to determine the height
the formula y = 3x(x – 4). of the material above the ground at its
a Calculate the sag in the plank at a lowest point.
distance of 1 m from the left slab. Explain c Use calculus to determine the maximum
the significance of the negative sign in vertical separation between the ceiling
this value. and the material.
b Expand the brackets in the expression
y = 3x(x – 4). 6 A sports scientist has investigated the
relationship between the speed (y) measured
dy
c Find . in mm/s that a rowing eight can achieve in
dx
d Whereabouts in the plank does the calm water, and the number of strokes (x)
maximum sag occur? per minute. The model proposed is
e What is the maximum sag? y = 117 x − 1 x 3. The model is appropriate
39
for up to 50 strokes per minute. If the rowing
4 A typist’s speed, in words per minute over eight produce too many strokes per minute
a 4-minute interval, is given by the function they lose co-ordination and power, resulting
W(t) = –6t2 + 12t + 90, for 0 < t < 4, where t is in less speed.
the number of minutes from the beginning a Calculate the speed predicted by this
of the interval. What is the typist’s model at 50 strokes per minute. Give
maximum speed, in words per minute? your answer in:
i mm/s ii m/s
dy
b Write down an expression for .
dx
c Determine the number of strokes per
minute that gives the maximum speed.
d What does the model predict is the
maximum speed?
 178 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

7 A ship is docked at a wharf. The path many, they do not get many passengers on
followed by the rope from a bollard to a each tour and have to start employing extra
capstan on the ship is given by a curve staff – which also causes a loss.
called a catenary, but a parabola makes a y
good approximation. At one particular time 120 000
the height in metres of the rope above the 100 000
water can be represented by the equation
y = 0.2x2 – 1.6x + 4.8, where x is the 80 000
horizontal distance in metres from the 60 000
wharf. The distance between the capstan
40 000
and the wharf is 7 m.
20 000
Bollard
20 40 60 80 100 120 x
15 Capstan
–20 000
–40 000

a Calculate the value of y when x = 0.

Explain what this represents.
7m b Explain how the graph shows that they
expect to make a profit if they do about
a Calculate the height of the rope above the
28 tours or more.
water at the points where it is attached to
c Make some calculations to decide whether
the bollard and the capstan.
dy this profit in part b happens at 27 or
b Write down an expression for . 28 tours.
dx
c Calculate the distance between the water d Use the graph and make some calculations
and the rope at its lowest point. to determine the greatest number of tours
d i How high would the water level they can offer and still make a profit.
have to rise for the capstan to be level e Use the graph to estimate the number
horizontally with the bollard? of tours they should run to make the
ii When the water level has risen by maximum profit.
the distance in part i the height of the f Write down an expression for dy .
rope above the water can be modelled dx
by the parabola y = (ax – b)2. Calculate g When the expression for d y is equated
the values of a and b when the rope is dx
to 0 and simplified, we get
just touching the water.
x2 – 80x + 600 = 0.
8 Mr and Mrs Gardiner are investigating Use the quadratic formula:
−
x = b ± b − 4ac
2
whether they should start a business for
tourists. They are thinking of buying 2a
a minivan and using it to run daily to calculate both solutions of this equation.
sightseeing tours in and around Rotorua. (Hint: the smaller solution should be near
Their projected annual profit in dollars (y) 10 and the larger one near 70.)
will depend on the number of tours (x) h Use your answer to part g to calculate the
they run. The rule is maximum profit they can make. Give your
y = 120x2 – x3 – 1800x – 19 000. This graph answer to the nearest hundred dollars.
shows the relationship between the profit i What information does the smaller
and the number of tours. If there are too solution in part g give?
few tours they run at a loss. If there are too
 16
Integration

Anti-derivatives
The opposite process to differentiation is called anti-differentiation. Sometimes we loosely use the 16
term integration.
• The symbol used to indicate integration is ∫
• We write a dx after the expression to be integrated to show that x is the variable, and say
‘integration with respect to x’.
We know that the derivative of, say, f(x) = x2 is f ′(x) = 2x. Reversing this, we say that the anti-
derivative of 2x is the function x2.
To find the anti-derivative, we are finding the function f (x) which has a derivative f ′(x). That is,
we are working backwards from the given derived function f ′(x) to find the original function f(x).
In general, anti-derivatives are not unique. There are many functions, for example, which
differentiate to 2x:
x2, x2 + 1, x2 – 5, x2 + 17, and so on.
We write ∫ 2x dx = x2 + c
where c is called the constant of integration.

The rule for anti-differentiation of polynomials

To integrate any power of x, add 1 to the power, and divide by the new power.
xn + 1 + c
∫ xn dx = n+1

This works for all powers of x except for –1, Example Find a ∫ 6x2 dx
because then we would have to divide by 0, −
which is undefined. b ∫ 52 x3 dx
Example Find ∫ x3 dx .
= Answer
3
a ∫ 6x 2 dx = 6 × x + c
x4 + c 3
= Answer ∫ x3 dx = 4 = 2x + c
3

Multiples of powers of x are anti-differentiated in −2 −2 4

the same way. b ∫ x 3 dx = ×x +c
5 5 4
n+1 −1
ax = x4 + c
∫ axn dx = n+1
+c 10
 180 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

The rules above can be extended to polynomials that involve several powers of x. We anti-
differentiate term by term.

Example Find ∫ (3x2 + 6x − 5) dx.

= Answer ∫ (3x2 + 6x − 5) dx = 3 × x33 2 1
+ 6× x − 5× x + c
2 1
= x + 3x − 5x + c
3 2

Note that 5, the constant term, integrated to 5x. This is because 5, written as a power of x, is 5x0.

exercise 16.01
1–5 Find the following integrals. 6–17 Find the anti-derivatives (integrals) for

16 1 a ∫ x2 dx b ∫x 5 dx each of these polynomials.

c ∫ x 4 dx d ∫ x0 dx 6 ∫ (x2 − 2x + 3) dx
7 ∫ (4x3 + x − 5) dx
2 a ∫ 3x dx b ∫ − 6x dx
8 ∫ (6x2 + 3x − 1) dx
−
c ∫ 2 x dx
3
d ∫ 4x dx 9 ∫ (4 − 3x2 ) dx
3 a ∫ 11dx b ∫ − 2 dx 10 ∫ (1 + 8x 5 ) dx
c ∫ 1dx d ∫ 34 dx 11 ∫ (16x7 − x + 3) dx
12 ∫ (x 4 + 6x 5 + 4x) dx
4 a ∫ 4x6 dx b ∫ dx
6x 7 13 ∫ (9x2 − 6x + 5) dx
c ∫ − 2x2 dx d ∫ − 8x3 dx 14 ∫ (x 5 + 4x3 − x) dx
5 a ∫ 25 x3 dx b
−
∫ 25 x2 dx 15 ∫ (12x 5 + 30x − 4) dx
c
− 4
∫ x3 dx d ∫ 143 x6 dx 16 ∫ ( 25 x 4 − 32x + 31 ) dx
 3 4 5
17 ∫  x5 + x + x  dx
4 3

exercise 16.02
1–3 Expand these expressions and then integrate
∫ x −5 4x dx
3
each one. 5

1 ∫ 4(x + 1) dx 6 ∫ 1 −82x dx
2 ∫ − 5(x2 + 2x) dx 7–15 Find these anti-derivatives by expanding
3 ∫ 10(x 4 − 7 x) dx first.

4–6 Integrate these expressions. Hint: divide 7 ∫ x(x + 1) dx

first.
x + 4 dx 8 ∫ 6x(1 + 2x) dx
4 ∫ 7
 16 Integration 181

16–20 Find these anti-derivatives by dividing

9 ∫ (2x + 3)(x – 4) dx first.
10 ∫ (x – 7)(3x + 5) dx 16
∫
x 2 + 5x dx
x
11 ∫ (3x – 4)(5x – 1) dx 3x − 2 x 3 dx
4
17 ∫ x2
12 ∫ x2(x – 4) dx 4x 5 − 2 x dx
13 ∫ (x + 6)2 dx
18
∫ x
5x − 3x 4 dx
2

14 ∫ (x – 4)2 dx 19 ∫ 2x
4 + 3x 2 − 2 x
15 ∫ x(x – 1)(x + 1) dx 20
∫
x
4x
dx

Evaluating the constant of integration 16

So far, we have been integrating functions to obtain other functions as the answer, without explaining
what the answer function represents.
One use of integration or anti-differentiation is to calculate the equation of a curve when we know
the gradient function. If the co-ordinates of a point on the curve are known, we can then use this
information to calculate the value of c – the constant of integration we have been adding on to all
anti-derivatives.
First we will look at a very simple example of finding the constant of integration.
Example f ′(x) = 2x – 9 and f (1) = 5. Find f(x).

= Answer f (x) = ∫ (2x − 9) dx

= x 2 − 9x + c
Now f(1) = 5 means that if 1 is substituted for x into f(x) = x2 – 9x + c,
we get a result of 5:
5 = 12 – 9 × 1 + c
=1–9+c
c = 5 + 8 = 13
f(x) = x2 – 9x + 13
Because we are working with equations of curves (in the form y = …), it is often more convenient to
express the gradient function in the form dy = ….
dx
Example A curve passes through the point (–2, 3) and has a gradient function given by:
dy
= 3x 2 − 8x + 1
dx
Find the equation of the curve.
dy
= Answer
dx
= 3x 2 − 8x + 1 If (–2, 3) lies on the curve then y = 3 when x = –2:
3 = (–2)3 – 4 × (–2)2 + –2 + c
y = ( 3x − 8x + 1 ) dx
2
∫ = –8 – 16 – 2 + c
3 2
= 3× x − 8× x + 1× x + c = –26 + c
3 2
c = 29
= x 3 − 4x 2 + x + c
The equation of the curve is y = x3 – 4x2 + x + 29.
 182 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

exercise 16.03
1 Find f (x) in each of these cases by anti- 7 Each of the parabolas below has a derived
differentiating and calculating the constant function (for its gradient) of 2x – 1.
of integration. Calculate the equation of each curve, given
a f ′(x) = 2x – 3 and f(4) = 7 the information provided on the graphs.
b f ′(x) = 6x2 + 4x + 2 and f(0) = 10 a b
y y
c f ′(x) = –4x + 1 and f(–2) = –1

2 A derived function is given by h ′(x) = 2x – 3.

Write down an expression for h(x), given
× (3, 1)
that h(2) = 0.
x
3 Work out the equation of each curve below
16 by anti-differentiating and calculating the 2 x
constant of integration.
a The curve which passes through the
point (3, –2) with gradient function
dy
= 4x + 3. y
dx c
b The curve which passes through the
point (–1, 5) with gradient function
dy
= 3x2 – 2x.
dx
c The curve which passes through the
point (3, –2) with gradient function
dy x
= 1 – 6x2.
dx
4 A curve has gradient function
8 A straight line passes through the point
f ′(x) = 8x3 – 2x + 3. The curve passes through
(–2, 6) and its gradient is 3. Use calculus to
the point (1, 5). Determine the equation of
find the equation of the line.
the curve.
9 A curve has a gradient given by
5 A curve has gradient function dy
f ′(x) = 10x4 + 3x2 – 2. The curve passes = x 2 − 2 x + 1. Find the equation of the
dx
through the point (1, –4). Determine the curve if it passes through the point (1, 6).
equation of the curve.
10 Write down the equation of the curve which
6 Find the equation of f (x), given gradient passes through the point (1, –1) and has a
function f ′(x) = 2x – 3 and f(0) = 5. slope of 3x2 at the point (x, y).

11 Work out the equation of the curve that cuts

the y-axis at –5 and has gradient function
f ′(x) = 6x2 – 3x.
dy
12 Given = (x – 3)(x + 4) and y = 5 when
dx 6
x = 1, find the value of y when x = –3.
 16 Integration 183

Definite integrals
So far, our anti-differentiation has had a function as the answer to the problem. In contrast, when we
integrate between two values, called limits of integration, we are finding a number as the answer.
The definite integral is the number that results from substituting the two values (limits of
integration) into the anti-derivative and calculating the difference.

∫ 2 (2x − 3) dx .
4
Example Evaluate

= Answer ∫ 2 (2x − 3) dx = x2 − 3x 2

4 4

TIPSTER
= (42 − 3 × 4) − (2 2 − 3 × 2)
= (16 − 12) − (4 − 6) Note that we substitute both of
the limits of integration into the
= 4 − −2 anti-derivative, and then subtract.
=6 16

LECTURER
When doing this kind of definite integration, the constant of integration is
eliminated when the two values are subtracted. It is not usually written in
because it has no effect on the final result.

exercise 16.04
∫−2 ( x 4 + x − 3) dx
0
1 Evaluate these definite integrals. j

∫ 4 2x dx
5
a
∫−1 ( x + 2) ( x − 1) dx
2
k

∫ 3 x2 dx
6
b
∫−2 ( x − 1) ( x + 1) dx
1
l

∫1 ( x + 1) dx
2
c
2 Evaluate these definite integrals.
−1
d ∫−2 4x dx a ∫1 ( x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 5) dx
3

∫−3 ( x − 3) dx
4
e
∫−1 3x(2 − x) dx
2
b
∫ 0 (3x2 + 2x) dx
5
f
 3 + 10x 2  dx
∫−1  3x
2
c
x 
∫ 0 ( x2 − 2x + 3) dx
3
g

∫−1 ( x 4 + x2 + 2) dx
1
∫ 2 6x2 dx find the value of
p
h 3 If y =
p if y = 38.
∫−1 (3x2 − 2x + 5) dx
4
i
 184 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

Areas under curves

STARTER
y
The graph shows part of the parabola y = x2. 1.0 D C
1 What fraction of the square ABCD is shaded?
Estimate from 1 , 1 or 1 .
2 3 4
2 Each small square represents 0.01 units of area.
Count small squares to estimate the shaded area.
0.5
∫
1
3 Evaluate x 2 dx .
0
∫
1
4 What is the relationship between x 2 dx and
0
16 the area under the curve between the x-values of
0 and 1?
A B
0.5 1.0 x

exercise 16.05
1 The diagram shows part of the graph of 2 The diagram shows part of the graph of
y = x(1 – x) = x – x2. Each small square y = x2 – 6x + 12.
represents 0.01 square units.
y
y

0.3 y = x – x2

0.5 1.0 x y = x2 – 6x + 12

a Estimate the shaded area by counting

squares.
∫
1
b Evaluate (x − x 2 ) dx . Express your 3
0
answer in two forms – fraction and
decimal.
1 3 6 x

a Estimate the shaded area by counting

squares.

∫1 (x2 − 6x + 12) dx . Give your

6
b Evaluate
answer to the nearest whole number.
 16 Integration 185

3 One way of estimating an area under a curve y

(and above the x-axis) is to split it up into
adjoining trapeziums. The diagram shows 4
part of the parabola given by y = x2.
a Calculate the area of the triangle A.
b The area of trapezium B is 0.3125. Write
3
down the calculations that give this
result. (Note: the formula for the area of a
trapezium is:
Area = h × a + b .) 2
2 D
c Calculate the areas of the trapeziums
marked C and D.
d What is the total area for the regions 1
marked A, B, C and D?
C 16
e Write down and evaluate an integral
0.25 B
that would give the exact area under the
A
graph of y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 2. 0.5 1 1.5 2 x

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Combining trapeziums y

This graph shows the graph of y = x2. The problem is

to estimate the shaded area between x = 3 and x = 7 y = x2
49
underneath this curve. Notice how there are a number of
trapeziums under the curve. We can use a spreadsheet to
calculate the area of each trapezium and add all the areas
together.

The formula for the area of a

trapezium is:
Area = h × a + b , 9
2 Area b
a 3 4 5 6 7 x
where a and b are the lengths of the
two parallel sides and h is the distance h
between them.
 186 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

This spreadsheet extract shows how this could be set out and some of the formulae needed.

1 Produce the completed spreadsheet, Extension

16 showing the total area of all four 5 You may have noticed that the amount
trapeziums. by which the x-values increase each time
2 Create another spreadsheet to show is the same as h (the ‘height’ or distance
what happens when there are eight between the parallel sides). Improve the
trapeziums instead of four. Hint: the spreadsheet so that the value of h only
value of h will be 0.5, and the values has to be entered once. Explain what
in columns A and B will increase in other improvements can be made. When
steps of 0.5. finished, print out two versions of your
spreadsheet:
∫ 3 x2 dx .
7
3 Use calculus to evaluate
a showing the formulae (in Excel™
4 Explain what happens when more and do this under Tools, Options, View
more trapeziums are taken under this and place a tick in the box alongside
curve between x = 3 and x = 7. Formulas), and
b with calculated values.

When we find a derived function, or derivative, we are finding the gradient of a curve. In a very
similar way, the process of integration is equivalent to finding the area between a curve and the
x-axis.

∫a
b f(x)
We define f (x) dx as the area between the curve of f(x)
and the x-axis, bounded by the vertical lines x = b and x = a.

a b x

The usual convention when calculating the definite integral is to substitute the right-hand value,
b, first, and then the left-hand value, a. This gives a positive answer if the area is above the x-axis.
Areas below the x-axis turn out to have negative definite integrals when calculated.
If the question specifically asks for area, the absolute value should be taken.
 16 Integration 187

Example Calculate the area between the curve y = x2 + 2, the x-axis and the lines x = –1 and x = 3.

= Answer ∫−1 ( x2 + 2 ) dx
3
Area = y
3
=  x + 2 x 
3
y = x2 + 2
 3  −1
 3   ( − 1)3 
=  3 + 2 × 3 −  + 2 × − 1
 3   3  2
 −1
= (9 + 6) −  − 2
 3  –1 3 x

= 15 − − 2 1
3
1
= 17 square units
3
16
Example Calculate the area between the curve y = 9 – x2 and the x-axis.
= Answer First draw a graph to get a feeling for the required area: y
The parabola intersects the x-axis when y = 0. 9
9 − x2 = 0
(3 − x)(3 + x) = 0
x = 3 or −3

∫−3 ( 9 − x2 ) dx
3
Area = –3 3 x
3
=  9x − x 
3

 3  −3
= (27 − 9) − ( − 27 + 9)
= 18 − − 18
= 36 square units

exercise 16.06
1–7 Calculate the areas shaded below. 3 y
1 y y = x(4 – x)

y = x2

2 4
y y = 2x + 1 4 x y

1 4 x y = x2

–2 1 x
2 5 x
 188 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

5 y 8–11 Use integration to calculate these areas.

y = x(x – 2) Draw a graph first, to identify the area.
8 Find the area bounded by the curve
y = 2 – x2, the x-axis and the lines x = –1 and
x = 1.
6
2 x y
9 Find the area above the x-axis bounded by
y = x2 – 4 the parabola y = x2 – 1 and the line x = 2.

–2 2 x 10 Calculate the area above the x-axis enclosed

by the curve y = x(x + 3) and the line x = 1.
7 y
11 Find the area bounded by the curve
y = x2 + 2, the x-axis and the lines x = 3 and
16 1 3 x
–4
x = –3.

y = (1 – x)(x – 3)

Areas below the x-axis

STARTER
The diagram shows the graph of the line y = 2x – 7. y

∫1 (2x − 7) dx .
3
1 Evaluate y = 2x – 7

2 Calculate the area of a trapezium with parallel sides 1 3

measuring 5 units and 1 unit, and distance between these x
sides of 2 units. (The formula for the area of a trapezium is:
Area = h × a + b .)
2
3 Suggest what the negative sign in the answer to

∫1 (2x − 7) dx means.
3
–7
 16 Integration 189

The next example shows how to handle negative definite integrals in the context of area.
Example The diagram shows the graph of f (x) = x3 – 4x2 + 3x. y

∫ 0 ( x3 − 4x2 + 3x) dx .
1
a Calculate

Calculate ∫ ( x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x ) dx .
3
b
1

Calculate ∫ ( x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x ) dx .
3
c 1 3 x
0

d Calculate the total shaded area – i.e. the area enclosed by

the curve and the x-axis.
1
 4 2
= Answer a ∫
1
0
( 4 3
3
x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x ) dx =  x − 4x + 3x 
2 0

(
= 1 − 4 + 3 − ( 0)
4 3 2 ) 16
= − 16 + 18
3
12
= 5
12
3
 4 3 2
∫1 ( x3 − 4x2 + 3x ) dx =  x4 − 4x + 3x 
3
b
3 2 1

4( 3 2 ) (
= 81 − 108 + 27 − 1 − 4 + 3
4 3 2 )
= 243 − 432 + 162 − 5
12 12
− 27 5
= −
12 12
− 32
=
12
−8
=
3
3
3 − 4x 2 + 3x dx =  x − 4x + 3x 
4 3 2
∫0
3
c ( x )  4 3 2  0 LECTURER
4(
= 81 − 108 + 27 − ( 0 )
3 2 ) Note that the shaded
= 243 − 432 + 162 area is not the same
12 as the integral between
− 27
= 3 and 0. This is
12 because part of the
d The shaded area is calculated by adding the absolute area is below the x-axis
values of the two integrals in parts a and b: and part of the area
is above the x-axis.
Area = 5 + 8 = 5 + 32 = 37 = 3 1 square units These values cancel out
12 3 12 12 12
to some extent and so
the integral from 3 to
0 is less than the sum
of the two areas.
 190 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

exercise 16.07
1–3 Calculate the shaded areas. 3 y
1 y y = (x + 2)(x – 2)2

–2
–3 2 x
–2 1 x

y = x(x + 2)(x – 1)

2 y
16
4 Find the area bounded by the curve
y = x(x – 1)(x + 1) and the x-axis.
1
3 x
5 Calculate the area bounded by the curve
y = (x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 2) and the x-axis.
y = x2 – 4
–4

Applications of area
exercise 16.08
1 A farm has boundaries that are aligned 2 The diagram shows part of a dress pattern.
exactly north–south and east–west. The farm The piece of material to be cut out has a
is rectangular and measures 1 km by paisley pattern. Relative to the given axes,
4 km. A road enters the farm 1 km north of the borders of the piece are the x-axis, y-axis,
the south-west corner and leaves the farm at the line y = 2 – x and the parabola
the north-east corner. y = –x2 + 1, and the measurements are in
If we take the southern N metres. Calculate the area of the piece of
boundary as the material.
x-axis, and the western W E y
boundary as the y-axis, S 2
then the road follows
a path given by the 3 km
parabola
y = 3x2 + 1, where x 4 km
and y are measured in y = 3x2 + 1 1
kilometres. Calculate
the area of the farm that
is to the southern side 1 km
of the road (coloured
green in the diagram). 1 km 1 2 x

pg190.indd 190 7/9/06 10:17:16 PM

 16 Integration 191

3 A child’s building block is a cuboid 5 The pennant (flag) y

measuring 6 cm by 6 cm by 4 cm, with a for a Pacific island 9
parabolic ‘tunnel’ removed from the centre. measures 1 m by
Relative to the axes shown in the diagram 9 m. It comprises a
the equation of the parabola is y = –3x2 + 3. green part and a blue 6
part – separated by
y a parabolic curve.
6 Relative to the 3
4 vertical edge (y-axis)
and the horizontal
edge (x-axis) the
equation of the curve 1 x
is y = 6x2 + 2x + 1.
Determine which part (green or blue) is
3
6
larger. Justify your answer by making some 16
calculations.

x
6 The front of an y
2 2
optometrist’s
shop features a
a Calculate the area of the front face
large square logo,
(coloured red in the diagram).
measuring 1 m by 1 m
b Calculate the volume of wood removed 1 m. In the middle
from the cuboid to form the tunnel. of the square there
is a large blue iris
4 A sail on a yacht has three borders – two
and a black pupil. 1m x
are straight and one is curved. If we take
The rest of the
the straight edges as being represented by
square is white. If we take the bottom edge
the x- and y-axes, then the curved edge can
of the logo as the x-axis, and the left edge as
be modelled by the equation y = 6 – 1.5x2,
the y-axis, then the edges of the blue iris are
where x and y are measured in metres.
given by the two equations y = 1 – x2
Calculate the area of the sail.
and y = x2 – 2x + 1, where x and y are
y measured in metres. Calculate the area of the
7 white portion of the logo.
6

5
y = 6 – 1.5x2
4

1
1 2 x
 192 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

7–8 You could use a graphics calculator or suitable software to answer the next two
questions.

7 A party hat is cut out 8 A rectangular grass lawn measuring 10 m

from a paper rectangle by 12 m is separated into two sections by a
measuring 65 cm by concrete path, as shown in the diagram. The
8 cm. The pattern edges of the path follow curves given by
features eight identical two parabolas, with the following equations.
panels and when j y = 0.04x3 – 0.75x2 + 4x
one end is joined to
k y = 0.04x3 – 0.75x2 + 4x + 3
the other end, with an overlap of 1 cm, the
hat fits snugly around a child’s head with y N
a circumference of 64 cm. On each panel a 12
piece with a parabola as its border has been W E
16 removed. The diagram shows three panels of
10
S
the pattern. 8 2

y y = 0.3x2 – 2.4x + 7.8 6

1
8 cm 8 cm 4

8c m 2
m 8c
8 cm 0
x 2 4 6 8 10 x

If we consider one panel only, and take the a Calculate the area of lawn on the south
bottom-left corner as the origin, the equation side of the path.
of the parabola is y = 0.3x2 – 2.4x + 7.8, where b Calculate the area of the concrete path.
x and y are measured in centimetres.
a Calculate the area of one panel.
b Calculate the total area of the eight panels;
that is, the area of paper used for the hat.

Linking algebra, geometry and calculus

We finish with an example that involves finding points of intersection first. This example links
algebra, geometry and calculus.

Example Draw the graphs of = Answer To find the area between the line and
the line y = 2x and the parabola, we first need to find the
y
the parabola given x-values of the points of intersection.
by y = (x – 4)2 on y = 2x
the same diagram. 16 We solve the equations y = 2x and
Calculate the area y = (x – 4)2 simultaneously:
enclosed by the line (x − 4)2 = 2 x
and the parabola. x 2 − 8x + 16 = 2 x
y = (x – 4)2
x 2 − 10x + 16 = 0
(x − 2)(x − 8) = 0
4 x
x = 2 or 8
 16 Integration 193

The required area (coloured green in the diagram) is the y

difference between the area under the line between x = 2
and x = 8 (a trapezium, outlined in red), and the area under the
parabola (coloured blue).

∫2 ∫ 2 ( x2 − 8x + 16) dx
8 8
Area = 2 x dx −
8  3 8
= x 2  −  x − 4x 2 + 16x
2  3  2

( 5123 − 256 + 128) − ( 83 − 16 + 32)

 2 4 8 x
= (64 − 4) − 


= (64 − 4) − 
 ( 5123 − 128) − ( 83 + 16)
3 (
= 60 − 512 − 8 − 128 − 16
3 ) 16
= 60 − (24)
= 36 square units

exercise 16.09
1 Calculate the shaded areas. 7 The curve y = x2 and y
a b the line y = 2x intersect at
y y (2, 4)
y = x2 y = (x – 1)2 the points (0, 0) and (2, 4)
4 y=4 as shown in the diagram.
Find the shaded area
between the curve and
the line. (0, 0) x

x x 8 a Calculate the y
value of (2, 12)
2–6 Draw graphs first to determine the shapes of
∫ 0 (3x2 − 2x + 4) dx .
2
the required areas.
2 Find the area enclosed by the x- and y-axes b The function shown
and the curve y = (x – 2)2. in the diagram is 4
f(x) = 3x2 – 2x + 4.
3 Calculate the area between the curves Calculate the 2 x
y = x2 – 2 and y = 2 – x2. shaded area.

4 Find the area between the parabola given by 9 The curve drawn has the equation y = x2. AB
y = x(x – 2) and the line y = x. is the tangent to the curve at the point (2, 4).
a Find the equation of the tangent AB.
5 a Draw the graphs of the parabola y = –x2 b Show that this y y = x2
and the line y = x – 2. tangent cuts the
b Calculate the area between the parabola x-axis at (1, 0). B × (2, 4)
and the line. c Find the area between
the curve y = x2,
6 Calculate the area enclosed by the curve the tangent at x = 2
y = (x – 2)2 and the line y = 2x + 4. and the x-axis. ×
A x
 17
Calculus applications

Rates of change
17
The gradient of a line is a measure of how quickly y is changing in
relation to x. Thus, dy is the rate of change of y with respect to x.
dx
This idea can be extended to other variables.
We can use calculus to find rates of change TIPSTER
when any two variables are linked by a
formula. Using this notation has a bonus: it also shows how
We always write rates of change using to work out the required rate of change – that is,
dy by differentiating the variable on the top line with
the notation. This makes it easy to
dx respect to the variable on the bottom line.
identify the two variables involved. For For example, to find the rate of change of the
example, if A represents the area of a circle circumference of a circle with respect to its radius,
and r represents the radius, then the rate of we would use the notation dC and differentiate the
change of the area with respect to the dr
dA formula C = 2πr with respect to r.
radius is written as .
dr
Example The area of a circle is given by the formula A = πr2. Calculate the rate at which the area
is changing with respect to the radius when the radius of the circle is 12 cm.
= Answer The rate of change of the area with respect to the radius is dA .
dr
A = πr 2
dA = π × 2r = 2 πr
dr
The value of dA when r = 12 is 2 × π × 12 = 24π
dr
= 75.4 (3 sf)

exercise 17.01
1 Find the rate at which y is changing with 3 a Write down a formula for the rate at which
respect to x when x = 5, if y = 3x2 – 2. the area of a circle is changing with respect to
the radius.
2 Given that y = x3 – 2x + 1, find the rate b What is the value of this rate of change when
at which y is changing with respect to x r = 4?
when x = –3.
c What is the radius when the rate of change is
16π?
 17 Calculus applications 195

4 Calculate the rate at which the volume (V) of 9 The volume of a cone is given by the
a cube is changing with respect to the length formula:
of its sides (x) when the side has a length of V = 1 πr 2 h .
8 cm. (Note: V = x3.) 3
Calculate the rate of change of the volume
5 Calculate the rate of change of the area of a with respect to the radius when the height
square with respect to the length of its sides and radius of the cone are both equal to 8
when: m. Assume that the height of the cone is
a the side length is 2.4 cm constant.
b the area is 36 cm2.
10 The formula SA = 2πrh represents the curved
When the rate of change of the area is 38, surface area of a cylinder. The height of the
calculate: cylinder is fixed at 15 cm.
c the side length a Calculate the rate at which this curved
d the area. surface area is changing with respect to 17
the radius when the radius is 7 cm.
6 The area covered by a chemical spillage at a b Calculate the rate of change of the total
given time of t seconds is given by surface area of this cylinder with respect
A = t(t2 – 2) m2, (t > 2). to the radius when the radius is 7 cm, if it
a Write down an expression for the rate is closed at both ends.
at which the area covered is increasing
at time t seconds. 11 The distance s, in metres, travelled by a
b Calculate the value of this rate at particle after it has been thrown upwards
t = 12 seconds. for t seconds is given by the formula
s = 40t – 5t2. Calculate the rate of change of
7 The volume of a sphere, radius r, is given by the distance with respect to time after
the formula: 3 seconds.
V = 4 πr 3 .
3 12 A particle travels according to the formula
What is the rate of change of volume with s = 4 – 3t2 where the distance (s) is in metres
respect to the radius when the radius is and time (t) is in seconds. Calculate the rate
3.5 m? of change of the distance with respect to
time when t = 21 seconds.
8 As a snowball rolls downhill, the radius
and the mass both increase. The mass M, in 13 Calculate the rate at which the area of a
kilograms, and the radius r, in centimetres, circular ink-blot is increasing with respect to
are related by the rule M = 0.0016r3. the radius when:
Calculate the rate at which the mass is a the radius is 5 cm
increasing compared to the radius when the b the area of the ink-blot is 40 cm2.
radius is 5 cm.
14 The angle θ in radians through which
a wheel has turned in an anti-clockwise
direction after t seconds is given by:
2
θ = 5t − t .
20
Write down an expression for the rate at
which the angle θ changes with time.
 196 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

15 Charles’ law states that for a given mass

of gas at constant pressure, the absolute
temperature, t, is directly proportional to the
volume, V. For a given mass of gas
V = 6.5t. Find the rate at which the volume is
changing with respect to temperature.

16 Boyle’s law states that for a given mass of

gas at constant temperature, the pressure (P)
is inversely proportional to the volume (V).
If for a given mass of gas:
P = 60 ,
V
find the rate of change of the pressure with
17 respect to the volume when V = 15 cm3.

Kinematics: the study of motion

We have already looked at rates of change, and how they are handled using differentiation.
Particularly important are two special rates of change that link movement and time.
• Velocity is the rate of change of distance with respect to time.
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
Below we will see how velocity and acceleration are expressed in mathematical terms.
In physics you may be familiar with the formula:
Speed = distance .
time
Note that another term for speed is velocity, v.

We can express velocity as the rate of change of distance, s, with respect to time, t:
v = ds
dt
Similarly acceleration, a, is the rate at which velocity changes with respect to time:
a = dv
dt

We give the name kinematics to the study of

motion, and in particular to the links between:
s = distance measured in m
v = velocity measured in m/s
a = acceleration measured in m/s2
t = time measured in s.
 17 Calculus applications 197

Common conventions in kinematics Kinematics – differentiation

The origin Example The distance, s, in metres, travelled by a
particle is given by the formula
• All motion is considered to start s = 80t – 12t2.
from an arbitrary point called the a Find an expression for the velocity, and
origin. Motion usually takes place in hence find the initial velocity.
a horizontal line. If motion is vertical,
b When is the particle at rest?
the origin is taken as ground level.
• The term ‘initially’ means when c Find the acceleration.
the time t = 0. This is when motion = Answer a v = ds = 80 − 24t
dt
usually starts.
The initial velocity
• Distances above or to the right of the
v(0) = 80 – 24(0) = 80 m/s.
origin are taken as positive. Distances
below or to the left of the origin are b The particle is at rest when v = 0. 17
taken as negative. An object is at the v =0
origin when the distance, s, = 0. 80 – 24t = 0
t = 80 = 3.3! seconds
Velocity 24
c a= dv = 24 m/s2
–
• Positive velocity indicates an object dt
is moving right, or upwards, or in Example A mechanical rabbit starts from the origin.
general away from the origin. It moves in a straight line, initially moving
• Negative velocity indicates an object east. Its distance from the origin after
is moving left, or downwards, or in t seconds is given by s = (6t – 3t2) m.
general back towards the origin. Which of the following is false?
• If the velocity, v, = 0 the object is (A) The rabbit slows down in the first
stationary, or ‘at rest’. second.
(B) The initial velocity of the rabbit is
Acceleration 6 m/s east.
• Positive acceleration indicates that an (C) The velocity of the rabbit at
object is speeding up. t = 1 second is 3 m/s east.
• Negative acceleration indicates that (D) The acceleration of the rabbit is 6 m/s2
an object is slowing down. west.
• If the acceleration, a, = 0, the object is
travelling at constant speed. = Answer (A) v = ds = 6 − 6t ⇒ a = dv = − 6
dt dt
Negative acceleration means the rabbit
is slowing down. The statement is true.
Note: s, v and a are all functions of t, time:
(B) v(0) = 6 – 6 × 0 = 6
Differentiate Differentiate Statement is true: 6 is positive, and
s v a
Integrate Integrate means movement east.
a v s
(C) v(1) = 6 – 6(1) = 0
Statement is false.
(D) a = –6. The negative sign shows
acceleration west rather than east.
Statement is true.
Answer is (C).
 198 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

exercise 17.02
1 s = t2 – 15t + 30. Calculate: 10 A person is making
a v when t = 0 b v when t = 10. a yoyo move up
and down vertically
2 s = 2t3 – 5t2 + 4t – 6. Calculate: according to the
a v when t = 1 b a when t = 1 equation
c a when t = 0. s = 56t2 – 135t + 100,
where s is the height
3 An object moves s metres in t seconds above the ground in
according to the expression s = 3t2 – 12t + 1. centimetres and t is
Calculate: the time in seconds
a the velocity after 5 seconds after leaving the
holder’s hand. The
17 b the acceleration after 5 seconds
equation applies to
c the distance travelled in the fifth second one movement of the
d when the particle is momentarily at rest. yoyo only.
a What is the height above the ground
4 The distance moved by an object after time t when the yoyo is released?
is given by the equation s = 1 – 6t + 5t3. Write
b Calculate the initial velocity.
down the equation:
c At what time is the velocity zero? Explain
a for its velocity, v, at time t
what information this gives about the
b for its acceleration, a, at time t. position of the yoyo.
d Calculate the maximum distance of the
5 s = 4t2 – t + 10. Find t when v = 15.
yoyo from the holder’s hand.
6 s = t2 – 6t + 16. Find t when s = 8. e How long does the yoyo take to return to
the holder’s hand?
7 A body moves so that its position at time t
is 2t3 – 15t2. At what time is its acceleration 11 On Guy Fawkes Night, a sky-rocket is fired
zero? from a launcher and reaches a height h
metres above the ground after t seconds.
8 An object is s metres from the origin after The function which links h and t is
t seconds. The relation between s and t is h = 15 + 60t – 5t2. Calculate:
s = t3 – 3t2. Calculate: a the height above the ground from which
a the distance of the object from the origin the sky-rocket was fired
when t = 2 seconds b the velocity of the sky-rocket after
b the initial velocity 3 seconds
c the acceleration when t = 4 seconds c the maximum height above the ground
d how long it takes for the object to return reached by the sky-rocket
to the starting point. d when the sky-rocket hits the ground.

9 A stone is propelled vertically upwards

according to the formula h = 30t – 5t2, where
h is the height in metres and t the time in
seconds. Calculate:
a the initial velocity of the stone
b when the stone is at its highest point
c the height at that time
d the acceleration.
 17 Calculus applications 199

12 Two objects are moving according to the formulae s1 = t2 + 13t + 19 and

s2 = 7 + 5t + 3t2. Calculate when the objects are moving at the same speed.

Kinematics – integration
Example A rock is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 40 m/s from a point 5 m
above ground level. The velocity of the rock after t seconds is given by the formula
v = (40 – 10t) m/s.
a Find an expression for the height of the rock above ground level at time t.
b Find the maximum height reached by the rock.
c Calculate the distance travelled in the third second.
d When does the rock return to the ground?
= Answer a s= ∫ v dt 17
= ∫ (40 − 10t) dt
= 40t − 5t 2 + c
Note: when t = 0, s = 5 (initial height is 5).
5 = 40 × 0 – 5 × (0)2 + c
Therefore c = 5, i.e. height s = 40t – 5t2 + 5.
b Maximum height is when the velocity, i.e. ds , = 0.
dt
40 – 10t = 0
t =4
Maximum height = s(4) = 40 × 4 – 5(4)2 + 5
= 160 – 80 + 5
= 85 m.
c The third second represents all the time between t = 2 and t = 3. The distance
travelled in this time is the height after 3 seconds minus the height after 2 seconds:
s(3) – s(2) = (40 × 3 – 5(3)2 + 5) – (40 × 2 – 5(2)2 + 5)
= (120 – 45 + 5) – (80 – 20 + 5)
= 80 – 65
= 15 m.
Alternatively, the distance travelled in the third second can be expressed as

∫ 2 (40 − 10t) dt.

3

d The rock returns to the ground when the height (s) is 0.

40t – 5t2 + 5 = 0
t2 – 8t – 1 = 0 (on division by –5)
8 ± 82 − 4 × 1 × − 1
t = (quadratic formula)
2×1
= 8.1 or –0.1 seconds
Ignore the negative answer: this is a time before the motion started. So, the rock
returns to the ground after 8.1 seconds.
 200 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

exercise 17.03
1 The acceleration of a particle which moves 4 The acceleration of a particle measured after
in a straight line passing through the fixed t seconds is given by the formula a = 12t.
point P is given by the formula If the particle starts at the point P and is
a = (6t – 3) m/s2. If the particle is initially initially travelling at 4 m/s, calculate:
5 m from P and has velocity of 2 m/s after a the acceleration after 6 seconds
5 seconds, find: b the formula for velocity
a the acceleration after 10 seconds c the velocity after 3 seconds
b the velocity after 8 seconds d the formula for distance
c the distance travelled in the first e the distance from P after 9 seconds.
10 seconds.
5 At a certain moment on its journey, the
17 2 A large ship moves slowly away in a straight rocket engines of a spacecraft were fired.
line from a wharf. The velocity of the ship Its acceleration, a m/s2, t seconds after that
in m/s relative to the end of the wharf is moment is given by a = 3t – 1.
given by v = 0.02t m/s where t is the time in
seconds from when the ship begins moving.
Calculate the distance moved by the ship in
the first 10 seconds.

a If the speed of the spacecraft was 10 m/s

at the moment the engines were fired,
find an expression for the speed, v m/s,
3 A particle moves in a straight line from an of the spacecraft at time t.
origin so that its acceleration at time b In terms of the spacecraft, what
t seconds is given by a = (4 – 3t) m/s2.
∫0
2
information would be given by v dt ?
a If the particle is momentarily at rest
when t = 2, find an expression for its 6 A machine is driving piles for a wharf in a
velocity. river estuary. It does this by lifting a heavy
b At what other time is the velocity zero? weight 4 m directly above the pile, and
c If the particle is at the origin when the then releasing the weight onto the pile. The
timing starts, find the distance travelled impact drives the pile into the riverbed. The
after 3 seconds. acceleration of the weight is 4.9 m/s2.
a What is the initial velocity?
b How long does the weight take to reach
the pile? (Hint: find an expression
involving distance s, and then substitute
s = 4.)
 17 Calculus applications 201

c Find the velocity of the weight when it

hits the pile.

7 A train passes a signal at a speed of 12 m/s.

Its acceleration t seconds after passing the
signal is (4 – 2t) m/s2 until it comes to rest.
a For how many seconds after passing the
signal does the train continue to gain
speed?
b Find, in terms of t, an expression for the
speed, v m/s, of the train.
c What is the greatest speed attained by the
train after it has passed the signal?
d How long after passing the signal does
the train take to stop?
17
e How far past the signal did the train
travel?

Kinematics using both differentiation and integration

exercise 17.04
1 An object moves in a straight line so that its 4 A clockwork car is wound up and released
velocity, v m/s, is given by the formula in a downwards direction from a point on a
v = 12t – 3t2, where t is the time in seconds sloping ramp. The velocity, in cm/s, is given
since the object passed point P. by the formula v = 16 + 22t – 3t2 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 8,
a When will the object come to rest? where t is the time in seconds after the car is
b What is the acceleration after released.
5 seconds? Give an interpretation for this
acceleration.
c How far from P is the object after
7 seconds?

2 The velocity of a particle travelling in a

straight line at time t is given by
v = 3t2 – 4t + 1. Find:
a its acceleration, a, at time t
b the distance travelled, s, at time t, given
that when t = 0, s = 0.

3 A particle starts from point P with velocity

given by v = (3t2 – 6) cm/s. Calculate: a After 6 seconds the car is 500 cm from
a when the particle is stationary the top of the ramp. How far was the car
b the acceleration of the particle after from the top of the ramp at the start?
3 seconds b Use calculus to determine the maximum
c the distance travelled in the third second. velocity of the car.
 202 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

5 The velocity, v m/s, of a stone fired 9 Faced with violent protesters at a

vertically upwards from a catapult 20 m demonstration, a police officer fires his pistol
high is given by the formula v = 180 – 10t. in the air. The bullet is fired from 2 m above
Calculate: the ground, and travels at a velocity, v m/s,
a the velocity after 3.5 seconds given by the formula v = 150 – 10t. Find:
b when the stone is momentarily at rest a the velocity of the bullet after 1 second
c the acceleration b the acceleration (interpret this result)
d the times for which the stone is moving c the maximum height reached by the
in an upward direction bullet
e the height of the stone above the ground d the distance travelled in the first
after 5 seconds 5 seconds.
f the distance through which the stone falls
in the 25th second.
17
6 The velocity (in m/s) of a particle travelling
in a straight line is given by the formula
v = 3t2 – 2t + 5. If the particle is at a fixed
point when the timing starts, calculate:
a the velocity when t = 5 seconds
b the acceleration after 2 seconds
c the distance travelled from the fixed
point after 10 seconds.

7 A particle moves with velocity 10 The vertical component of the velocity of a

v = (3t2 – 6t) m/s. If the particle is initially hot-air balloon, v m/s, t seconds after it is
5 m to the right of point X, calculate: released from the ground is given by the
a the initial velocity relation v = 2 − t .
10
b the velocity after 1 second. Explain a What vertical distance does the balloon
whether the particle is moving left or rise in the first 2 seconds?
right at this time. b What is the vertical acceleration of the
c when the particle is at rest balloon?
d the acceleration of the particle after
3 seconds
e the distance travelled by the particle in
the first 6 seconds
f the distance from X after 12 seconds.

8 The velocity (in m/s) of a missile fired

vertically from ground level is given by the
formula v = 120t – 6t2. Find:
a the velocity of the missile after 2 seconds
b the initial acceleration
c the maximum velocity
d when the missile begins to fall to Earth
e the maximum height reached by the
missile.
 17 Calculus applications 203

11 A stone is thrown vertically up from the top 12 Each time the shuttle in a weaving machine
of a cliff 30 m above sea level. It rises to a moves, it travels out and back along a line
maximum height, and then falls into the sea with velocity v m/s given by v = 9t(1 – t),
at the base of the cliff. While the stone is in where t is the time in seconds. The shuttle
the air its upward velocity t seconds after it starts at one side when t = 0.
is thrown is given by v = (25 – 10t) m/s. a For how many seconds does the shuttle
a What acceleration does the stone travel out?
experience? b Find, in terms of t, an expression for s,
b Determine an expression that gives the the distance in metres the shuttle is from
stone’s height above sea level at time t. the side at which it starts.
c The initial upward velocity of the stone is c How far does the shuttle travel out?
25 m/s. At what time is the velocity d What is the acceleration of the shuttle
25 m/s downwards? after 1 second?
4
17

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
The warehouse
A company supplies two shops, one in Napier and one in
Hastings. The shops are located 25 km apart. The company
Cape Kidnappers
needs to build a warehouse somewhere between the two shops.
Napier
They will make four deliveries to Napier each day, and five
deliveries to Hastings. The cost of making a delivery is $6 per 25
km
kilometre. Hastings
The company has asked you to recommend a suitable
location for the warehouse. Investigate using a spreadsheet,
and make a recommendation.
This extract shows what the first few rows could look like.

Applications of maxima and minima

Calculus can be used to find the maximum or
minimum values of quantities such as area, volume,
cost, etc. TIPSTER
The method involves expressing the quantity,
for example area, as a function of one variable, and You should always check to see whether you
then differentiating to find when the quantity is a have found a maximum or minimum value.
maximum or minimum.
 204 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

Enclosed areas
Example A farmer has 400 m of fencing material available to make a rectangular enclosure. One
side of the field is alongside a straight river, and does not need to be fenced. Determine
the maximum possible area of the field.
= Answer Let one side of the field be x, as shown in the diagram. x
Then the opposite side is also x, and the third side,
parallel to the river, is 400 – 2x.
Area = A(x) = base × height

400 – 2x
= x(400 – 2x)
= 400x – 2x2
A′(x) = 400 – 4x = 0 for a stationary point
400 = 4x x
17 x = 100
Check that this is in fact a maximum: the graph of
y = 400x – 2x2 would be an upside-down parabola, where the vertex gives a maximum
point rather than a minimum.
Thus, the dimensions of the field are 100 m, 200 m and 100 m.
The maximum possible area is 100 × 200 = 20 000 m2.

exercise 17.05
1 The rectangle drawn here has a perimeter of 4 Liz McDonald w metres
64 m. The base is x and the height is y. has 80 m of
fencing. If she
uses all the
y Hedge A Fence
fencing for square
two sides, and metres
x
some existing
a What do x and y add up to? hedges for
b Express y in terms of x. the other two
c Write a formula to give the area in terms sides, she can
of x. make a rectangular paddock w metres wide
d Hence use calculus to find the maximum with area A square metres.
area of the rectangle. a Write down an expression giving A in
terms of w.
2 Find the maximum area of a rectangle with a b What is the set of possible values of w?
perimeter of 120 cm. Write your answer as an inequality, for
example 10 < w < 20.
3 Jim McDonald wishes to fence a rectangular c Find the maximum possible area of the
paddock on his farm, which is bounded on paddock, and the corresponding value
one side by a river. If he has 360 m of fencing of w.
for the remaining three sides of the paddock, d What is the possible set of values of A?
calculate the maximum area he can enclose.
 17 Calculus applications 205

5 Ronald McDonald x x x 8 A rectangular sports field is surrounded by a

is planning to build 400 m running track. The curved parts of the
three adjoining running track are semi-circles.
rectangular pens of y
y
equal size to house
his pigs, as shown x x
in the diagram. He
x x
only has 60 m of
fencing however,
so it is important to him to make the pens as a Express the relationship between the
large as possible. What is the maximum area straight parts of the track, the curved
he could make each pen? parts, and the total length of 400 m as an
equation in x and y. (Note: circumference
6 Flora McDonald A F of a circle is 2πr.)
is about to build b Calculate the radius of these semi-circles 17
two rectangular that gives the sports field with maximum
paddocks Hedge possible area.
alongside a
dense hedge, one 9 A horticultural researcher is testing four
for goats and the B E different varieties of crops, so needs to mark
other for sheep, out four identical rectangular plots. 504 m
as shown in the of string is available. To save on the string
diagram. She has the plots are allowed to have a common
xm D
only 480 m of C boundary. Two possible configurations are
fencing available, shown here – in one the plots are in a row,
and wants this to enclose the largest possible and in the other the plots meet at a common
area. point. Calculate the maximum area of each
a Suppose the width of the strip of land is configuration, and hence determine the
x metres. extra area gained by choosing the larger
i Express the length DF in terms of x. configuration instead of the smaller one.
ii Write down an expression in terms of
x for the total area, A m2, of the two
paddocks.
b Calculate the value of x for which
this area is a maximum. What is this
maximum area?

7 An architect is designing windows for the

cells in a prison. The Justice Department In a row
has specified that each window contains
one horizontal bar and two vertical bars, as
shown in the
diagram. The
total length
of the bars is
600 mm. What
is the maximum
possible area of Meet at a common point
each window?
 206 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

Other applications of maxima and minima

Example A textile manufacturer makes blankets, and sells them for $25 each. The cost, in dollars,
of making x blankets is given by the function:
Cost = C(x) = 5000 + 4x + 0.01x2.
a What is the cost of producing:
i 100 blankets? ii 0 blankets?
b What is the formula for the revenue (money received) from selling x blankets?
c Find the formula for the profit made by selling x blankets.
(Hint: Profit = revenue – cost.)
d Hence find the number of blankets that the manufacturer should produce in order
to maximise profit.
= Answer a i C(100) = 5000 + 4 × 100 + 0.01 × 1002
17 = 5000 + 400 + 100 = $5500
ii C(0) = $5000
Note that $5000 is the amount of fixed costs that occur, regardless of whether or
not any blankets are produced.
b One blanket sells for $25. x blankets sell for $25x.
c Profit = revenue – cost
= 25x – (5000 + 4x + 0.01x2)
= 25x – 5000 – 4x – 0.01x2
= –5000 + 21x – 0.01x2
d Differentiating the profit gives:
Profit′(x) = 21 – 0.02x = 0 for a stationary point
21 = 0.02x
x = 21 = 1050
0.02
Note that x = 1050 gives a maximum, because the graph of y = –5000 + 21x – 0.01x2
is an upside-down parabola.

Example A box with an open top is made from a square sheet of cardboard with sides 12 cm,
by cutting a square of side x from each corner, and folding along the dashed lines as
shown in the diagram.
a Express L, the length of the box, in terms of x.
b Find an expression for V, the volume of the box, in terms of x.
c Differentiate to find dV .
dx x x
d Calculate the
maximum volume x x
of the box.
x x

x x L
x x
x x L
 17 Calculus applications 207

= Answer a L = 12 – 2x
b V = L × L × x = xL2 = x(12 – 2x)2
= x(144 – 48x + 4x2)
= 144x – 48x2 + 4x3
c dV = 144 – 96x + 12x2
dx
d Solve V′ (x) = 0
144 – 96x + 12x2 = 0
12 – 8x + x2 = 0 or x2 – 8x + 12 = 0
(x – 6)(x – 2) = 0
x = 6 or x = 2
Evaluate the volume for each of these
x-values: 17
V(2) = 2 × 82 = 128 cm3
V(6) = 6 × 02 = 0 cm3.
Clearly the maximum volume is 128 cm3, obtained when x = 2 cm.

exercise 17.06
1 Two numbers, x and y, have the property
that twice x plus y adds to 60. That is,
2x + y = 60. We want to find the maximum
product, P, for these two numbers – that is,
the maximum value of P = x × y.
a Rearrange the equation 2x + y = 60 to
express y in terms of x.
b Express P in terms of x only.
c What value of x makes P a maximum?
d Calculate the value of y given the x-value
in part c.
c What is this minimum fuel consumption?
e Calculate the maximum value of P.

2 Find the minimum value of S = x2 + y2 given 4 The sum of two numbers is 14. Calculate the
that x + y = 10. (Hint: follow the same type maximum value of their product.
of steps as in question 1.)
5 The Lait Blanc dairy company produces
3 The fuel consumption, f, of a car containers of rhubarb yoghurt, and sells
(in L/100 km) is related to the velocity, v (in them for $2 each. Each time they produce a
km/h), by the formula: run of yoghurt, the cost in dollars of making
2 x containers is given by the function:
f = 16 − 0.2 v + v .
250 Cost = C(x) = 7000 + x + 0.0002x2.
a Calculate the rate of fuel consumption a What is the cost of producing:
when the velocity is:
i 1000 containers? ii 0 containers?
i 10 km/h ii 20 km/h
b What is the formula for the revenue
iii 30 km/h. (money received) from selling
b Use calculus to find the speed at which x containers?
the fuel consumption is a minimum.
 208 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

c Find the formula for the profit made by 8 A go-cart is filled with petrol and tested
selling x containers of yoghurt. for fuel consumption at different constant
(Hint: Profit = revenue – cost.) speeds on a race-track. After the tests,
d Hence find the number of containers the manufacturer claims that its fuel
of yoghurt that the Lait Blanc dairy consumption, c (measured in L/100 km), is
company should produce per run in related to the speed of the go-cart, v
order to maximise its profit. (measured in km/h), by the formula:
2
c = 25 − v + v ,
6 A rectangular 2 300
box has a wire for 0 < v ≤ 140.
framework
with a height
h cm x cm
of h cm and a
square base x cm
17 with sides of
x cm. The framework is constructed of
12 pieces of wire, of total length 60 cm.
a Show that the height of the box (h cm) in
terms of x is (15 – 2x) cm.
b Find: i the volume of the box in terms
of x
ii the maximum volume such a
box can have.
c What shape is the box for maximum
volume? a Calculate the fuel consumption at a
speed of 100 km/h.
7 Aquarius b What information does the rule give
x x
Pools Ltd about the top speed of the go-cart?
x x
has a piece Calculate the fuel consumption at this
of vinyl that speed.
they plan to 8 c Use calculus to find the speed at which
use as the liner the fuel consumption is a minimum.
for a square d What is the fuel consumption at the
swimming x x speed in part c?
pool. The vinyl x x
measures 8
8 m × 8 m. 9 A formula for calculating the
They cut four strength of a beam is:
2
squares (each of side x metres) from the s = 2wt ,
corners, so that the remaining vinyl can fit 3l
where w is its width, l
into the pool as shown.
t is its thickness
a Write down an expression, in x, for the
and l is its length.
length of each side of the pool.
a Express s in terms
b What is the depth of the pool?
of w and t for a
c Find an expression in x for the volume of beam that is
the pool. 10 m long.
d What is the maximum volume of the t
pool?
w
 17 Calculus applications 209

b A 10 m beam has a perimeter of 20 cm 15 A box for cakes and pizzas, with a lid but no
– that is, 2w + 2t = 20. Calculate the flaps, is to be made from a rectangular sheet
values of w and t that give the maximum of cardboard. The net is drawn here.
strength.
x

84 cm

17
Lid

30 cm

Calculate the height of the box (marked

10 The fuel cost in dollars, C, of running a x in the diagram) that gives the maximum
ferry service across a river is related to volume. (Note: the formula for solving
the velocity in m/s of the ferry, v, by the the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is
formula: −
x = b ± b − 4ac .)
2

C = 6 + 2 v + 18 = 6v−1 + 2 v + 18 . 2a
v
16 What is the maximum volume of a cone if
Calculate the minimum fuel cost.
the sum of the height and radius is 10 cm?
11 The difference of two numbers is 7. (Note: V(cone) = 1 πr 2 h.)
3
Calculate the minimum value of their
product. 17 Find the maximum volume of a cylinder if
the sum of its height and radius is 200 cm.
12 x is a positive number. Find the minimum (Note: V(cylinder) = πr 2 h.)
value of x + 9 .
x
13 Find the minimum possible sum of a
positive number and its reciprocal.

14 A block of lead with volume 12 cm3 is to be

melted and cast into a cylindrical plumb-
bob. If all of the lead is used, and there is
no wastage, determine the radius of the
cylinder that has the smallest possible
surface area. Note: V(cylinder) = πr2h and
SA(cylinder) = 2πrh + 2πr2.
18 Calculate the maximum curved surface area
of a cylinder if the sum of the height and
radius is 8 m. ( Note: SA(cylinder) = 2πrh. )
 210 Derivatives and integrals 2.3

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
The horse-breeder’s paddock
A horse-breeder owns a property next to a
straight road. The horse-breeder can afford Cheap (y)
to spend $9900 on fencing a rectangular
paddock. The side next to the road requires

Expensive (x)
expensive stone-proof fencing, and this will
cost $90 per metre. The other three sides can Cheap
be fenced more cheaply, at $75 per metre. (x)
The horse-breeder has asked you to
advise on the layout of the largest possible
17 paddock with these fencing costs and the Cheap (y)
amount of money available.
Suppose the length of fence next to the
road is x m, and the two sides at right-
angles to the road measure y m.
1 Explain why 165x + 150y = 9900.
Show your working.
2 Rearrange 165x + 150y = 9900,
making y the subject.
3 Use a spreadsheet to calculate the
different possible areas that can be
fenced. This extract shows what the
first few rows could look like.
4 Copy the rows down a number of
times to see where the maximum
area occurs.

5 Write down a sentence or two explaining your conclusion.

Extension
6 Show how to reach the same conclusion using calculus.
 NCEA 2.3 Revision exercises 211

NCEA 2.3 Revision exercises

▼

1 Find the gradient of the curve 7 A rally sport car is moving at a velocity given
y = 2x3 – x2 + 5 at the point where x = 2. ACH by v = 2t3 – 3t2 – 12t + 25 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 5, where
t is the time in seconds after passing a marker
2 Determine the equation of the function that and v is measured in m/s.
passes through the point (3, 7) and whose a Calculate the distance travelled in the
dy first 2 seconds after passing the marker.
gradient function is = 3x 2 − 6x + 1. ACH
dx b Calculate the minimum velocity in this
3 The graph shown below has the equation 5-second interval. MRT
y = 12 – 3x2. Calculate the shaded area.
y 8 A sign-writer is designing a logo for Anvil Ltd,
a metal-working company. The logo is to be
12
made by removing two semi-circles from the
opposite shorter ends of a rectangle with a
10 perimeter of
100 cm. The 50 – 2r
8 diameter of
r
each semi-
6 circle is equal
to the distance r
between
4 50 – 2r
the longer sides
of the rectangle.
2 Calculate the largest possible area for
the logo. EXC
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x ACH 9 The diagram shows the top view of a
4 Find the co-ordinates of the points on the swimming pool. Relative to the axes shown, and
curve y = 42 where the gradient is 2. ACH with measurement in metres, the equations of the
x four straight edges are x = 0, x = 5, y = 0 and y = 6.
5 Determine the equation of the tangent to The equation of the curved edge is:
the curve y = x2 + 5x – 6 at the point (2, 8). MRT 2
y = x − 10x + 34 .
3 3 3
6 Calculate the coloured area. The equation Calculate the area of the water surface.
of the curve is y = x2 – 8x + 12.
y y
15 y = x2 – 8x + 12 6

12 5

9 4

6 3

3 2

1
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–3
1 2 3 4 5 x
EXC

–6 MRT
212

2.4 Co-ordinate geometry

Use co-ordinate geometry methods

Contents
18 Co-ordinate geometry 213 19 Further co-ordinate geometry 225
Midpoint of a line segment 213 Parallel lines 225
Distance between two points 214 Perpendicular lines 226
Gradients 216 Collinear points 228
Gradient of the line joining two given points 216 Drawing lines 229
Gradient of the line making an angle of Gradient–intercept method 229
θ with the x-axis 217 Intercept–intercept method 231
Equations of lines 218 Writing the equation of a line given the graph 232
Rearranging line equations to the form Triangle properties and proofs 233
y = mx + c 219 Applications of straight lines 236
Rearranging line equations to the form
ax + by + c = 0 220 NCEA 2.4 Revision exercises 240
Writing the equations of lines from given
information 220
1 Given gradient m and a point (x1, y1) on
the line 221
2 Given two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on
the line 221
3 Given the angle θ with the x-axis and
a point on the line 222
Applications of straight lines 223
 18
Co-ordinate geometry

TIPSTER
Co-ordinate geometry is one of the most interesting branches
of mathematics because it links together algebra and geometry.
It combines the skill of manipulating formulae and equations, 18
together with understanding two-dimensional relationships.

Midpoint of a line segment

A line segment is the part of a line that lies between two points. The midpoint of × (x2, y2)
the line segment is the point that lies exactly half-way between the points.

Midpoint
In general, if the two points are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) ×
then the co-ordinates of the midpoint are: (x1, y1)
 x1 + x2 y1 + y 2 
 2 , 
 2 

Example Find the midpoint of the line segment AB,

where A = (–2, 3) and B = (5, 1).
exercise 18.01
= Answer First draw a diagram to get a feeling for 1 Write down the co-ordinates of
this question. the midpoints of the line segments
y
joining:
A× 3 a (4, 2) and (8, 6)
b (3, 4) and (7, 2)
1 ×B c (–1, 3) and (–5, 1)
–2 5 x d (–8, 2) and (–1, 4)
e (–2, –3) and (4, 3)
 x + x2 y 1 + y 2  f (1, 2) and (1, 5)
Midpoint =  1 ,  g (6, –1) and (–2, –3)
 2 2 
−  h (–7, 4) and (2, 4)
=  2 + 5 , 3 + 1
 2 2 
= (1.5, 2)
 214 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

2 What are the co-ordinates of the midpoints 4 The co-ordinates of the midpoint of the line
of the line segments joining: segment AB are (–2, 4). If A = (6, –1), what are
a (2.9, –4.7) and (–0.8, 5.3) the co-ordinates of B?

( ) −
b 3 , 5 and  1 , 1 
4 6  2 3

5 AB is the diameter of a circle. If A = (2, –6)
and B = (4, 2), write down the co-ordinates
3 Express the co-ordinates of the midpoints of the centre of the circle.
of the line segments joining these points as
simply as possible. 6 A circle has centre (4, –5). If a diameter is PR
a (p + q, 2p) and (p – q, 0) and P = (8, 1), calculate the co-ordinates of R.
b (a + 1, a – 2) and (a – 1, a + 2)
c (4f + 5, 2g – 1) and (6f – 1, –12g + 3)

Distance between two points

Given two points
18 on a graph it is In general the given points are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). (x2, y2)
always possible to These are joined up. The distance (d) between
find the distance them can be calculated by finding the length of
the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle: d
between them using y2 – y1
Pythagoras. d2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2

( x2 − x1 ) + ( y 2 − y1 )
2 2
d =
(x1, y1)
x2 – x1

Example Calculate the distance between Example Ship A is 10 km south and 8 km west
the points (–2, –3) and (3, 4). of a lighthouse. Ship B is 4 km north
= Answer y
and 5 km east of the same lighthouse.
What is the shortest distance between
× the two ships?
= Answer Take the lighthouse as being at the
origin (0, 0). Apply the directions N,
E, S and W to the axes. Then ship A is
x
at (–8, –10) and ship B is at (5, 4).
N
×
Ship B
d2 = (3 − − 2)2 + (4 − − 3)2 Lighthouse at (0, 0)
= +
52 72 E
W
= 25 + 49 14
= 74
d = 74 = 8.602 (4 sf) Ship A
13

S
 18 Co-ordinate geometry 215

Distance d is given by:

d 2 = (5 − − 8)2 + (4 − − 10)2
= 132 + 142
= 169 + 196
= 365
d = 365 = 19.105
= 19 km (to nearest km)

exercise 18.02
1 Calculate the distance between these pairs of 5 A traveller is lost in a
points (to 4 sf if answers not exact). desert. Unknown to
a (3, 1) and (6, 5) b (0, 0) and (1, 1) him, he is 4 km west
c (–2, –3) and (3, –15) d (6, –2) and (4, –3) and 5 km south of an
e (2, 8) and (–1, –5) f (12, 7) and (12, 9) oasis. A helicopter is 18
– searching for him and
g ( 3, 5) and (2, 5) h (–3, –3) and (–2, –2)
is currently at a point
3 km east and 1 km
2 Use the distance formula to calculate the
south of the oasis.
distance between these pairs of points.
Calculate the distance
a (6.1, 8.3) and (0.7, 1.9)
between the traveller
b (–4.6, –0.7) and (9.1, –6.5) and the helicopter.
( )
c 5 , 3 and 2 , 1
3 4 3 2( ) 6 Jacques and Mathilde (tourists from France)
are visiting Christchurch. They head off
3 What is the distance of (–7, 24) from the in different directions from the Tourist
origin? Information Office in Cathedral Square. An
hour later, Jacques has walked 400 m east
4 Taupo is 20 km west and 62 km south of and 100 m north, while Mathilde has walked
Rotorua. Whakatane is 82 km east and 100 m east and 150 m south. Calculate the
12 km north of Rotorua. Calculate the distance between them, to the nearest metre.
distance between Taupo and Whakatane to
the nearest kilometre. 7 Show that !PQR with vertices P(2, 7),
Q(–1, 1) and R(5, 1) is isosceles. Name the
pair of equal sides.
Whakatane
Mokoia 8 ABCD is a parallelogram, where A = (1, 1),
Island * * B = (5, 2), C = (6, 3) and D = (2, 2). Calculate
Rotorua
Lake Tarawera the length of the longest diagonal of ABCD.

9 The four points ABCD form a square where

Major A = (1, 1), B = (6, 3), C = (4, 8) and D = (–1, 6).
geothermal A circle passes through all four points.
fields
a Calculate the perimeter of the square
Hot water
* springs ABCD.
Lake b Calculate the radius of the circle.
Taupo
Taupo
 216 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

Gradients
Gradient of the line joining two given points
The gradient of a line is a number which describes how steep the line is. It is calculated from the
change in y
fraction: .
change in x
In general, the formula or rule giving the gradient of
the line joining two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is:
y − y1
m= 2
x2 − x1

Example Find the gradient of the line joining (–1, 2) and (3, –1).
= Answer First draw a diagram to get a feeling for this question. LECTURER
y We say that the
gradient of a (p, r)
18 vertical line is
× undefined. The
y 2 − y1 x-co-ordinates of
Gradient =
x2 − x1 any two points on a
x
× −1 − 2 = −3 vertical line are the
(p, q)
=
3 − −1 4 same. The gradient
formula would
involve dividing by 0, which
is undefined.
r −q r −q
Gradient = =
p−p 0

exercise 18.03
1 Calculate the gradient of the line passing c d
through the pair of given points. Leave your y y
answer as a fraction in its simplest form. 6 x
–3 x
a (4, 2) and (3, 5) b (2, 7) and (1, 4)
c (–1, 5) and (4, 7) d (2, –1) and (–3, 6) –4

e (–4, 3) and (–5, –2) f (–9, –3) and (–1, –4)

–10

2 Calculate the gradients of the lines drawn in

the following diagrams. e f y
a b y
y y × 4
2 ×
3 3
3 x
–4
x –3 x x
5
 18 Co-ordinate geometry 217

3 Lines pass through the following pairs of 6 Calculate the gradients of the lines joining
points. Calculate their gradients. these pairs of points. Simplify your answers if
a (0, 0) and (9, 1) possible.
b (23, 78) and (45, –65) a (c – 2, c + 3) and (c + 1, c – 4)
c (27, 40) and (27, 56) b (2d – 4, 3d + 6) and (3d – 1, d + 5)
d (–8, 7) and (–1, 7) c (p, q) and (q, p)
e (4.1, 6.7) and (9.5, –2.3) d (p, q) and (–p, –q)
e (p, q) and (r, q)
4 The line joining (a, 7) to (3, 4) has a f (p, q) and (p, r)
gradient of 1. Form an equation and solve
it to work out the value of a. 7 A triangle ABC has vertices A (4, –2), B (–1, 3)
and C (4, –6). Calculate the gradient of the line
5 The gradient of the line joining (3, p) to joining the midpoints of AB and AC.
−
(–1, 2) is 1. Calculate the value of p. 8 The gradient of the line joining (1, 3) to
4
(p, 4) is p – 1. Solve a quadratic equation to
calculate the two possible values for p.
18
Gradient of the line making an angle of θ with the x-axis
The diagram shows a line that makes an angle of θ with the positive y
direction of the x-axis.
The gradient of this line is the fraction c . But from trigonometry
c = tan(θ ) . d
d c
It follows that if we know the angle that a line makes with the
positive direction of the x-axis, the gradient of the line will be tan of this
angle. And if we know the gradient of a line, we can use trigonometry x
d
(tan–1) to calculate the angle between the line and the x-axis.

Example A line makes an angle of 40° Example The line in the y

with the x-axis, as shown in diagram has
the diagram. Calculate the gradient –3.
gradient of the line. Calculate the
angle between
y
the line and
the positive
direction of the x
x-axis. (Note:
the gradient is
negative, this means the angle is obtuse,
40°
i.e. greater than 90°.)
x
= Answer m = –3
tan(θ ) = –3
= Answer Gradient = tan(40°) = 0.84.
θ = –71.6° (using calculator)
The required angle is 108.4°, obtained by
adding 180° to the calculator value. In
fact, the calculator gives the angle below
the x-axis.
 218 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

exercise 18.04
1 Calculate the gradient of a line making the 3 Calculate the angles that the lines with these
following angles with the positive direction gradients make with the positive direction of
of the x-axis. the x-axis.
18 a 24° b 30° a 2 b 1
−2 4
c 126° d 135° c 3 d 1
e 180° f 90°
e 0 f 3
−1
2 Calculate, to 2 sf, the gradient for each of g –1 h
these lines. 3
i undefined
a b y
y
4 What angle does the line joining P(4, 3) and
Q(–2, 0) make with the positive direction of
110° the x-axis?
60°
x x 5 Calculate the acute angle formed when the
line joining (8, –1) and (–3, 4) cuts the x-axis.

c d y
6 Calculate the acute angle formed when the
y 40°
line joining (–2, 3) and (1, 4) cuts the y-axis.

7 The triangle ABC has

vertices A = (–1, 4), y
x
B = (5, 0) and 6
x 70° C = (6, 1). By first A×
finding the angles
between AB and the 2
×C
x-axis, and BC and × x
2 4B 6
the x-axis, calculate
the size of ∠ABC.

Equations of lines
Any relation in the form y = mx + c gives a • m gives the gradient of the line,
straight line when graphed. Such a relation is • c gives the y-intercept, the point where the
called linear. The two numbers m and c give line cuts the y-axis.
special information about the line:
 18 Co-ordinate geometry 219

Rearranging line equations to the form y = mx + c

The previous information is only obvious if the straight-line equation is already in this form; i.e. if y
is already the ‘subject’ of the equation. The following example shows how to rearrange a straight-line
equation to obtain information about the gradient.

Example Calculate the gradient of the line 5x – 3y + 2 = 0. Hence find the angle the line makes
with the positive direction of the x-axis.
= Answer Make y the subject, i.e. aim to get y by itself on the left-hand side of the equals sign.
5x − 3 y + 2 = 0
− 3y = − 5x − 2
− 5x
y = −3
− −2
3
y = 5 x + 2
3 3

This means the gradient is 5 .

3
The angle between this line and the positive direction of the x-axis is found by solving
18
5
tan(θ ) = .
3
tan(θ ) = 5 = 1.6!
3
θ = 59.0° (tan −1 on a calculator)

exercise 18.05
1 Find the gradients of these lines by 4 Calculate the angle that each of these lines
rearranging them to the form y = mx + c first. makes with the positive direction of the
a 2y = 3x – 2 b 3y = x – 6 x-axis.
c x+y=3 d 2x + y = 3 a 3x – 4y = 5 b 2x + y = 8
e 4x + 5 = 2y f 3x – 2y = 6 c x – 3y + 5 = 0 d 4x + 5y – 2 = 0
g 4x – y = 8 h x – 4y = 2
i 4x + 2y + 9 = 0 j 4y = 2x – 8 5 Calculate the angle that each of the lines
in the diagrams makes with the positive
k x + 3y – 2 = 0 l 4x = 2 + 3y
direction of the x-axis.
2 Find the gradient of the line ax + by + c = 0. a y b y

3 Calculate the angle that each of these lines 3 4

makes with the positive direction of the
x-axis.
x
b y = x + 5 x 5
–2
a y = 2x – 1
3
− c d y
–
c y = 4x + 12 d y = 3x − 7 y
5
e y=x f y = –x
5 x
–1.5 x
–3
–6
 220 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

Rearranging line equations to the form ax + by + c = 0

Although the form y = mx + c is particularly convenient when working with gradients, not all
straight lines can be expressed in this form; vertical lines cannot be. However, all straight lines can be
written in the form ax + by + c = 0.

LECTURER
At this level of mathematics there is an increasing emphasis on
style and elegance. The convention we follow is that it is best to
express straight-line equations in this form, with a, b and c as
integers, so that the equation has no fractions. The x-term should
be written first, and with a positive coefficient (number multiplying x).

Example Express y = 2x – 5 in the form ax + by + c = 0.

18 = Answer y = 2x − 5
− 2x+y+5= 0
2x − y − 5 = 0
− 2x
Example Express y = + 4 in the form ax + by + c = 0.
3
= Answer y =
3
− 2x
+ 4
3 y = − 2 x + 12
2 x + 3 y − 12 = 0

exercise 18.06
Express these straight-line equations in the form ax + by + c = 0.
−x
1 y=x+4 6 y = 2x − 5 10 y = − 3
7 4 5
2 y = 2x – 7 − 3x 2x y
7 y = +1 11 =
3 y = –3x + 1 4 3 4
2y
4 y=x 8 x+y=4 12 = 4x − 1
5 3 2
5 x=4 9 y = 4x + 2
5

Writing the equations of lines from given information

Consider a line that passes through the fixed point (x1, y1).
The line has gradient m. Any other general point on the line is (x, y). (x, y)
Gradient m
There are two possible expressions for the gradient:
change in y (y – y1)
• the fraction , or
change in x
• the given gradient, m. (x – x1)
(x1, y1)
 18 Co-ordinate geometry 221

These two expressions must be equal. Therefore:

y − y1
= m
x − x1
or y – y1 = m(x – x1)

There are several different ways in which you can be given information about straight lines. Three of
these ways are given below. In each case, you have to determine the equation of the line.

1 Given gradient m and a point (x1, y1) on the line

The equation of the line is:
y – y1 = m(x – x1).
This is often called the point–gradient equation.

Example Find the equation of the line that passes through (4, –3) with gradient 2. 18
= Answer y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – –3 = 2(x – 4)
y + 3 = 2x – 8
y = 2x – 11
or 2x – y – 11 = 0

exercise 18.07 2 Given two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on the line
In this case the gradient, m, is:
1–7 Find the equation for each of the
y 2 − y1
following lines. Express your answer in .
x2 − x1
the form ax + by + c = 0.
Calculate this first, and then use the formula in 1 above.
1 Through (2, 5) with gradient 3.
Example Find the equation of the line joining the
2 Through (–1, 4) with gradient 2.
points (–2, 1) and (3, 2).
3 Through (3, –6) with gradient 1 . y − y1
2 = Answer Gradient = 2 = 2 − −1 = 1
x2 − x1 3− 2 5
4 Through (5, 1) with gradient –4.
Now substitute into y – y1 = m(x – x1):
5 Through (–2, –3) with gradient 1 .
4 y − 1 = 1 (x − − 2)
−2
–
6 Through ( 3, 4) with gradient . 5
5 5y − 5 = x + 2 (cross-multiplying
7 Through (–6, 1) with gradient 0. and simplifying)
5y – x – 7 = 0
8 Find the equation of the line with x − 5y + 7 = 0
gradient –2 which passes through
the midpoint of PQ where P = (4, 6)
and Q = (–2, 4).
TIPSTER
This is often called the point–point equation.
An alternative expression for this equation is:
y − y1 y − y1
= 2
x − x1 x2 − x 1
 222 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

exercise 18.08
1 Find the equation of the line joining each of e f
these pairs of given points. y y
a (4, 1) and (7, 3) b (5, 4) and (7, 1)
–
c (3, 2) and (2, 7) d (4, 3) and (–1, –2) 2 ×
e (6, –2) and (1, –4) f (–4, 3) and (2, –4) × x
– – – (4, –1)
g ( 5, 1) and ( 3, 2) h (4, 1) and (4, –6) 3 x
i (3, –2) and (1, –2)

2 Write down the equation of the lines drawn

in the diagrams. 3 The points P (–1, 3) and Q (4, 6) lie on
the circumference of a circle. What is the
a y b y equation of the chord joining them?
3 4 A line drawn through the point (–4, 5)
3
touches a circle at (2, –1). Find the equation
18 of this tangent.
–4 x 5 x

c d y 5 Find the equation of the line that cuts the

y x-axis at 4 and the y-axis at –2.
6 x –4 x

–4
6 The points (2, 1), (–3, q) and (1, –2) are
–3
collinear – that is, they lie on the same line.
Calculate the value of q.

3 Given the angle θ with the x-axis and a point on the line
y
If the angle that the line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis
is θ , then the gradient of the line must be tan(θ ). Use this information to
× (x , y )
substitute into the equation y – y1 = m(x – x1). 1 1

Example Find the equation of the line that has a y-intercept of 5 and crosses the x-axis at an
angle of 45°.
= Answer The gradient of the line = tan(45°) = 1. The line passes
y
through (0, 5). Substitute into y – y1 = m(x – x1):
y − 5 = 1(x − 0) 5
y−5= x
45°
y = x+5
x
or x−y+5= 0
 18 Co-ordinate geometry 223

exercise 18.09
1 In each of the following, find the 2 Write down the equation of each line that passes
equation of the line which passes through the given point and intersects with the
through the given point and intersects positive direction of the x-axis at the given angle.
with the positive direction of the x-axis Where necessary, round all numbers in the final
at the given angle. equation to 2 dp.
a (3, 4) 45° a (4, 1) 60°
b (6, –1) 0° b (–2, –1) 30°
–
c ( 2, 3) 135° –
c (8, 3) 167°
– –
d ( 5, 6) 45° –
d (0, 2) 10°
e (5, –8) 135° e (6, 0) 0°

3 The hypotenuse of a right-angled isosceles

triangle lies on the x-axis, and the vertex opposite
the hypotenuse is the point (4, 5). Find the
equations of the two equal sides. 18

Applications of straight lines

exercise 18.10
1 Each step in a flight of stairs has a ‘rise’ of If the gradient of the ladder is m, the rule
170 mm and a ‘tread’ of 280 mm. can be expressed as an inequality: 3 ≤ m ≤ 4.
a Express this rule in words.
Rise b Write down an inequality using m, for
Tread
each of these cases.
i The ladder is too steep, and might
topple over.
ii The bottom of the ladder is too far
a Calculate the gradient of the flight of from the base of the wall, and might
stairs, correct to 2 dp. slip.
b If a plank was placed on the flight of c A ladder is 6 m long, and the bottom is
stairs, linking the top to the bottom, what placed 1.9 m out from a wall.
angle would it make with the horizontal? i Use Pythagoras to calculate how far
the ladder reaches up the wall.
2 One of the safety rules on a building site ii Calculate the gradient of the ladder.
concerns ladders and how they are placed iii Explain whether this ladder is placed
against walls. safely.
d The manager of the building site has
asked you to express this safety rule in
terms of the angle that a ladder can make
with the ground. Complete this box for
ladder safety:

____ < Safe angle < _____

Unsafe Unsafe Safe
 224 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

3 Wiredup Ltd sells DVD players. The a Use the point–point equation for a
manager believes the number of DVD straight line:
players sold each month is related to their y − y1 y − y1
= 2
price. This table shows the sales data for x − x1 x2 − x1
March and April. to write the relationship in the form
ax + by + c = 0.
Price (x) Number sold (y) b As the price increases, the number of
March $425 425 DVD players sold decreases. What
April $675 50 feature of the graph shows this?
c If the manager’s assumption is correct,
The manager assumes that the relationship estimate the number of DVD players that
might be linear, and draws a graph to show would be sold in a month if the price was
it. The graph is not to scale. $600.
d Calculate the y-intercept of this line.
y Explain what it represents in this
425 × situation, and whether it is realistic.
18
Number sold

50 ×

425 675 x
Price ($)
 19
Further co-ordinate geometry

Parallel lines
Parallel lines have the same direction. This means they never meet.
Parallel lines (in two dimensions) have the same gradient.

Consider the two lines y = m1x + c1 and 19

y = m2x + c2.
If m1 = m2 then the two lines are parallel.

Example Are the two lines (1) y = 3x − 5 and

4
(2) 4y – 3x + 10 = 0 parallel?
= Answer By inspection, the gradient of line (1) is 3 .
4
Rearranging the equation for line (2) to the form y = mx + c, we obtain 4y = 3x – 10
which is equivalent to the equation y = 3 x − 5 . This also has gradient 3 .
4 2 4
So the two lines are parallel.

Example What is the equation of the line which passes through the point (6, –2) and is parallel to
the line 2x – 3y + 4 = 0?
= Answer Rearrange the equation of the given line:
2x − 3y + 4 = 0
− 3y = − 2x − 4
− 2x
y = −3
− −4
3
y = 2 x + 4
3 3
The gradient of this line is 2 . Therefore the required line has gradient 2 and passes
3 3
through (6, –2).
The equation of the line is found by substituting into y – y1 = m(x – x1):
y − − 2 = 2 (x − 6)
3
3( y + 2) = 2(x − 6)
3 y + 6 = 2 x − 12
− 2x + 3 y + 18 = 0
2 x − 3 y − 18 = 0
 o o d n te geomet

e e c se 19.01
1 Here are the equations of 10 lines. Find the 4 Find the equation of the line through (7, 2)
gradient for each line and then write down parallel to the line 4x – y + 2 = 0.
all the sets of parallel lines. For example, if
a and c have the same gradient, then one set 5 Find the equation of the line through (0, –2)
of parallel lines is {a, c}. parallel to:
a y = 3x – 5 b y = 4 – 3x a 4x – 2y + 1 = 0
c y – 3x = 2 d 3y = x + 6 b x + 5y – 10 = 0
e x + 3y = 3 f 3x + 2y = 6
g 6y = 2x + 1 h 2x – 3y = 2 6 A triangle is given by A (3, 2), B (–1, 5) and
C (0, –1). What is the equation of the line
i y + 3x = 6 j 3x – 2y = 4
through B parallel to AC?
2 Find the equation of the line through (–1, 6)
7 The line through (1, 2) and (3, a) is parallel
parallel to the line y = 3x – 2.
to the line 2x + y – 5 = 0. Calculate the value
of a.
3 Find the equation of the line through (3, –1)
parallel to the line y = –x + 5.

e end c l l nes
Two lines are perpendicular if they meet at right-angles. The gradients multiply to –1. Each gradient
is the negative reciprocal of the other.

If the two lines are perpendicular: LECTURER

m1 × m2 = –1 There is one exception to this rule.
−1 −1
In particular this means m1 = and m2 = m . A horizontal line (gradient 0) and a
m2 1 vertical line (gradient undefined) are
perpendicular to each other. In this
case m1 × m2 has no value.

4/19Coord geo2.indd 226 31/1/06 10:42:45 AM

 19 Further co-ordinate geometry 227

Example Verify that the two lines in the diagram are perpendicular. y y = 4x – 1

= Answer −
−
The two gradients are m1 = 4 and m2 = 1 .
4
4
–1
m1× m2 = 4 × 1 = − 1 . 2
y= 4
x +2
4
Example Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to the –4 –2 2 4 x
–2
line x + 3y – 4 = 0.
= Answer The given line can be rearranged to 3y = –x + 4, or
–4

−
y = 1 x + 4 , which has gradient 1 .
−
3 3 3
A line perpendicular to this one would have gradient 3.
−
Note: 1 × 3 = − 1 as required.
3
Example Find the equation of the line which passes through (4, 6) and is perpendicular to the
line passing through the points (2, –3) and (–1, 5).
y − y1
= Answer The gradient of the line through (2, –3) and (–1, 5) is given by the formula m = 2
x2 − x1
.
19
That is, m = −5 − −3 8
= − =
−8
.
1−2 3 3
The gradient of a perpendicular line would be 3 .
−
8
Note: 3 is the negative reciprocal of 8 .
8 3
The required line has gradient 3 and passes through (4, 6). The equation is:
8
y − 6 = 3 (x − 4)
8
8 y − 48 = 3x − 12
3x − 8 y + 36 = 0

Example Give the equation of the line perpendicular to y = 2x + 6 that has the same x-intercept.
= Answer Two pieces of information are required:
1 the gradient, and
2 the point that the line passes through.
−
Gradient = 1 (product of gradients is –1).
2
The x-intercept for the line is when y = 0:
0 = 2x + 6 x = –3
i.e. x-intercept is (–3, 0).
Substitute into y – y1 = m(x – x1) to obtain the equation:
−1
y−0= (x − − 3)
2
2 y = − 1(x + 3)
2y = −x − 3
x + 2y + 3 = 0
 228 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

exercise 19.02
1 Give the gradients of lines perpendicular to 5 Find the equation of the line through (–2, 3)
lines with these gradients. perpendicular to the line y = 2x + 4.
a 2 b 7 c 1
3 6 Find the equation of the line through (6, 0)
−1 −2
d
4
e 1 – f
5 perpendicular to the line y = 3x + 2 .
4
g 8– h 1
6 7 Find the equation of the line through (5, –1)
perpendicular to:
2 a What is the gradient of a horizontal line? a x + 3y = 4
b What name is given to a line that is b 2y = 6 – 3x
perpendicular to a horizontal line?
c Why is the gradient of the line in part b 8 Find the equation of the line through (1, 1)
undefined? perpendicular to:
a x=4
3 Give the gradients of lines perpendicular to
19 lines with these gradients. b y = –5
1
a p b –p c
q 9 Two lines are perpendicular and intersect on
−1 −p the x-axis. One of the lines is y = 2x – 6. Find
d q e p f
q q the equation of the other line.
g 0 h undefined
10 Find the equation of the perpendicular
4 Here are the equations of 10 lines. Find the bisector of the line joining (5, 1) and (–3, 7).
gradient for each line and then write down
all the pairs of perpendicular lines. For 11 Find the equation of the line through
example, if the gradients of f and j multiply A (9, –2) perpendicular to the line joining
to –1, then one pair of perpendicular lines is A to the point (–1, 1).
{f, j}.
12 Find the equation of the line through (0, 7)
a y = 2x − 2 b y + 5x + 2 = 0 perpendicular to the line joining (4, –1) to
3
c 2y + 3x = 8 d 4y – 3x = 16 (6, 0).
x + 3
e 4y = 3x – 12 f y =
5
−
g 3y + 4x = 6 h y = 3x + 1
2
i 3y + 4x – 1 = 0 j y + 5x = 1

Collinear points
Points are collinear if they all lie on the same line. This means that
there should be no ‘bend’ as the points are joined, and, in particular, the
gradient between any two pairs of points should be the same.
 19 Further co-ordinate geometry 229

Example Show that the points A (–3, –11), B (0, –2) y

and C (2, 4) are collinear.
5
= Answer Answer this question by showing that
C
gradient AB = gradient BC.
− 2 − − 11
Gradient AB = = 9 = 3
0 − −3 3 –2 2 x
Gradient BC = 4 − 2 = 6 = 3
−
B
2−0 2
From A to B to C there is no change in –5
the gradient, and so the three points A,
B and C are collinear.
–10
A

exercise 19.03 19
1 Show that the points (2, 3), (4, 8) and (8, 18) 4 A = (–1, 1), B = (8, 3), C = (9, 7) and D = (0, 5).
are collinear. a Show that ABCD is a parallelogram.
2 Show that the points (–3, 7), (0, 6) and (6, 4) b What are the co-ordinates of the
are collinear. midpoint of AC?
3 A = (3, 4), B = (2, –1) and C = (0, p). If A, B c Does the midpoint of AC lie on BD?
and C are collinear calculate the value of p.

Drawing lines
Two pieces of information are usually needed to draw a line.
These two can be given in a number of ways. For example:
1 one point on the line, and the gradient
2 two points on the line.
In both cases we start by having the equation of the line, and
then obtain information from it before drawing the line.

Gradient–intercept method
If the equation is given in the form: TIPSTER
y = mx + c
If the gradient is a fraction, it
then m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept, the place where
is sometimes easier to draw
the line cuts the y-axis.
a line with this gradient by
To draw a line using this method we locate the y-intercept.
going along to the right by the
Make sure that the equation is in the form y = mx + c first. Then,
denominator (bottom line) of
from the y-intercept, draw a line that has a gradient of m. In
the fraction, and then up or
general, this means ‘go along one to the right, and then up or
down by the numerator (top
down by m’ – up if m is positive, down if m is negative.
line).
 230 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

Example Draw the line y = 2x – 5.

= Answer The equation is already in the form y = mx + c. y

m = 2, c = –5 x
The y-intercept is –5, i.e. (0, –5). Mark this point with a cross.
×
From the cross, draw a line with a gradient of 2 (i.e. out 1, up 2). –5 ×
Mark this point with another cross. Join the two points up,
extending the line in both directions.

Example Draw the line 3x + 4y – 8 = 0.

= Answer First rearrange to the form y = mx + c.
y
3x + 4 y − 8 = 0
4 y = − 3x + 8
×2
− 3x
y = + 8
4 4 ×
− 3x x
19 y =
4
+2
−3
m= ,c = 2
4
The y-intercept is 2, i.e. (0, 2). Mark this point with a cross.
−
From the cross, draw a line with a gradient of 3 (i.e. out 4, down 3). Mark this point
with another cross. 4
Join the two points up, extending a line in both directions.
Two special cases are vertical lines and horizontal lines.
1 Vertical lines have equations of the form x = c. The line passes through the point (c, 0).
2 Horizontal lines have equations of the form y = c. The line passes through the point (0, c).
Example Draw the lines:
a x=2 b y = –1.
= Answer a y b y

x
2 x –1

exercise 19.04
Draw the following lines.
1 y = 3x – 1 6 y = 2x − 4 10 y = x 16 x = –4
3 3
2 y = 3 – 2x 7 y =
− 3x
11 y = 5x – 2 17 x = 3
+ 3 3x − 2
3 y = x+2 4
12 y = –x 18 y =
3 x 4
8 y = 2 − x
4 y=1–x 2 13 y = 4x – 3 19 y =
x+1 2
5 y=x 9 y = 14 y=6
2 20 y = 6 − 2 x
15 y = –2 3
 19 Further co-ordinate geometry 231

exercise 19.05
Rearrange these equations to the form y = mx + c, and then draw each one.
1 2y = 3x – 4 7 3x – 2y = 4 13 4x + y = 5
2 3y – 2x = 6 8 x + 6y = 12 14 2x + y + 3 = 0
3 x+y+4=0 9 5y + 2x = 10 15 2x + 3y + 9 = 0
4 x=y 10 3y = 3 – 6x 16 x–y=1
5 3y – x = 6 11 2y = 2 – x 17 y–5=0
6 4–y=x 12 2x – 3y = 6 18 y − 5 = 1
3

Intercept–intercept method
When the line equation is given in the form:
ax + by + c = 0
19
it is sometimes easier to find the x- and y- intercepts and then join them to y
form the line, than to rearrange and work out the gradient and y-intercept.
• The x-intercept is the point where the line cuts the x-axis. The co-ordinates (0, q)
of any point on the x-axis are (p, 0). In other words, at the x-intercept, the q
y-value = 0. (p, 0)
• Similarly, the y-intercept is of the form (0, q) – i.e. at the y-intercept, the p x
x-value is 0.

TIPSTER
This suggests the following approach. Given a line equation in the form
ax + by + c = 0:
1 to work out the x-intercept, substitute y = 0, and solve the equation for x,
2 to work out the y-intercept, substitute x = 0, and solve the equation for y.

Example Find the x- and y-intercepts for the line 3x – 2y + 12 = 0, and hence draw the graph.
= Answer For the x-intercept substitute y = 0:
3x − 2 × 0 + 12 = 0
3x = − 12
x = −4
i.e. (–4, 0) is the x-intercept.
For the y-intercept substitute x = 0: y
6
3 × 0 − 2 y + 12 = 0
− 2y= − 12
y =6 –4 x
i.e. (0, 6) is the y-intercept.
Plot these two intercepts, join them up, and extend the line in both directions.
 232 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

exercise 19.06
For each of the following equations, calculate the co-ordinates
of the x- and y-intercepts, and hence draw the lines.
1 2x + 3y = 6 5 4x = 2y + 12 8 x–y–6=0
2 4x – y = 4 6 3y = 6 – x 9 4x + 6y – 5 = 0
3 2x – 5y = 10 7 3x + 4y – 12 = 0 10 2x – 5y + 4 = 0
4 3x – 2y = 6

Writing the equation of a line given the graph

If you are given the graph of a line, there should always be enough information on the diagram to
identify two points on the line.
Once the two points are known, it is best to use the point–
point equation. An expression for this equation is: LECTURER
19 y − y1 y − y1
= 2 How is this equation formed?
x − x1 x2 − x1 We are making two equivalent
gradient statements. They must
y be equal to each other. Creating
Example Write down the equation
a single statement from these
of the line shown
2 gradient expressions gives us
in the diagram.
the equation.

4 x

= Answer Clearly, two points on the line are the x-intercept (4, 0) and the y-intercept (0, 2).
The equation is:
y−0
= 2−0
x−4 0−4
y
= −2
x−4 4
− 4 y = 2(x − 4) (cross-multip
plying)
− 4y− 2x + 8 = 0
2x + 4y − 8 = 0
x + 2y − 4 = 0

exercise 19.07
Write down the equations of these lines. Give answers in the form ax + by + c = 0, unless the line is
horizontal or vertical.

1 y 2 y 3 y 4 y
4
2
1 3

2 x –3 x 3 x 5 x
 19 Further co-ordinate geometry 233

5 6 7 8
y y y y
3 x 3 x 7 –3 x

–2
–5
–6
–4 x

9 10 11 12
y y
y y
6 ×
2 x
2

–4 –3 x
3 x x

Triangle properties and proofs 19

Co-ordinate geometry can be used to obtain the equations of three special types of line in triangles.

A median is the line that joins A perpendicular bisector is An altitude is the line that joins a
a vertex of a triangle to the the line that passes through vertex of a triangle to the opposite
midpoint of the opposite side. the midpoint of a side and is side, and is perpendicular to that
perpendicular (at right-angles) to side.
that side.
=

=
=

This table summarises the features of each type of line. Each line has two out of the three properties.

Passes Passes through Is

through a the midpoint of perpendicular
Line vertex a side to a side
Median
Perpendicular bisector
Altitude
 234 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

Example Triangle PQR is drawn here. y Q

(–3, 6) (4, 7)
Find the equation of: P
a the median from PR to Q
b the altitude to Q from side PR.

x
(1, –2)
R

= Answer a The required median passes through Q and the midpoint of PR. The midpoint is
given by:
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2   − − 
 ,  =  3 + 1 , 6 + 2 = ( − 1, 2 )
2 2   2 2 
The median is the line that passes through (–1, 2) and (4, 7):
The gradient is 7 − −2 = 5 = 1.
4− 1 5
19 The equation is y – 7 = 1(x – 4)
y =x–4+7
y =x+3

The gradient of PR is 6− − 2 = −8 = − 2 . The altitude is perpendicular to PR,

−
b
3−1 4
so has a gradient of 1 .
2
The altitude is a line that passes through (4, 7) with gradient 1 :
2
The equation is
y − 7 = 1 (x − 4)
2
y = 1x−2+7
2
y = 1x+5
2
It is also possible to use co-ordinate geometry to prove that triangles are isosceles or right-angled.

Example Show that the triangle with vertices A = (–1, 7), B = (3, 6) and C = (2, 2) is right-angled
and isosceles.
= Answer Draw the triangle to get a picture to help answer the question.
y
6 − 7 = −1 A×
Gradient of AB = .
3 − −1 4
×B
Gradient of BC = 2 − 6 −4
= − = 4.
2−3 1
The product of these two gradients is –1, so the lines AB and BC ×
are perpendicular, and therefore ∠ABC = 90°. C

x
 19 Further co-ordinate geometry 235

Use the distance formula to calculate the length of AB and the length of BC.
For AB: For BC:

( x2 − x1 ) + ( y 2 − y1 ) ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y 2 − y1 )
2 2 2 2
d = d =
= (3 − − 1)2 + (6 − 7)2 = (2 − 3)2 + (2 − 6)2
= 42 + ( − 1)2 = ( − 1)2 + ( − 4)2
= 17 = 17
Length of AB = length of BC, so the triangle is isosceles (has two sides the same length).

exercise 19.08
1 !ABC has vertices A = (1, 3), B = (5, 4) and 7 !STU has vertices S = (–2, 4), T = (3, 9) and
C = (3, –1). Determine the equation of the U = (7, 1). Determine the equation of the
median that passes through B. altitude to T from SU.

2 !DEF has vertices D = (2, 7), E = (10, 4) and 8 !VWX has vertices V = (2, 7), W = (7, 0) and 19
F = (4, 1). Determine the equation of the X = (–1, 2). Determine the equation of the
median that passes through E. altitude to W from VX.

3 !GHI has vertices G = (–1, 9), H = (9, 7) and 9 If a line is both an altitude and a median of
I = (2, 1). Determine the equation of the a triangle, must it also be a perpendicular
median that passes through I. bisector?
y
4 Triangle JKL 10 Write down a property involving the
is drawn here. J (1, 9) median, the perpendicular bisector and the
Determine the K (7, 8) altitude of the base of an isosceles triangle.
equation of the
perpendicular 11 Name the type of triangle in which each of
bisector of JL. the three medians is also an altitude and a
perpendicular bisector.
L (3, 1)
x 12 Prove that the triangle with vertices
D = (2, 3), E = (4, 0) and F = (–1, 1) is
5 A triangle has vertices (4, 1), (2, 7) and isosceles.
(10, 4). Determine the equation of the steepest
perpendicular bisector of one of the sides. 13 Show that the triangle XYZ with X (4, 15),
Y (–1, 4) and Z (7, 7) is right-angled, and
6 Triangle PQR is drawn below. determine the equation of the hypotenuse.
Determine the y
equation of the 14 Triangle JKL has vertices J = (0, 5), K = (8, 1)
altitude from and L = (2, –1). Prove that the perpendicular
P (1, 8)
QR to P. bisector of KL:
a is parallel to JL, and
Q b passes through the midpoint of JK.
(8, 4)

R (2, 1)
x
 236 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

15 Triangle ABC is drawn here. 16 Determine the values of x that would make
y the points (x, 0), (2, 1) and (6, 4) the vertices
of a right-angled triangle.
(0, 7)
A

B (12, 5) PUZZLE Wayward perpendicular

bisectors
1 Draw an example of a triangle for which
C (8, 1)
all three perpendicular bisectors have a
x
positive gradient.
a Calculate the co-ordinates of P, the point
of intersection of the median from A to 2 Draw an example of a triangle for which
BC and the median from B to AC. the perpendicular bisectors intersect
b Show that P lies on the median from C outside the triangle.
to AB.
19
Applications of straight lines
exercise 19.09
1 When a person drinks alcohol it takes some 2 The length that a coiled spring extends
time for their system to process the alcohol depends on the weight that is hung from the
and eliminate it. A formula for calculating end of it. The graph below shows the results
the blood-alcohol level in an adult who has for seven different
consumed a six-pack of full-strength beer is trials of an experiment.
y = –16x + 120, where x is the time in hours The lengths have
after drinking and y is the amount been rounded to the
of alcohol in their blood, measured in nearest centimetre.
mg/100 mL. x is the weight in
kilograms and y is the y
a Choose a suitable scale (e.g. 4 units per
square), and draw the graph of length of the spring, in
y = –16x + 120. centimetres.
b Does it make sense to extend the graph to
x
the left of the y-axis? Explain.
c Does it make sense to extend the graph
below the x-axis? Explain. y
d Calculate the y-intercept. Explain
×
what the y-intercept represents in this ×
Spring length (cm)

situation. 9 ×
×
e Estimate how many hours would be ×
needed for the alcohol to be completely 6
×
removed from the blood. What part of
the graph gives this information? 3 ×
f What is the gradient of the line
y = –16x + 120? Explain what the gradient
3 6 9 12 15 18 x
represents in this situation.
Weight (kg)
 19 Further co-ordinate geometry 237

Four of the points in the graph lie on a ‘line 4 Two cell-phone companies (Abacus
of best fit’. Communications and Betamax Linecall)
a Use the co-ordinates of the first and last compete for business. The graph shows how
points to work out the equation of this their monthly charges are related to the total
‘line of best fit’. time spent on calls. It is not drawn to scale.
b Write down the value of the y-intercept. y
Explain what information this gives. A = Abacus
B = Betamax A

Monthly charge ($)

c Use the equation of the ‘line of best fit’ to B
estimate the length of the spring when a
weight of 25 kg is hung from it. D
×
d Is it possible that this line could be
extended indefinitely to the right?
Explain, with a reason. ×

3 A popular golf-club has two classes of

membership: full and associate. The annual Total call-time (hours) x
fees for each class are given in this table.
a Which company has a monthly 19
connection fee (payable even if no calls
Class Number of members Fee
are made)?
Full y $600 b The rule for Betamax’s charges is given
Associate x $450 by y = 15x + 25. Explain what the number
15 represents in this rule.
To avoid over-crowding, they restrict total
c Abacus charge $20 per hour for calls on
membership so that the income from fees is
their network. Write down the rule that
set at $405 000 per year. The club accountant
gives the monthly charge for one of their
supplies this graph to show the relationship
customers.
between the numbers of full and associate
d Explain what point D on the graph
members.
represents. What are its co-ordinates?
y e A third company, Comtalk, offers a deal
Number of full members

× in which a customer can make unlimited

calls for $80 a month. Write down the
rule that gives the monthly charge for
one of their customers.
f Make a rough copy of the graph and add
the line for Comtalk. Does it lie above or
below D?
×
Number of x
associate members

The equation of the line in this graph is

450x + 600y = 405 000.
a Calculate the x-intercept, and explain
what information it gives.
b Calculate the y-intercept, and explain
what information it gives.
c If there are 180 full members, calculate
the number of associate members.
 238 Co-ordinate geometry 2.4

5 A digital TV company offers a service where a Explain in your own words what the
customers buy a pre-paid ‘Moviecard’. The graphs and figures show.
value stored on the card drops steadily as b Explain whether the background in the
the customer watches ‘pay-for-view’ movies. photograph helps or detracts from the
This graph shows how the dollar value message in the hoarding.
stored on the card (y) is related to the time in c Calculate the number of teachers added
hours spent watching (x). to the workforce on the North Shore each
y year over this period. Give your answer
to the nearest whole number.
Value remaining on card

A× d If the diagram is correct, the number of

teachers has been increasing at a steady
rate. Use the point–point formula:
($)

y − y1 y 2 − y1
=
x − x1 x2 − x1
and round the teacher numbers to the
nearest 10 to obtain the approximate
× relationship between the teacher
B x
19 Total time spent watching
numbers (y) and the year number (x).
movies (hours) e Use the equation from part d to predict
the number of teachers on the North
The equation of the line is 0.2x + y = 100. Shore in 2020 if it continues to increase at
a Calculate the co-ordinates of the points the same rate.
marked A and B. f Solve the equation 60x – 118 240 = 0.
b Copy and complete the gaps in this g Is it likely that the number of teachers on
sentence: the North Shore can be represented by
‘Pay only $ ___ for Moviecard and watch the straight line implied in the hoarding?
_____ hours of movies.’ Use the solution to the equation in part f
c Calculate the gradient of the line to help explain.
0.2x + y = 100, and explain what it
represents in this situation.
7 The diagram shows the side view for a
6 The photo shows an election hoarding for proposed warehouse wall. To help draw the
the National Party. It was put up about a plan accurately, the draftsman has applied
month before the 1999 general election, a system of co-ordinates to the plan so that
which National lost … algebraic equations can be applied. The floor
and left-wall can be represented by the
x- and y-axes respectively.

A (0, 8)

M
2
8m
1
B (10, 2)
2m

O C
10 m
 19 Further co-ordinate geometry 239

a Determine the equation of the roof. 9 On a simplified map of a harbour

b To strengthen the wall two struts will be added: where each unit represents 1 km, there
j perpendicular to the roof and passing are rocks at A = (2, 11) and B = (4, 1).
through its midpoint There is a buoy at C = (9, 5). A ship
k joining the midpoint of the roof to the follows a course so that it is equidistant
midpoint of the left wall. from the rocks at all times. What is the
shortest distance from the ship to the
i Determine the equation of each strut.
buoy on this course?
ii Calculate the distance from the bottom left
corner (O) to where strut j joins the ground. 10 The diagram shows a golf green,
iii Calculate the length of strut k. with units in metres. The hole is
located at (0, 0), and the three players
8 A soccer coach is preparing a rather contrived (Paula, Quinta and Rachel) have each
diagram to help explain some ideas to the players. successfully played their balls onto
Instead of doing the sensible thing, and just the green. The location of each ball is
drawing a rough diagram on a whiteboard, he marked P, Q and R respectively.
decides to use mathematics and graph-drawing
software. Three players are positioned on a field at y
points with co-ordinates A = (2, 12), B = (5, 2) and P 19
C = (14, 6). The co-ordinate system uses metres as (–2.4, 3) ×
the units of length.
Q
× (2.2, 1)
y
A
× (2, 12) x

(–1, –3.2)
C ×
× (14, 6) R
a Which pair of balls are closest
B to each other? Your explanation
× (5, 2)
should include some calculations.
x b Quinta aims a putt at the hole but
instead the putt crosses exactly half-
a Player B is instructed to pass the ball way between the balls at P and R.
through a point exactly half-way between
i Determine the path of this ball.
players A and C. Determine the equation
ii How close does the ball pass to
of the line that represents this path.
the hole?
b Calculate the distance between players
A and B. PUZZLE The stolen bicycle
c Player A is instructed to pass the ball
between players B and C so that the path A thief stole a bicycle from Jim’s home and had
is at right-angles to a line joining B and C. travelled 8 km before Jim discovered it was
Determine the equation of the line missing. Jim borrowed his brother’s racing
that represents this path. bicycle and gave chase. After cycling for 14 km
Jim gave up the pursuit when he had still not
d A fourth player (D) is added to the group.
caught up with the thief. At that point, the thief
Describe how lines could be added to
was only 1 km ahead of him. If Jim had
the diagram to locate this player so that
continued with the chase, how far from home
D is the same distance from each of
would he have been when he caught the thief?
players A, B and C. (Note: you do not
(Hint: draw a distance graph.)
have to calculate the exact co-ordinates.)
240 NCEA 2.4 Revision exercises

NCEA 2.4 Revision exercises

▼

1 The diagram shows a simplified top view of the 3 A sail-maker has cut out a triangular sail
18th green at the Erewhon golf course. The grid is from a rectangular piece of material
1 m by 1 m. Four players have each played a shot, measuring 6 m by 5 m as shown in the
and reached the green. The locations of their balls diagram.
are marked A, B, C and D. For convenience, the y
origin is taken to be the hole. 5m
P

2m
D
A Q

6m

4m

H C
0 3m R 2m x

B a Calculate the perimeter of the sail. ACH

b The sail-maker decides to cut the sail
into two smaller pieces each of equal area.
The required line is a median of the
a Calculate the distance between
triangle and passes through Q. Determine
balls B and C. ACH
the equation of this line. EXC
b Determine the equation of the line
passing through balls C and D. ACH 4 A power line is supported by two power
c One of the players putts ball B towards pylons, with heights 45 m and 35 m, that are
the hole but it follows a path which is exactly 100 m apart. Someone has planted a
perpendicular to the line joining A to C. 10 m high tree directly underneath the power
Determine the equation of the path that line at a distance of 40 m from the foot of the
ball B follows. ACH higher pylon.
d Find the co-ordinates of the point where
the lines CH and AB intersect. ACH
e Show that the hole and balls B and D
are collinear. MRT
f Calculate the distance from the
midpoint of AD to the hole. MRT 45 m
35 m

2 Show that the triangle with vertices 10 m

A = (1, 8), B = (4, 1) and C = (6, 6) is
right-angled and isosceles. MRT
0 40 100

Assuming the power line is not curved

(unlikely), use co-ordinate geometry to
calculate the shortest distance from the top
of the tree to the power line. EXC
 241

2.5 Statistical inference

Select a sample and use data to make an inference about the population

Achievement Standard 2.5 is internally assessed. It requires selecting a sample from either the student’s own data or
a given data set, and then using it to make inferences about the underlying population, based on appropriate sample
statistics. The emphasis is on the sampling process rather than the calculation of suitable statistics.
Chapter 20 reminds students about various statistics, and introduces new ones, such as standard deviation, so
that they have a sound foundation for working on the Achievement Standard in Chapter 21.

Contents
20 Sample statistics and data display 242 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 274
Measures of central tendency 242 Random numbers 276
The mean 242 Selecting a sample and making an inference 279
The median 243 Simple random sampling 279
The mode 243 Systematic sampling 279
Advantages and disadvantages of the Cluster sampling 279
mean, median and mode 246 Stratified sampling 279
Working with individual data 248 An example of all four types of sampling 280
Frequency tables 248 Student-generated data 287
Stem and leaf plots 251 The sampling process 287
Grouped data 253 An example of sampling 287
Calculating the mean for grouped data 254 Ideas for collecting data and sampling 290
Histograms 255
Measures of spread – range and quartiles 258 NCEA 2.5 Revision exercise 291
The range 259
The lower and upper quartiles 259
The interquartile range 260
Boxplots 262
Standard deviation 266
 20
Sample statistics and data display

Measures of central tendency

The word ‘average’ is used rather loosely in many circumstances. In statistics there are three types
of average; each is a measure of a central value or tendency which is supposed to be typical of the
remaining measurements.

The mean
20 The mean is defined to be: sum of all the values .
total number of values

The symbol for the mean, as calculated from data, is x.

If the total number of values is n, and we use the ‘sigma notation’ symbol for the sum of all the
values, then we have the formula:

x =
∑x
n
Example Find the mean of the numbers 4, 0, 3, 11 and 6.

= Answer x = 4 + 0 + 3 + 11 + 6
5
24
TIPSTER Note that 0 is included
= as one of the numbers.
5
= 4.8

Example Five numbers have a mean of 4.8, and 15 other numbers have a mean of 3.2. Calculate
the mean of all 20 numbers.
= Answer The first five numbers add up to 5 × 4.8 = 24.
The remaining 15 numbers add up to 15 × 3.2 = 48.
All 20 numbers therefore add up to 24 + 48 = 72.
The mean of the 20 numbers is 72 = 3.6 .
20
 20 Sample statistics and data display 243

The median
The median is defined to be the middle value
when all the values are placed in order.

• If there is an odd number of values, we can say definitely which one is the middle one.
• If there is an even number of values, there are two middle values, so we take the median as being
half-way between these two values.

Example Find the median of these sets of numbers.

a 4, 8, 3, 11, 6
b 3, 5, 7, 4, 9, 2
c 4, 7, 7, 3, 9, 8
= Answer a First put the numbers in order:
3, 4, 6, 8, 11
The median is 6.
b Put the numbers in order:
2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9
The median is half-way between 4 and 5, i.e. 4.5. 20
c Put the numbers in order:
3, 4, 7, 7, 8, 9
There are two middle numbers, both of which are the same, so the median is 7.

The mode
The mode is defined to be the most common value,
i.e. the value that occurs most frequently.

Example Find the mode of these sets of numbers.

a 6, 9, 4, 5, 7, 2, 7, 5, 7, 3
b 8, 9, 3, 8, 9, 4, 7
c 6, 12, 11, 9, 10
= Answer a The mode is 7. There are more 7s than any other value.
b There are two modes, 8 and 9.
c There is no mode.
 244 Statistical inference 2.5

Using technology to calculate the three measures of central tendency

Calculators
1 Switch the calculator onto ‘statistics’ mode. This is often done using the MODE or
STAT key.
2 Enter the data individually – after each item use the DATA key (this is often the same as the
M+ key).
3 The mean is given by the x key.
Most standard scientific calculators do not give the mode or median – only the mean.
Spreadsheets
Enter the data into consecutive cells in a row or column. It is preferable to use a column because
the layout shows more numbers than a row does in most cases.
Use these formulae:

Mean Median Mode

=AVERAGE() =MEDIAN() =MODE()
Inside the brackets type in the block of cells that represent the data

20 These spreadsheets show the formulae, and the results.

TIPSTER
Two advantages of using a spreadsheet when working with data and calculating statistics are:
1 you have a permanent record of the data and calculations – it can be saved, and printed
out,
2 you can fix mistakes in the data by over-writing them with the correct values, or you can
change, add or delete data and see what effect it has on the calculations.
 20 Sample statistics and data display 245

exercise 20.01
1 Calculate the mean, median and mode for 9 Adam, Beth, Chris and Daniel read a mean
each of the given sets of numbers. number of 18 books per year. Emma reads
a 14, 0, 9, 23, 35, 18 20 books per year. When the reading figures
b 4, 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 5, 4, 3, 1, 2 for Fiona are added in, the mean for all six
c 4.3, 6.9, 8.2, 1.8, 2.9, 3.7, 4.8, 5.0 individuals is 19 per year.
a How many books does Fiona read per
2 Download the spreadsheet year?
‘Christchurch Temperature data b Is it possible that three out of Adam,
Feb 2005.xls’ from the Theta Mathematics Beth, Chris and Daniel read more books
Workbook companion CD or the per year than Fiona? Explain.
www.mathematics.co.nz website and
calculate the mean, median and mode 10 A research assistant investigating family
for both the maximum and minimum sizes interviews 12 women chosen at
temperatures. random. Eight of the women answer ‘Yes’
to the question ‘Do you have any children?’.
3 The set of numbers 3, 1, 4, 5, x has a mean of The interviewer then asks these eight
4. What is the value of x? women how many children they have, and
establishes that the mean number of children
4 Using all of the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, write per family is two. What is the maximum 20
down a set of seven numbers that have the possible number of children that any one of
property mean = mode = median. these eight women could have?

5 Six numbers have a mean of 7, and four 11 An athlete competes in the preliminary
other numbers have a mean of 5. Calculate section of the discus, and has six throws
the mean of all 10 numbers. altogether. She needs a mean distance of at
least 40 m to qualify for the finals. Her first
6 A large suburban shopping centre has three five throws have a mean distance of 38 m.
supermarkets: All You Need, Better Buying What is the minimum distance she will need
and Consumables. The respective numbers on her final throw to qualify?
of check-outs are 15, 11 and 14; and the
mean numbers of customers per check-out 12 Here are the weights, in kilograms, for the
per hour are, respectively, 20, 27 and 23. crew of a rowing eight: 65, 74, 81, 68, 71, 74,
Calculate the mean number of customers per 80, 79.
hour over all the supermarket check-outs in a Calculate the mean weight of the eight.
the shopping centre. b When the cox is added to the crew, the
mean weight falls to 71 kg. Calculate the
7 Desiree decides to buy a total of five weight of the cox.
Christmas presents for the members of her
family. The first four gifts she buys have a
mean cost of $25. If she planned to spend
an average (mean) of $35, how much is
available to spend on the fifth gift?

8 The set of numbers 12, 17, 13, x has a mean

of 16. What is the median of the numbers?
 246 Statistical inference 2.5

13 Every year in January the Sharrock family 15 Two politicians made these claims about the
has a family reunion. Last January the mean ‘average’ wage.
age was 66.8 years, and this January it is 64.1 ‘The average wage is $25 000.’
years although the family members present
‘No, you are lying! It is only $20 000.’
at both reunions are a year older. Give two
possible explanations for why the mean has One was giving the median, whereas the
decreased. other was giving the mean.
Explain which was which.
14 A panel of seven judges at an international
swimming championship scores a diving 16 Write down a set of five numbers that satisfy
event on a scale of 0 to 10. One of the judges these properties:
is biased, and awards only 6.8 points to a a mean < median < mode
competitor from another country. If this b median < mean < mode.
score is taken out, the mean score increases c Is it possible to find a set of
by 0.2. Find the mean score of the remaining
i four numbers, and
six judges.
ii three numbers
that satisfy the properties in parts a and
b?

20 Advantages and disadvantages of the mean, median and mode

Advantages Disadvantages

Mean Easy to calculate. Can be influenced by extreme values. For

example, the set of numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 3,
Every value contributes to it in some
6, 5, 1000} has a mean of 128, which is not
way.
typical of any of the values!
We can find out the sum of the values if
we know the mean.
The mean always exists if the data
consists of numerical values.

Median Very typical of the middle numbers. Not easy to calculate manually if there is a
large number of values.
Not altered significantly by extreme
values, or a few items of data that have
been incorrectly measured or recorded.

Mode Yields very useful information about the Tells us nothing about the remaining
most popular value. This can be useful numbers – they make no contribution to
in manufacturing, for example when the mode. For example, if South Islanders
a factory owner wants to concentrate were asked about how many trips they
production on one model or size only. had made to Auckland in the last year, the
mode would be 0. This statistic is of little
It is the only ‘average’ that can be
use to transport planners – they would find
calculated for non-numeric data – such
the mean more useful when deciding how
as establishing the best-selling model of
much transport to provide.
motor vehicle.
 20 Sample statistics and data display 247

exercise 20.02
1 State whether the mean, median or mode is the most suitable measurement to use in each of the
following situations.
a An airline is deciding how frequently to schedule flights between Auckland and Sydney. It
surveys people chosen at random and asks them how many trips to Sydney they intend to
take in the next year.
b The workers at a furniture factory ask for a wage increase. The employers study their weekly
wages figures before deciding whether they can afford an increase.
c Roger is waiting for a bus with 10 other people and suspects that the bus is late. He asks them
to tell him the correct time.
d A consumer magazine is planning an article on small home-appliances. It surveys several
shops before recommending a ‘target’ retail price.
e ‘Bubbles’, a spa-pool manufacturer, can only exhibit one model at a forthcoming Home Show.
Bubbles studies sales figures before deciding which model spa-pool to set up at the show.
f The Tortoise Bus Company is reviewing its schedules. One of its executive officers times the
length of several trips from A to B before setting out a timetable for this journey.
g Antarctic Ice Creams Ltd has to set total production for the following year. It analyses weekly
sales to 120 outlets first.
20
2 A land developer is planning a subdivision before removing the topsoil. Here are the areas in m2
for the 16 sections: 634, 750, 853, 668, 1098, 947, 677, 689, 837, 792, 694, 810, 754, 763, 798, 747.
a Calculate the mean.
b Calculate the median.
c What feature of the data makes the mean higher than the median?
d Which measurement is more representative of the data?

3 Airline C and Airline U have the following figures for ‘on-time’ performance over a two-week
period. Each figure is given in minutes, measured after the scheduled arrival time.

Airline C –5 –10 20 0 5 5 25 0 –15 5 15 10 180 0

Airline U 30 35 5 –5 20 0 20 0 40 5 10 15 5 25

a What do the negative figures represent?

b Calculate the mean and median for each airline.
c Which statistic is more favourable for airline C?
d Which statistic is more favourable for airline U?
e Which statistic is more representative of a typical flight?

4 Six people work at a Lotto outlet. Their gross weekly wages are as follows: $650, $650, $400,
$700, $820, $1450.
a Calculate the mean, median and mode.
b Which statistic is the most representative of an employee’s wages?
 248 Statistical inference 2.5

5 When the electronic timing fails at an a Calculate the mean time.

athletics meeting, six officials have stop- b Calculate the median time.
watch readings ready as a back-up. Here are c Which of these measurements, a or b, is
six readings taken for the winner’s time in a more likely to be correct? Explain why.
1500 m race:
4:34.19 4:34.65 4:30.18
4:33.97 4:34.81 4:34.02

Working with individual data

Frequency tables
When many values occur more than once, the number of times each
one occurs can be summarised in a frequency table. The columns
TIPSTER
on the table have headings ‘x’ (the possible values) and ‘f ’ (the
The best way to
frequency, or number of times the value occurs).
ensure that all values
Example The 30 students in a class at a Blenheim school were asked have been included
how many siblings (brothers or sisters) they have. Here in a frequency table
are the individual results: 2, 5, 3, 2, 1, 5, 7, 3, 2, 1, 4, 3, 3, is to keep a tally.
20 0, 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 1, 3, 2, 4, 1, 5, 1, 5, 3, 2, 3. Summarise this Each value should
information in a frequency table. Keep a tally as you go. be marked with a
tally mark like |, and
= Answer when you have five,
Number of Frequency, completed as |||| .
siblings, x Tally f
0 | 1
1 |||| 5
2 |||| | 6
3 |||| ||| 8
4 |||| 4
5 |||| 5
6 0
7 | 1

Calculating the mean and mode from a frequency table

To find the mean we first have to find the sum of the numbers, and then find how many numbers
there are.
• To find the sum of the numbers, multiply each x-value by its frequency, and add up these
products. We can illustrate this by looking at the last example. The eight students who each had
three siblings contribute a total of 24 siblings.
• To find how many numbers there are, add up all the frequencies in the f column.

The formula for the mean from a frequency table is: x =

∑ xf
∑f
 20 Sample statistics and data display 249

To find the mode, find out which x-value has the greatest frequency. To do this look down the f
column, and decide which number there is the largest. Then look left to the x column to find which
value gives this greatest frequency.
Example Given the frequency table in the previous example,
calculate the mean and mode.
= Answer
Number of Frequency,
siblings, x f x×f
0 1 0
1 5 5
2 6 12
3 8 24
4 4 16
5 5 25
6 0 0
7 1 7
Totals 30 89

∑ xf = 89 = 2.967
Mean: x = 20
∑f 30

Mode: The greatest frequency is 8; the number of siblings (x-value) that has a
frequency of 8 is 3; so the mode is 3.
To interpret these results, each student in the class on ‘average’ has 2.967 siblings, and
the most common number of siblings for a student to have is 3.
Grouped individual data can be displayed in a bar graph – this shows how often each individual
value occurs. For this reason it can be called a frequency graph. The possible values are placed along
the horizontal x-axis, and the frequency (how often each value occurs) is measured on the vertical
y-axis.

Technology and frequency tables

Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is the obvious application to choose for entering data in the form of a frequency
table. Both the calculation of the mean and the bar graph can be shown side by side in the
spreadsheet.
The formula to use for calculating ∑xf is =SUMPRODUCT. In the example shown the
formula in cell B11 is =SUMPRODUCT(A2:A9,B2:B9).
 250 Statistical inference 2.5

20 Excel™ calls this kind of graph a column graph. It is produced by highlighting the block B2:B9
and using the Chart Wizard.
1 Choose the ‘Column’ chart type.
2 At Step 2, click on ‘Series’ and then click the white box to the right of the phrase ‘Category
(X) axis labels’.
3 Highlight the cells A2:A9 by dragging the cursor. These will be the labels on the x-axis for
each column.
4 Give the graph a title and add appropriate labels to the axes.

Using a calculator to find the mean from a frequency table

When there are many individual items of data it takes a long time to enter them into a calculator.
You might also enter some twice, or not at all.
Fortunately most scientific calculators in statistics mode ‘understand’ when data is being
entered with values and frequencies.
Example This frequency table shows daily sales for a tyre dealer. There are tyres at five
different prices. Use a calculator to work out the mean of the prices.

Price of tyre Number of sales

($) (frequency), f
39.95 2
49.95 11
59.95 24
69.95 5
79.95 3
 20 Sample statistics and data display 251

= Answer Here is the sequence of keys to push. Notice how the data values and frequencies
are separated by a × sign – this ‘tells’ the calculator that you are entering numbers
from a frequency table.
Put the calculator on ‘statistics’ mode, then:
39.95 × 2 DATA
49.95 × 11 DATA
59.95 × 24 DATA
69.95 × 5 DATA
79.95 × 3 DATA
At this point the calculator should show 45, because it ‘understands’ that 45 items
of data have been entered.

TIPSTER
Some models of calculator use a comma ( , ) or a semi-colon ( ; ) instead of the multiplication
key ( × ) to separate the values and frequencies when entering statistical data.

20
To get the mean, press the x key. It should give 59.06 (4 sf). That is, the mean
price is $59.06.

Stem and leaf plots

A stem and leaf plot is a useful way of organising data as it is collected. It can show how the data is
distributed, and because the data is arranged in order from smallest to largest it is easy to locate the
median and quartiles.
To form a stem and leaf diagram:
1 place the first digits of the data in order on a vertical stem, Stem
2 place the remaining digits alongside in a horizontal line or leaf.
_ ___
• If the data is placed into the diagram as it is collected, _ _
we have a raw stem and leaf plot. _ ___ _ Leaves
_ ___ _ _
• A completed or ordered stem and leaf diagram should
have the data sorted in order along each stem.
Example These are the attendances at the New Zealand Warriors NRL games in a recent season.
The data has been rounded to the nearest thousand. Attendances at home games are
shown in blue, and away games in purple.
36 15 27 28 34 19 33 33 29 42 30 7 31 19 34 14 15 26 25 22 26 29 38 38 39 27 41
52 68 91
Display these attendances in three different ways:
a a raw stem and leaf plot,
b an ordered stem and leaf plot,
c a back-to-back stem and leaf plot showing a comparison between attendances at
home and away games.
 252 Statistical inference 2.5

= Answer a Raw data: 0

1
7
59945
b Ordered data: 0
1
7
45599
2 789652 6 97 2 256677 8 99
3 643301 4 88 9 3 013344 6 88 9
4 21 4 12
5 2 5 2
6 8 6 8
7 7
8 8
9 1 9 1

c Back-to-back: Away Home

7 0
9554 1 9
9872 2 56679
831 3 0344689
2 4 1
2 5
8 6
7
8
1 9

The comparative stem and leaf plot clearly shows that attendances at away games have
a greater spread.
20
exercise 20.03
1 Calculate the mean and mode for each of Here are the results:
these frequency tables.

a Hand-span (cm), x Frequency, f

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
15 2
f 4 3 9 2 1 6 8 5 16 8
17 27
b
x 0 2 4 6 8 10 18 39
f 1 7 0 12 5 11 19 41
20 59
21 38
2 A researcher in human biology has collected 22 43
hand-span measurements from 300 Year 10 23 29
students. The hand-span measurement is the 24 8
distance from the end of the thumb to the
25 6
end of the little finger when the hand is fully
outstretched.
a Use a calculator to work out the mean
hand-span.
b Three students are discussing how to
find the mode of this data. Bruce says
Hand-span
the mode is 8, Danielle says it is 59,
and Maria says it is 20. Who is correct?
Explain.
 20 Sample statistics and data display 253

3 An editor is placing advertisements on 5 The SmokeFree Environments Amendment

the pages of a magazine. She records the Act was passed in December 2003. In the
number of advertisements per page. early days of this legislation, some licensed
premises were slow to comply, and as a
Number of result the 0508 SmokeFree telephone line
advertisements 0 1 2 3 4 5 fielded a steady stream of complaints about
Number of pages 19 31 15 7 10 2 restaurants over a three-year period.
Here are the figures for the numbers of
a How many pages are there in the
complaints per month:
magazine?
b Use a calculator to work out the mean 11, 9, 10, 8, 8, 7, 10, 13, 5, 9, 11, 8, 4, 7, 8, 9, 5,
number of advertisements per page. 3, 8, 10, 2, 4, 5, 3, 2, 5, 3, 4, 1, 2, 0, 2, 1, 0, 1, 0.
c Use the answers to parts a and b to work a Represent this data in an appropriate
out the number of advertisements in the statistical graph.
magazine. b Calculate i the mode, ii the median, and
4 This bar graph shows the number of hours iii the mean number of complaints per
overtime worked in a furniture factory. Each month.
employee worked some overtime. 6 Here is a selection of nightly room rates in
dollars for 25 motels in Paihia in October
and January.
No. of employees

10 20
8 October January
6 44 51 49 39 63 84 101 56 69 88
4 47 30 28 47 58 97 79 49 87 98
2 79 48 48 37 29 123 68 68 77 99
61 48 49 59 37 71 101 99 109 67
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 39 56 44 65 38 81 86 88 95 68
No. of hours overtime
a How many employees are there at the a Draw an ordered stem and leaf plot for
factory? the October room rates.
b What was the total number of hours of b Draw a back-to-back stem and leaf plot
overtime worked? showing the room rates for both months.
c Calculate the mode and mean number of c Explain what the ‘back-to-back’ plot
hours of overtime per employee. shows about increases in the room rates,
and their spread.

Grouped data
When dealing with data that has been measured in some way (e.g. heights, weights, etc.) nearly all
the values will be different. This is because, for instance, no two students in your school will have
exactly the same height. All we can do is collect people with similar heights to show how the heights
of people are distributed.
This process is called grouping data. We collect the values in a class interval, and end up with
data between two values.
 254 Statistical inference 2.5

Example Here are the heights (in centimetres) for 40 students. Complete a grouped frequency
table for these heights. Keep a tally as you go, and group the heights in class intervals
of 155–160, 160–165, 165–170, 170–175, etc.
171.4, 168.9, 183.7, 192.0, 158.2, 167.4, 178.2, 165.3, 183.8, 162.8, 173.5, 156.3, 188.2, 175.8,
171.3, 168.7, 164.7, 177.2, 163.5, 179.2, 169.4, 173.1, 168.4, 156.8, 180.3, 176.0, 179.4, 168.3,
178.3, 173.9, 174.0, 177.6, 169.4, 172.1, 173.6, 168.0, 191.1, 180.4, 163.7, 170.6.

= Answer
Height (cm), x Tally Frequency, f
155–160 ||| 3
160–165 |||| 4
165–170 |||| |||| 9
170–175 |||| |||| 9
175–180 |||| ||| 8
180–185 |||| 4
185–190 | 1
190–195 || 2

20
Calculating the mean for grouped data
When data is presented in grouped form, such as in a frequency table, some information has been
lost about the individual values. We overcome this difficulty by assuming that the midpoint of each
interval is representative of all the values in it.

The mean for grouped data is given by the formula:

∑ mf
∑f
where m is the midpoint of each interval and f is the frequency for that interval.

Example Calculate the mean for the data in the previous example.
= Answer
Height Midpoint, Frequency,
(cm), x m f mf
155–160 157.5 3 472.5
160–165 162.5 4 650
165–170 167.5 9 1507.5
170–175 172.5 9 1552.5
175–180 177.5 8 1420
180–185 182.5 4 730
185–190 187.5 1 187.5
190–195 192.5 2 385
Totals 40 6905

Mean =
∑ mf = 6905 = 172.6 (1 dp)
∑f 40
 20 Sample statistics and data display 255

Histograms
The frequency graph for grouped data is called a histogram. Again, the values being measured are
graphed on the x-axis, and the frequency appears on the vertical y-axis. Note that the columns are
joined together.
Example Draw the histogram for the frequency table in the previous example.

= Answer f
8
Frequency

LECTURER
4
Take care with histograms when the
2
intervals are not all the same length.
The frequency represented by each
column is given by the area of the
column, not the height.
~
~

155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 x

Height (cm)
20
Example This frequency table gives the lengths of
200 phone calls made to a reservations 80
number at an airline. 70
Number of calls

Length of call Number of 60

(minutes) calls 50
0–2 77 40
2–4 63 30
4–6 32 20
6 –10 12 10
10 –20 16
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Length of call
(minutes)

Note that the areas of the last two columns are proportional to the frequencies.
• The height of the column for 6–10 is 6, not 12. Because 6–10 is twice as long as
the previous intervals, we halve the height of the column when representing the
frequency.
• The height of the column for 10–20 is 3.2, not 16. Because 10–20 is five times as
long as the first three intervals, we take one-fifth of the height of the column when
representing the frequency.

LECTURER
The mean has the property that it is a point of
‘balance’. If a fulcrum was placed at the mean, a
histogram will be perfectly balanced.
 256 Statistical inference 2.5

exercise 20.04
1 This frequency table shows the odometer a Represent this data in an appropriate
readings for some cars in a car-yard. Use statistical graph.
a calculator to work out the mean of the b What was the modal interval?
numbers. c Over how many years has the
meteorologist kept these records?
Odometer Midpoint of Frequency, d Calculate the mean number of hours of
reading (km) interval f sunshine per year in the town.
20 000– 25 000 2 e Another meteorologist has data on the
30 000– 35 000 11 20 years prior to these records, which
40 000– 45 000 24 shows a mean of 2240 hours per year.
50 000– 55 000 5 Calculate the mean number of hours of
60 000–70 000 65 000 3 sunshine per year over the whole period.

2 Omega Motors (MVDI) specialise in selling 4 This histogram shows the weights (in
relatively expensive second-hand cars. This kilograms) of snapper caught in a surf-
histogram shows information about their casting competition at Ninety Mile Beach in
sales in the last month. Northland.
20
Number of snapper

10
10
No. of cars sold

8
8
6
6
4
4
2
2
~
~

2 3 4 5 6
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 Weight (kg)
Sales in thousands
of dollars a State the modal class interval.
a How many cars sold for between $35 000 b How many snapper were caught
and $45 000? altogether?
b How many cars did Omega Motors sell c Calculate the total weight of all
altogether? the snapper caught, assuming that
c Calculate the mean amount paid for a car the midpoint of each interval is
from Omega Motors in the last month. representative of the weights in the
interval.
3 A meteorologist has kept records of the d Calculate the mean weight of a snapper
number of hours of sunshine per year over caught in this competition.
many successive years in a Bay of Plenty
town.

No. of hours per year Frequency

1800–1900 4
1900–2000 11
2000–2100 23
2100–2200 9
2200–2300 5
 20 Sample statistics and data display 257

5 A cricketer plays 44 ‘first-class’ innings over a Draw a histogram to represent this data.
the summer. Each innings is timed, with the b Calculate the mean time for an innings
following results. played by this cricketer.
c What changes would need to be made to
Time for an innings the intervals if the frequencies related to
(minutes) Number of innings the number of runs scored, rather than to
0 –30 3
the length of an innings in minutes?
30 –60 7
60 –90 5
90 –120 8
120 –150 9
150 –180 5
180 –240 7

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Motorcyclist crashes 20
You have been asked to investigate the relationship between the number of motorcyclists
involved in injury or fatal accidents, and the time of the day and day of the week. Use the data
provided in the spreadsheet ‘Motorcyclist data.xls’ – this is provided on the Theta Mathematics
Workbook companion CD, or you can download it from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.

1 Complete the totals.

2 Present the data in an appropriate graph or graphs.
3 Using conclusions from the data, write a brief report to answer the question ‘When is the
safest time to ride a motorbike?’. Your report should include comments on whether there
is sufficient data provided to answer the question.
 258 Statistical inference 2.5

Measures of spread – range and quartiles

STARTER

Why is the concept of variability important?

1 No-one likes to have to queue, but it is almost unavoidable at places like banks,
supermarkets, the Post Shop, and airline check-in counters. Both of the examples below
have a mean waiting time of exactly 8 minutes. Which one shows the smallest variation in
waiting times?

Supermarket 5 7.2 10.1 3.8 6.8 8.6 11.8 8.3 7.2 12.5 9.2 5.5
Post Shop 6.7 8.8 8.2 8.3 7.6 6.6 9.5 8.0 5.9 8.4 8.2 9.8

Explain the likely difference between the two types of queuing. Which type do you think
customers are likely to prefer? Explain why.
Example In 1979 the Ford Motor company bought a
controlling interest in Mazda. In
New Zealand the consequences of the
company takeover are that models such
20 as the Ford Laser and Mazda 323/Familia
are almost identical – sharing a similar
design and parts, and only having subtle
differences, such as branding.
In particular, the transmissions were
supposed to be made from the same
specifications, but the Ford engineers
found that American-made Ford
transmissions required seven times as
many repairs as the Japanese Mazda
transmissions. At first the engineers
suspected Mazda had changed the design,
but a comparison showed they were
the same. Then the engineers inspected
the Mazda-made transmissions, and
at first could find no variation in the
measurements, so checked that their
measuring instruments were not defective.
The Mazda parts were all exactly the same
size, without the variability of the Ford-
made transmissions that were within the allowed tolerance.
If a manufacturer can reduce variation, it also reduces the cost of manufacture,
inspection and repair.
 20 Sample statistics and data display 259

The mean, median and mode all give us estimates of the ‘average’ or typical values. They are
measures of ‘central tendency’. But they provide no information about how the numbers are spread
out.
Example Consider the heights of players in two basketball teams.

Ashburton Blenheim
Alligators Buzzards

27

Height 185 188 197 197 203 221 197 197 185 170
(cm)
Each team has players with a mean of 194 cm, and a median of 197 cm. In that respect
the two teams are the same. But they have very different spreads: the Alligators’
heights are closely bunched together, whereas the Buzzards’ heights are more varied.
How do we measure spread? There are several methods – including the range, the interquartile
range and also the standard deviation (see later in this chapter).
20
The range
The range is the difference between the largest value
and the smallest value.

Example Calculate the range of the numbers 10, 20, 2, 25, 11, 18, 23.
= Answer The largest value = 25.
The smallest value = 2. TIPSTER
Range = 25 – 2 = 23.
The range is very easy to calculate, but
only uses two values – the lowest value
and the highest. It is better to use other
measures of spread (see below) that use
all the values in the calculation.

The lower and upper quartiles

The two quartiles, together with the median, separate a set of numbers into four quarters.

TIPSTER Sometimes these five

Bottom Lower Median Upper Top values are called the
value quartile quartile value ‘5-point summary’ of the distribution.
(LQ) (UQ)

• The lower quartile (LQ) is the value below which one-quarter of the measurements lie.
• The upper quartile (UQ) is the value below which three-quarters of the measurements lie (or
above which one-quarter lie).
 260 Statistical inference 2.5

LECTURER
Although it is easy to define the quartiles, there is disagreement among mathematicians and
statisticians as to the precise rules for calculating them. This is because if there are only, say, five
or six values, it is impossible to split this number into four equal quarters.
Here is a rule which always works, and which is commonly used in examinations.
• To find quartiles, first find the median. Put this value aside.
• This then gives two sets of values of the same size – a low group and a high group.
• The lower quartile is the median of the low group.
• The upper quartile is the median of the high group.

Example Find the lower and upper quartiles for each of these sets of data.
a 12 14 17 20 21 21 21 26
b 0 2 3 5 6 8 9 9 10 12
c 45 47 52 61 77

= Answer a The median is 20.5.

20 The low group is 12, 14, 17, 20, which has a median of 15.5.
The high group is 21, 21, 21, 26, which has a median of 21.
The lower quartile = 15.5.
The upper quartile = 21.
b The median is 7.
The low group is 0, 2, 3, 5, 6, which has a median of 3.
The high group is 8, 9, 9, 10, 12, which has a median of 9.
The lower quartile = 3.
The upper quartile = 9.
c The median is 52 – discard this so that the remaining numbers form two equal
groups.
The low group is 45, 47, which has a median of 46.
The high group is 61, 77, which has a median of 69.
The lower quartile = 46.
The upper quartile = 69.

The interquartile range

The interquartile range is the difference between the two quartiles.

Interquartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile

Example Find the upper and lower quartiles and the interquartile range for this set of data.
23, 15, 33, 6, 43, 21, 39, 19, 7, 39, 24
 20 Sample statistics and data display 261

= Answer First write the numbers in order from smallest to largest:

6, 7, 15, 19, 21, 23, 24, 33, 39, 39, 43
The median is 23. Now split into a low group and a high group:
6, 7, 15, 19, 21 and 24, 33, 39, 39, 43
The lower quartile = 15.
The upper quartile = 39.
The interquartile range = 39 – 15 = 24.

Using spreadsheets to calculate simple measures of spread

We have seen earlier that spreadsheets are an ideal means of storing data, because the data
can be saved, printed out and modified if necessary. The range and interquartile range can easily
be calculated on a spreadsheet.
The range is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value. In a spreadsheet
the formulae are:
• highest value is MAX(), where the block of data is entered inside the brackets,
• lowest value is MIN(), where the block of data is entered inside the brackets.
Therefore the formula for the range is =MAX(block)-MIN(block).
The interquartile range is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile. In 20
a spreadsheet the formulae are:
• upper quartile is QUARTILE(block,3), where the block of data is entered inside the brackets,
• lower quartile is QUARTILE(block,1), where the block of data is entered inside the brackets.
Therefore the formula for the interquartile range is =QUARTILE(block,3)-QUARTILE(block,1).

Example
 262 Statistical inference 2.5

exercise 20.05
1–2 Calculate the range, lower quartile, 4 This stem and leaf 10 0 0
upper quartile and interquartile range for diagram shows the 9 78
8 012256 69
each set of numbers. relative humidity in 7 001222 45 5 6799
1 a 4, 8, 9, 11, 15, 18, 23 Dunedin at midday 6 11368
b 0, 0, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 13, 15, 16, 21, for each day in March 5 7
22, 29 last year.
c 435, 436, 445, 448, 450, 450, 451, 453, a How many items of data are shown?
456, 459, 470, 470, 471, 473, 482, 488, b Calculate these statistics.
489, 493, 500, 501 i The median.
d –6, –5, –5, –3, –3, –1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 6, 7, ii The lower quartile.
9, 9, 9, 10, 11, 18, 19, 21, 22, 22, 24 iii The upper quartile.
iv The interquartile range.
2 a 14, 82, 93, 61, 55, 101, 27, 35, 31
b 5.6, 8.9, 10.3, 0.6, 1.1, 4.4, 5.2, 7.4, 5.6, 5 Medicare (a private health-insurance scheme) has
9.4 collected statistics from 300 members in Hawkes
c 837, 903, 445, 201, 78, 421, 300, 229, Bay concerning the number of claims for refunds
128, 882, 582, 430, 116, 38, 651, 843 made per year. Here are the results:
20 d 38, 33, 31, 30, 39, 33, 36, 34, 38, 38,
31, 35, 37, 33, 37 Number of claims Frequency
0 46
3 Download the spreadsheet
‘Christchurch Temperature data 1 53
Feb 2005.xls’ from the Theta 2 31
Mathematics Workbook companion CD 3 104
or the www.mathematics.co.nz website 4 29
and calculate the range, lower quartile, 5 15
upper quartile and interquartile range 6 11
for both the maximum and minimum 7 8
temperatures. 8 3

a Calculate the range for the number of claims

per year.
b Calculate these statistics.
i The lower quartile.
ii The upper quartile.
c Calculate the interquartile range.

Boxplots
A boxplot shows the location of five values from a distribution, plotted against a scale:
1 lowest or bottom value
2 lower quartile
3 median
4 upper quartile
5 highest or top value.
 20 Sample statistics and data display 263

Reminder: these five values are sometimes called the ‘5-point summary’ of the distribution.
The box or rectangle shows where the values from the interquartile lie (the middle 50% of the
data). The median is marked by a line inside the box.
The lines, sometimes called whiskers, extend from the two quartiles to the lowest and highest
values.
One-quarter of the data lies in each section of the box, and on each line or whisker.
Example Here are the contract amounts for the 20 most recent house sales made by a real-estate
agent. They are listed from lowest to highest, and rounded to the nearest thousand
dollars.
48 000 49 000 55 000 57 000
60 000 64 000 64 000 67 000
69 000 71 000 88 000 95 000
100 000 109 000 120 000 149 000
178 000 256 000 311 000 405 000
Display these in a boxplot.

= Answer The lower quartile is $62 000.

The median is $79 500.
The upper quartile is $134 500.
0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000
20

LECTURER
This example shows a skew. Skew is the tendency for values to be grouped
together at one end of the distribution, and for a few outliers to occur at
the other end. A skewed distribution is not symmetric.
The distribution of these amounts is skewed to the right. In this case,
the median < mean. Most of the values are under $100 000, while a few
trail off to the right.

Using a spreadsheet to draw a boxplot

A spreadsheet program can be used to
calculate medians, quartiles and maximum/ Useful formulae
minimum data values. The Chart Wizard
can then draw a boxplot. Statistic Spreadsheet formula
Assume a set of data is in a single Maximum value =MAX(A9:A30)
column – so for example 22 items of data
might be in the block A9:A30. Minimum value =MIN(A9:A30)

Median =MEDIAN(A9:A30)

Lower quartile =QUARTILE(A9:A30,1)

Upper quartile =QUARTILE(A9:A30,3)

 264 Statistical inference 2.5

Calculate each of the five statistics first. Enter

the formulae, in consecutive cells in one
column, into a spreadsheet in the order (LQ,
MIN, MED, MAX, UQ). Note: they must be
entered in this order.
The example shows how the results
should be arranged.

Select the block A2:B6.

Step 1: Click on the Chart Wizard and select
a Line chart (one with markers
displayed at each data value). Click
on Next.
Step 2: Select plot by Rows (note the default
is Columns). Click on Finish.
Step 3: Select any one of the five points that
are lined up vertically in the graph,
right-click and then select Format
20 Data Series. Select the Options tab,
and switch on the checkboxes for
High-low lines and Up/down bars.
Step 4: Improve the presentation of the
graph by doing the usual sizing,
moving and formatting.

exercise 20.06
1 A downtown car-park 0 0 2 Eco-city Transfer Ltd has a contract to collect residential
has spaces for 170 1 rubbish bags each week in a small town with 180
2
cars. This stem and 3 households. This boxplot shows the number of rubbish
leaf plot shows the 4 bags put out for collection by these households over a
number of cars in the 5 period of one year.
6 38
car-park at quarter- 7 09
hour intervals 8 117
between opening and 9
10 2 × ×
closing time (9 am to 11 4
5 pm) one day. 12 02599
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
a Write down the 13 1167
14 0 Number of bags
values of the 15 356 a What is the most number of bags put out for collection
median, upper 16 247889
17 0000 by any household in a year?
quartile and lower
quartile. b What is the median number of bags?
b Display the data c Households that put out more than the upper quartile
in a boxplot. number are described as ‘heavy users’ of the service.
How many of these households are there in this town?
 20 Sample statistics and data display 265

3 The residents in a suburban street have complained about speeding vehicles. As a result, speed
bumps have been installed. The two boxplots show the speeds of cars at a certain point in the
street before and after the speed bumps were installed.

After
Before

10 20 30 40 50 60
Speed (km/h)

a By how much has the median speed been reduced?

b By how much has the top speed been reduced?
c One result of installing the speed bumps has been to reduce speeds in the street. Describe
another result. Support your answer by making some calculations from the data in the
diagram.

4 Two different ways of showing how data is distributed are:

• a boxplot,
• a dot plot.
Match each boxplot (A–E) with the most suitable dot plot (1–5). 20
(A) (1)

(B)

(2)
(C)

(D)
(3)

(E)
(4)

(5)

5 A cigarette vending machine has recently been malfunctioning. It takes a $10 note and is
supposed to issue change in coins. For amounts less than 50c it has been short-changing
customers.
The manufacturer tests the machine by conducting 25 consecutive transactions. These results
give the missing amounts of change (in cents):
10, 40, 5, 40, 25, 20, 40, 5, 10, 20, 10, 5, 20, 5, 10, 5, 20, 30, 20, 40, 40, 20, 10, 40, 5
a Calculate the median, lower quartile and upper quartile.
b Use the results in part a to draw a boxplot.
c What feature of the data means that a boxplot is not an appropriate way of displaying it?
Explain.
 266 Statistical inference 2.5

6 These comparative boxplots show the ages of groups

of people present in the school assembly hall on 90 3
1
several occasions last month. Match each diagram to
80
one of these groups of people.

Age (years)
70
a An elderly ‘Grey Power’ meeting. 2
60 5
b Year 12 assembly, with their form teachers.
50 4
c The local primary school (120 pupils), supervised
by 10 teachers. 40
d The audience for the annual school play. 30
e All students at the school, together with the 20
Principal. 10

7 The school’s senior netball team played 19 matches last year. This table shows the points for and
against in each match.

For 58 66 61 49 57 34 68 63 63 56 54 60 51 53 62 70 59 48 52

Against 33 41 44 85 39 90 47 29 21 27 38 63 47 41 55 36 42 75 53

20 a Calculate the median and both quartiles for each set of points.
b Draw comparative boxplots for the two sets of data.
c How do the two diagrams suggest that the team won more matches than it lost?
d What other conclusions about the team’s performance can you make from the diagrams?

8 These boxplots show the results for three different dice-rolling experiments. In each case, fair six-
sided dice with faces numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are used.
a Match each diagram to one of these experiments.
i One die is tossed 50 times and the number on the top face is
noted. 1 2 3
ii Six dice are tossed together 50 times altogether. Each time the 6
difference between the highest and lowest numbers showing is 5
noted. 4
iii A pair of dice are tossed 100 times and the mean of the two 3
numbers showing is noted. 2
b Another possible dice experiment would be to toss a pair of dice 1
100 times and note the sum of the two numbers showing. Draw a
boxplot to show the kind of results you would expect.

Standard deviation
The standard deviation (symbol s) Example This example shows how to calculate the
of a set of numbers is a measure of standard deviation of a set of numbers (here we
their spread about the mean. use the numbers 2, 5, 7, 9 and 17).
1 Calculate the mean (symbol x):

x = 2 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 17 = 40
5 5
i.e. the mean is 8.
 20 Sample statistics and data display 267

2 Write down the difference of each number from the mean. This gives
(2 – 8) (5 – 8) (7 – 8) (9 – 8) and (17 – 8)
i.e. –6 –3 –1 1 and 9
We wish to ‘average’ out these differences in some way, but if we used them as
they are, the differences add to 0 (which is not very helpful), so we square them to
make them all positive, remembering that later on we take the square root to undo
the squaring.
3 Squaring the differences gives:
36 9 1 1 and 81
4 Averaging these squares gives:
36 + 9 + 1 + 1 + 81 = 128
5 5
i.e. 25.6
5 Take the square root to ‘undo’ the squaring earlier: 5.060
The standard deviation of the numbers {2, 5, 7, 9, 17} is 5.060.

The formula for the standard deviation is:

∑ ( x − x )2 20
s=
n

Using technology to find the standard deviation

In practice, to find the standard deviation of a set of numbers we do not always have to
follow the above procedure. Instead we can use a calculator in statistics mode or a spreadsheet.
Calculators
There are many different types of calculator in use in schools, but the following instructions
work for most of them.
1 Put your calculator on Statistics mode: F STAT or INV SD or MODE SD.
2 Enter the numbers individually, using the M+ key:
2 M+
5 M+
7 M+ , etc.
3 After all the numbers have been entered, press the s key ( σ or σn on some models) to
obtain the standard deviation. This should give 5.060 (4 sf) for the example above.

TIPSTER
When using a calculator to work out means and standard deviations make sure you ‘clear’
the calculator each time. Otherwise it will still have the last set of numbers in memory.
 268 Statistical inference 2.5

Spreadsheets
To calculate the standard deviation of individual data in a spreadsheet, enter the values into
adjoining cells and use the STDEVP formula.

Example (Multichoice) Which of the following

has the greatest standard deviation? TIPSTER
20 (A) {1, 3, 3, 5} (B) {30, 30, 30, 30}
Customers want consistency in service.
(C) {7, 7, 7, 7} (D) {2, 6, 8, 12} Courier and postal delivery services
= Answer There are two possible approaches. know this. A common complaint is: ‘All I
Remember that standard deviation is a want to know is how many days ahead I
measure of spread, so the set that has have to post my grandmother’s birthday
the greatest range, i.e. (D), is probably card’. In statistical terms, the customer
the correct answer. But check by wants a lower standard deviation.
calculating the standard deviation for
each set:
(A) 1.414 (B) 0
(C) 0 (D) 3.606

(D) has the greatest standard deviation.

Calculating the standard deviation from a frequency table

To calculate standard deviations we add three new columns to the frequency table.

New columns
}

x f x×f ( x – x )2 f ( x – x )2

The mean, x , is
∑ xf .
∑f
∑f ∑ xf ∑ f ( x − x )2
∑ f ( x − x )2
Totals The standard deviation is .
∑f
 20 Sample statistics and data display 269

Example John took a survey of the 20 boys in his class to find how many pairs of shoes each boy
owned. The frequency distribution of the numbers obtained is given here.

x f
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 6
Total 20
Calculate the standard deviation of the numbers.

= Answer Complete a full frequency table:

x f x×f ( x – x )2 f ( x – x )2
1 1 1 4 4
2 4 8 1 4
3 9 27 0 0
4 6 24 1 6
Totals 20 60 14

∑ xf 20
Mean = x = = 60 = 3
∑f 20
TIPSTER
Standard deviation, s =
∑ f ( x − x )2 See the ‘Coffee cups’ investigation at the
∑f end of this chapter (p. 272) to see how you
could use a spreadsheet to calculate the
= 14 standard deviation of data presented in a
20 frequency table.
= 0.7
= 0..837 (3 sf)

LECTURER Different denominators in the standard deviation formula

You may have noticed that your calculator has two different keys for standard deviation, which give
different results.

Key Formula

σ or σn ∑ (x − x )2 ∑ f (x − x )2
or (grouped data)
n n

s or σn – 1 ∑ (x − x )2 or
∑ f (x − x )2 (grouped data)
n−1 n−1
 270 Statistical inference 2.5

The difference between the two formulae is in the denominator. In this book we will use the first one
only, in order to be consistent in every exercise and because we have just introduced the concept
of standard deviation. If you continue studying statistics at a more advanced level, you will need to
learn when to use each formula.
• The first formula, σ or σn, is often called the population standard deviation. It is used when you
have information about the entire set of numbers under consideration. For example, if you were
asked to calculate the standard deviation of the area of classrooms in a school, and had all the
areas, you would use this formula.
• The second formula, s or σn – 1, is often called the sample standard deviation. It is used when
the data is a sample from the set of all possible values under consideration. This formula is
particularly useful when the standard deviation has to be calculated from a sample in order
to estimate the actual standard deviation of all the values. For example, if you went fishing,
caught 20 kahawai, and measured their lengths, you would use the sample standard deviation to
estimate the standard deviation of the lengths for the population of all kahawai.

exercise 20.07
1 Calculate the standard deviation of each set 4 Five gymnasts are being scored by six
20 of numbers. different judges (A–F). These dot plots
a 7, 4, 5, 8 show the five scores awarded by each of the
b 10, 13, 2, 4, 9, 10 judges.
c –2, –1, 0, 1, 2
(A)
2 Use a calculator to find the standard
deviation of these sets of numbers. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a 5, 6, 10, 4, 7, 2, 8, 8, 5, 13, 3, 1
b 102, 324, 627, 231, 890, 453, 664, 281
(B)
c 0, –6, 7, –2, 5, –4, 0, 1, 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 Download the spreadsheet
‘Christchurch Temperature data
Feb 2005.xls’ from the Theta Mathematics (C)
Workbook companion CD or the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
www.mathematics.co.nz website and
calculate the standard deviation for both the
maximum and minimum temperatures.
(D)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(E)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(F)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 20 Sample statistics and data display 271

a Arrange the six judges (A–F) in order 8 This table shows Mathematics Level 2
from the judge who awards the least practice exam marks for two students,
spread-out scores, to the one who awards Hinemoa and Ngaire, last year.
the most spread-out scores.
b Calculate the standard deviation of the Hinemoa Ngaire
scores for each of the six judges. AS 2.1 Algebra 54 42
c Explain how the standard deviations AS 2.2 Graphs 47 80
change as the scores become more spread AS 2.3 Calculus 49 67
out. AS 2.4 Co-ordinate
geometry 62 74
5 (Multichoice) Which set of numbers has the AS 2.7 Sequences 68 49
greatest standard deviation? Do not use a AS 2.9 Trigonometric
calculator! equations 55 23
(A) 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
(B) 98, 99, 100, 101, 102 a Calculate the mean and standard
(C) 6, 8, 10, 12 deviation for each of the students.
(D) 15, 20, 20, 25 b Which student was the more consistent?
(E) 24, 24, 20, 20 Explain, using the values in part a.

6 Copy and complete this table and work out 9 Luke constructed a
the mean and standard deviation. regular octagonal
1
2 20
8
spinner as shown in
this diagram. When 7 3
x f x×f ( x – x )2 f ( x – x )2
the arrow at the centre
0 7 6 4
is spun round, it 5
10 3 eventually stops and
20 0 points to one of the
30 4 numbered triangles.
40 5 a Copy and complete this table to show the
50 6 frequencies you would expect after
Totals 200 spins.

7 The Pacific Ring of Fire is a name given Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

to the regions on the Pacific Rim which Frequency
experience a comparatively large number
of seismic events such as volcanic eruptions b When Luke spun the arrow, he actually
and earthquakes. Among the countries in obtained these results, with a mean of
these regions are New Zealand, Chile, Japan, 4.515.
the Philippines, Alaska and the West Coast
of the United States.
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Here are the figures for the number of
Frequency 31 26 20 19 23 27 25 29
earthquakes exceeding 6.0 on the Richter
scale over a 50-year period. Calculate the
mean and standard deviation of the number Without making any calculations, explain
of earthquakes per year. whether the standard deviation of these
results is smaller or larger than the
expected frequencies in part a.
Number of
earthquakes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 5 8 13 16 6 0 2
 272 Statistical inference 2.5

10 A province in the South Island has 10 clubs

in its local rugby competition. Here are the
membership figures for each club: 40, 37, 66,
54, 49, 102, 77, 59, 82, 77.
a Calculate the mean.
b Calculate the standard deviation.
c If the two clubs with the smallest
membership amalgamated, would the
standard deviation in part b increase or
decrease? Try to answer this question
without using a calculator. 12 Two dentists (A and B) share a practice. They
d If the two clubs with the largest have kept figures over a one-week period for
membership amalgamated, would the the amount charged per appointment.
standard deviation in part b increase
or decrease? Again, try to answer this Amount charged ($) Dentist A Dentist B
question without using a calculator. 0 –50 6 12
50 –100 15 26
11 Here are the figures for the number of cats 100 –150 39 17
adopted out by the SPCA over a period of 150 –200 11 5
20 weeks: 7, 6, 8, 7, 5, 9, 8, 6, 7, 10, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 200 –250 6 1
20 2, 1, 4, 3, 3. 250 –300 3 0
The figures show that there were a
300 –350 1 0
higher number of adoptions in the first
10 weeks than in the second 10 weeks.
a Use a calculator to estimate the mean
Let s1 = the standard deviation for the
and standard deviation of the amount
first 10 weeks (weeks 1–10), s2 = the standard
charged by dentist A per appointment.
deviation for the second 10 weeks (weeks
11–20), and s3 = the standard deviation for b Use a calculator to estimate the mean
the middle 10 weeks (weeks 6–15). and standard deviation of the amount
charged by dentist B per appointment.
a Without using a calculator, state which of
s1, s2 and s3 is the largest. c Which of the two dentists has the more
consistent charges?
b Which two of s1, s2 and s3 will be
approximately equal? d Use a calculator to estimate the mean
and standard deviation of the amount
c Which one of s1, s2 and s3 will be closest
charged by this dental practice per
to the standard deviation of all 20 weeks’
appointment.
figures?

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Coffee cups
A researcher is studying links between the intake
of caffeine and productivity in a large office. Part
of the research involved measuring the number of
‘standard cups’ of coffee consumed by the workers
one day.
The results are shown in the table.
 20 Sample statistics and data display 273

Number of drinks of coffee, x Frequency, f x×f f ( x – x )2

0 17
1 26
2 59
3 31
4 22
5 29
6 19
7 7
8 0
9 2
Totals

1 Enter this data in columns A and B of a spreadsheet. Use the headings from row 1.
2 Enter a formula in cell C2 that calculates the values referred to by the headings.
3 Copy the formula down a number of times.
4 Calculate the totals in row 12 for columns B and C.
This extract shows what the first few rows will look like.
20
5 In a separate cell (e.g. B14), calculate
the mean. Use the formula:
∑ xf .
x =
∑f
6 Now, in cell D2, enter a formula for
f (x − x )2 . Use B$14 as the mean.
Copy the formula downwards.
7 Calculate the total of the values in
column D.
8 In a separate cell (e.g. B16), calculate
the standard deviation:
∑ f ( x − x )2 .
s=
∑f
9 Print out your spreadsheet to show
your results.
Interpreting your results
10 How many workers are there in the office? Which cell gives this information?
11 On this day, how many cups of coffee were drunk altogether?
12 What is the mean number of cups of coffee drunk by each worker?
13 Suppose one of the workers recorded as having three cups of coffee actually had nine
cups. Make changes to the values in your spreadsheet to calculate the new mean and
standard deviation.
14 Now suppose (retaining the change in part 13) that two new workers have 11 cups
of coffee a day. Add some rows to the spreadsheet, and calculate the new mean and
standard deviation.
 21
Sampling processes and
making inferences

STARTER
Mexicana Foods are thinking of introducing a new flavour of corn chip in the Christchurch area.
1 How could they decide whether the public wants to buy this new flavour? Discuss.
2 What would be a disadvantage of asking everyone in Christchurch?
3 They decide to ask 200 people whether they like the new flavour. How should they choose
21 these 200 people? Discuss.

Sampling involves asking or surveying some of the population

or group under consideration – it is used instead of asking every LECTURER
person or examining each item of interest. Advantages of sampling
instead of using all the population data include: The term census is used
• it may be impractical and too time-consuming to survey to describe a survey in
everyone, which data from the whole
• it avoids unnecessary expense, population is obtained.
• some data may be unavailable,
• a sample gives a quick ‘snapshot’ of the data – so there is less
risk of the data changing during the collection or survey period,
• it avoids tampering with or destroying all the data – for example when the contents of a milk
bottle are sampled, the action of opening the bottle and analysing the milk means the product
cannot be sold afterwards.

Why do we sample?
Consider how TV ratings are compiled. How can a
TV network claim that 240 000 people watch Shortland
Street, or that the Network News has 800 000 viewers, for
example? Do they ask everyone? Can someone tell what
you are watching from outside your house?
Sampling is the science of selecting just a few people
or items, surveying them, and then using the results to
make inferences – that is, draw conclusions about the
whole group.
 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 275

When a sample is carefully chosen, and the right questions are asked, the sample statistics will
be very close to the actual population values.
• To be effective, a sample should be representative of the whole population.
• Items or people in a fair sample should be chosen at random. This means that each item or
person has an equal chance of being chosen.
• The sample used should avoid selecting items more than once, or selecting items outside the
population.
To achieve a random sample, we need a list of all the items or people of interest. For example, the
electoral roll is a list of everyone who is eligible to vote. A number is then chosen at random, and
matched with an item or person who is then interviewed.
The sampling method should be free of bias towards making some items more likely to be
chosen or very unlikely to be chosen. A sample chosen at random allows neither self-selection
nor choice by the sampler.

Example Describe some faults with each of = Answer a People who are not at home at
these sampling methods. that time cannot be surveyed.
a A survey on magazine Some magazine readers may
readership is conducted by not have a phone. 21
phoning households in the b Only people who are listening
afternoon between 1 pm and at the time can participate.
4 pm.
This is a self-selected sample
b A talkback radio-station asks – only people who hold strong
listeners to phone in with a opinions will phone.
quick ‘Yes/No’ answer to the
question ‘Should New Zealand
become a republic?’.

exercise 21.01
1 Describe some faults with these sampling d The Land Transport Safety Authority is
methods. seeking to establish the average age of
a An internet service provider e-mails their cars on New Zealand roads. They send
subscribers and asks them if they are a researcher to a car-fair on Saturday
planning to buy a new computer in the morning to take a survey of the age of the
next 18 months. cars for sale.
b A railway company chooses people at e The Auckland Regional Services Trust
random on the first morning train to is studying the distance people travel to
the city, and asks them questions about work. Their interviewers ask people at
transport congestion in the city. both the railway station and multi-storey
c A chain of fast-food restaurants hands car-parks how far they have travelled to
out vouchers offering customers $5 work.
cash-back if ‘our burger is not the best
you have ever tasted’. They are seeking
to establish whether their branches are
providing satisfactory service.
 276 Statistical inference 2.5

2 Delta Marketing has recently been d Aim: To establish the percentage of adults
conducting a number of surveys. Here are who smoke.
some of the questions they asked. Describe Question (to an adult): Have you ever
some faults with each one. smoked?
a Aim: To find out which TV channel has e Aim: To determine which party people
the most viewers. will vote for at the next election.
Question: Did you watch the news on Question: What party did you vote for at
Channel 1 last night? the last election?
b Aim: To find out whether people were f Aim: To find out how much New
in favour of New Zealand becoming a Zealanders spend on overseas travel.
republic. Question: How much exactly did you
Question: Would you leave New Zealand spend on airfares last time you travelled
if it became a republic? overseas?
c Aim: To establish teenage theft rates.
Question: Have you ever shoplifted from
a supermarket?

Random numbers
21
Good sampling methods involve choosing items or people at random from a population. How is the
randomness designed and organised?
There are many ways of obtaining digits that are sufficiently random for sampling purposes.
However, true randomness, needed for data encryption, is a different story.
Random numbers should have these properties:
• each number should be equally likely,
• the numbers should occur in an unpredictable sequence,
• the method used should give different random numbers each time.

exercise 21.02
1 Which of these are suitable methods of e Using a digital stop-watch that gives
obtaining random numbers from 0 to 9? times to the nearest hundredth of a
a Choosing a page in the phone directory second, then pressing the stop button
and using the last digit of the phone and recording the last digit.
number at the bottom of the page. f Walking down a street, looking for the
b Choosing a page in the phone directory first house with a red roof, and then
and using the first digit of the phone writing down the last digit of the number
number at the top of the page. on the letterbox.
c Writing the numbers 0–9 on 10 identical g Going to your local supermarket,
pieces of paper and drawing these, one at counting the number of check-outs they
a time and without looking, from a pot. have, and writing down the result.
d Tossing two fair dice, adding the
resulting numbers, and using the last
digit.
 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 277

2 Max collected 50 digits altogether. This bar graph

shows the results. Explain whether these digits are
5
likely to be random.
4
3
2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3 Here are four statements about digits from 4 Doctor: ‘I have good news and bad news for
a random number table. In each case say you.’
whether the statement is true or false, and Patient: ‘Yes, go on’.
support your answer with an explanation.
Doctor: ‘You have the Ebola virus. Four out
a Each pair of digits has a probability 0.01 of five people die from this.’
of being 55.
Patient: ‘What’s the good news?’
b Each pair of digits must be different.
c There will be exactly five 0s in each row Doctor: ‘My last four patients with the Ebola
of 50 digits. virus all died, so I’m expecting you to live.’
d The digits 111 will never appear as Explain whether this logic is correct. As
part of your argument, include a simulation
a group, because that pattern is not
using random numbers.
21
random.

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Numeral soup (or random numbers from a computer)
Have you even eaten alphabet soup?
Numeral soup consists of the digits {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9}. The soup manufacturer fills a packet with lots of
each numeral. As you eat the soup, the numbers you
consume will be pretty much random.
• Can you predict what the mode might be?
• Can you predict what the mean and median of the
numbers should be when you have finished the
soup?
The numbers in numeral soup are like special
numbers in statistics called random numbers. We can
use a computer to simulate the numbers that appear
in numeral soup. First we need to understand how a
computer makes up random numbers.
• In ExcelTM, the formula =RAND() gives a random decimal between 0 and 1. For example
0.696 793.
• If we multiply this by 10 we get a random number between 0 and 10. For example 6.967 93.
• We only want a single digit (the first one) so we use the INT formula. For example 6 (the
INT formula always rounds down).
• To do all three steps at once, we use the formula =INT(10*RAND()).
 278 Statistical inference 2.5

1 Create a spreadsheet to investigate what happens with random numbers. Choose a suitable
title and headings for the spreadsheet.
2 Enter the formula for random digits (between 0 and 9 inclusive) into a cell. Copy it
downwards about 50 times.
3 Use the commands for the mean, median and mode in your spreadsheet to calculate these
three averages for your block of random digits.
4 Press the F9 key and explain what happens.
5 Explain what happens for each of the three averages. Print out your results.
6 Create a similar spreadsheet for random whole numbers between 0 and 99.
7 Investigate to find out whether there is another spreadsheet formula that gives random
numbers that are whole numbers between two values.

Data encryption
One of the fears held by people who use the internet for
commercial transactions is that unauthorised people could
21 obtain sensitive information such as credit card numbers. To
reassure these users, many websites claim they use ‘secure’
servers, with data encryption. The data is jumbled up so that
only someone with a ‘key’ can read it. The encryption uses
random numbers.
Obtaining a number that is truly random is difficult. The
same random number table can be duplicated and used by
many people, so that one person can be using the same random
numbers as another. Likewise, calculators and computer
programs generate ‘pseudo-random’ numbers, employing a
similar process each time.
Truly random numbers can be generated by a chaotic process.
One such example is the lava lamp. Blobs of fluid move around
in a chaotic manner, caused by the heat gradient inside the lamp.
The moving bubbles of fluid can then be projected onto a screen,
creating constantly moving psychedelic patterns.
Random numbers are derived from this movement in a
process patented by a company called Lavarand. Very simply,
a digital camera takes photographs of six lava lamps from time
to time. The photograph is recorded as a 921 600 byte digital file
(made up of numbers only). This ‘number’ is then ‘crunched’
by a mathematical algorithm to form a 140 byte ‘seed’ – giving a
random starting place for a pseudo-random number generator.
An analogy for this is a game of roulette. The roulette wheel
itself is the pseudo-random number generator, and the seed is
the speed at which the wheel is spun. When the wheel finally
stops after the time determined by the speed imparted by the
person spinning it, the ball falls into a numbered slot – hence the
random number.
 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 279

Selecting a sample and making an inference

There are four different types of sampling covered in this course. The choice of a sampling method
depends on many factors, including cost and convenience. The aim should be to devise a sampling
method that is unbiased, and representative of the population.

Simple random sampling Cluster sampling

The simplest way to select a sample is to It is often possible to separate a population into
choose it so that each individual, and each groups first. These could be classes in a school, rows
set of individuals, has an equal chance of of books for sale in a bookshop, suburbs of people
being the sample actually selected. or houses, etc. Some of these groups, or clusters, can
The entire population should be allocated be selected at random, then a simple random sample
a position on a list, and then a random taken from the chosen groups.
method used to choose any individual on For example, to sample from the whole student
the list. The list can be a simple number one, population at a school, you could choose six classes at
or an implied list like the houses in a town, random and then take simple random samples from
or an area frame such as a map with grid these. However, depending on the attribute being
references. investigated, there should be no strong differences
The method used should include a between the clusters chosen or omitted. In a school
check that items are not sampled twice. For situation there would be no obvious differences
example, if a random number is repeated between classes when investigating a biological trait, 21
then it should be ignored and another such as whether a student could roll their tongue,
random number generated. but if the investigation was age-related, such as
Simple random sampling is difficult investigating the weight of school bags, then cluster
and expensive to administer when the data sampling could sometimes omit classes with either
comes from widespread locations, and it is heavy or light bags.
harder to survey the individual items quickly Selecting all items with a common characteristic is
because you have to look up each individual. also a form of cluster sampling – for example people
whose last names start with ‘H’ could be sampled.
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
In a systematic sample you can choose a
starting point at random, for example the When there are important differences between
17th person on a list, and then sample in groups in the population, it can be useful to devise
a pattern from that point – for example a sampling method that includes samples from
every 20th person from that point. The these groups in proportion to their numbers in the
population should usually be ordered in population. These groups are called strata.
some way in order to apply the ‘system’ Conducting a stratified sample ensures that all
– either numbered, or in alphabetical order. groups of interest are represented in the survey. For
The list itself should have no strong ordering example, if there are 2000 taxi drivers in the North
or pattern of its own. For example, when Island, of which 160 are female, a stratified sample of
sampling a perishable product such as milk 100 would include eight females and 92 males.
to investigate the ‘use by date’ it would not Stratified sampling can be complicated and
give useful results if you sampled the front more expensive than other methods because extra
items only, or the back items, offered for sale information about the population is needed in
in a supermarket. advance. Unlike cluster sampling, it is best used
The main advantage of systematic when there are significant differences between the
sampling is speed – the step of generating and groups or strata. Stratified sampling ensures that
looking up random numbers can be largely minority viewpoints are represented, therefore
bypassed, and collecting the data is faster. keeping criticism of a survey to a minimum.
 280 Statistical inference 2.5

An example of all four types of sampling

Four different kinds of sampling from the same
data set are shown. The data is 100 different
measurements of avocado weights. Notice that
each item of data has a number (1–100).
In each case the items selected as a result
of the sample are highlighted.

21
Simple random sampling Systematic sampling
Generate 20 different random numbers between To obtain a systematic sample of 20 from this
1 and 100. If a random number has already data, choose a starting point at random between
occurred, generate more as needed. 1 and 5, then choose every fifth item of data.
Spreadsheet formula: =RANDBETWEEN(1,100) Suppose =RANDBETWEEN(1,5) gives 4. Then
Results: 42, 67, 2, 12, 77, 49, 60, 20, 45, 15, 64, 7, 8, we highlight the 4th, 9th, 14th, … items.
21, 15 (repeat), 64 (repeat), 58, 14, 29. 68, 26, 90. The data selected is highlighted in orange.
The data selected is highlighted in blue. Note that systematic sampling is sometimes
not appropriate if there is some pattern to the
data. If the
data was
drawn from
an orchard,
say, where
the trees were
laid out in
a rectangle
pattern, some
sampling
patterns could
give trees on
the boundary
only, for
example.
 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 281

Cluster sampling Stratified sampling

There are many ways of obtaining a Suppose there are three different varieties of avocados:
cluster sample of 20 from this data.
Hass: 1–40 (40%)
Here is one:
Four clusters, each of five avocados, Fuerte: 41–70 (30%)
could be chosen by selecting four Hopkins: 71–100 (30%)
numbers at random from the data, and
The number in each strata of the sample should be
taking them as the middle item of a
proportional to the number in each group in the
‘cross’. If the clusters overlap, or run
population. For a sample of total size 20, we need:
outside the boundaries, choose another.
62, 22, 2 (overlaps), 68, 56. 40% of 20 = a sample of eight for Hass,
The four clusters are highlighted in 30% of 20 = a sample of six from Fuerte,
different colours. 30% of 20 = a sample of six from Hopkins.
Note that depending on how a Therefore we generate eight random numbers between 1
cluster is defined, it can exclude some and 40, six random numbers between 41 and 70, and six
items or make other items more likely random numbers between 71 and 100:
to be chosen than under other sampling 33, 17, 12, 25, 9, 9 (repeat), 33 (repeat), 16, 39, 8.
methods.
58, 59, 67, 43, 53, 56.
98, 85, 96, 99, 90, 81. 21
The data selected is
highlighted in three
different colours.

exercise 21.03
1 A health researcher has to choose four from each lot of 30 test-tubes of tissue samples to test
for a particular protein. Each test-tube has a control number.
C3410 C5123 C4118 C2066 D4123 C4088
D3872 D3918 C4436 C3772 C0156 D4005
C3399 C2614 D4881 C4189 D4251 C3662
D4025 D3971 C4717 D4330 D4512 C3639
D4488 C5016 D3980 D4119 D4312 C4904
Explain how you would take a simple random sample of four items from these test-tubes.
 282 Statistical inference 2.5

2 • How many students are there in your maths class?

• What do their bags weigh?
a Explain how you could take a stratified sample of 10 bags from all the students’ bags. The
two strata are the bags of male and female students.
b Carry out the sampling process and calculate appropriate sample statistics. Comment on the
spread of the data, including possible reasons for any outliers.

3 Describe how you could obtain a representative sample from which the proportion of high
school students who have a Vodafone mobile phone could be estimated.

4 Explain how you could obtain a sample from which the median
age of cars driven on New Zealand roads could be estimated.
Describe some limitations of the sampling method, and whether
the results would be accurate.

5 The area south of Te Puke in the Bay of Plenty is reputed

to be the best in the world for growing kiwifruit – due
to its sheltered microclimate, regular rainfall, hours of
sunshine and exceptionally deep volcanic soil.
21 Explain in detail how you would select the clusters for
a 5-cluster sample of 20 kiwifruit vines altogether from the
area shown in the map.

75

74

73

72

71

70
00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 283

6 Obtain a printout of the spreadsheet ‘116 Bag Weights.xls’ – this can be downloaded
from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or from the
www.mathematics.co.nz website. Part of it is shown here.

The table gives school bag weights for 116 students. Each student is numbered and their gender
(male or female) is indicated.
a Obtain a simple random sample of 25 students from the data. Explain your method in detail.
It is sufficient to highlight the numbers of the 25 students selected.
b Extract a systematic sample of 25 students from the data. Explain your method in detail. 21
It is sufficient to highlight the numbers of the 25 students selected.
c Design a stratified sample (the strata are for male students and female students) of
40 students from the data. Explain carefully how you chose the number in each strata and
how you selected the students.
d Use the information collected in part c to discuss any differences between the distributions of
male and female students’ bag weights. You should refer to appropriate sample statistics and
include some form of data display to support your conclusions.

7 Obtain a printout of the spreadsheet ‘Oscar winners – 1928 to 2004.xls’. This can be
downloaded from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or from the
www.mathematics.co.nz website. Part of it is shown here.

The table shows the winner of the Oscar for Best Actress and Best Actor for each year since 1928.
a Obtain a cluster sample of 24 actresses’ ages altogether from three distinct decades. Explain
your method in detail so that someone else could repeat it by following your instructions. It
is sufficient to highlight the 24 ages selected on a copy of the spreadsheet.
 284 Statistical inference 2.5

b Design and then collect a stratified sample of 40 actors’ and actresses’ ages altogether to
investigate the hypothesis that the age of the winner is lower since 1970 than before 1970.
Support your conclusion by calculating appropriate sample statistics and displaying the
results in a suitable graph.
c Extract a stratified sample of 50 ages altogether. Use it to investigate the hypothesis that
female actresses are awarded an Oscar at a younger age than male actors. Support your
conclusion by calculating appropriate sample statistics and displaying the results in a suitable
graph.

8 A large hardware company has 300 employees, 240 of whom are salaried staff, and the
remaining 60 are casual staff. You decide to select, at random, 12 salaried staff and three casual
staff, for interviews about a sales project. Each individual has the same probability of being
chosen.
a What kind of sample are you conducting?
b Why is this sample not a simple random sample of 15 items from a population of 300?

9 A large olive plantation grove is set out in 312 blocks. Each block has a 6-figure grid reference,
and data for the weight of olives (in kilograms) harvested. This information is shown on the
opposite page.
The company that owns the plantation has designed a trial of different methods in the
21 plantation as follows.
• The western half is grown organically (no pesticides or fertiliser) and the eastern side is non-
organic.
• The northern half is irrigated (receives extra watering) and the southern half relies on natural
rainfall only.
• The prevailing wind is from the north-east, and the ground generally slopes downwards
from north to south.
The data is included in column form in the worksheet ‘Data in columns’ in the
spreadsheet ‘Olive grove production.xls. This can be downloaded from the Theta
Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or from the www.mathematics.co.nz website.
a Describe how you could use random numbers to choose one block to sample from the
312 blocks altogether.
b Carry out a stratified sample of 40 blocks from the plantation, and produce a graph that
shows the results. Include a description of how you selected each block.
c Describe how you would select a systematic sample of 30 blocks from the plantation. Explain
whether such a sample would be representative of the plantation.
d It would be possible to choose two rows of blocks at random, and obtain a sample of 24 data
readings. What kind of sample is this? Describe some advantages and disadvantages.
e One way of selecting a cluster sample would be to choose a block at random and then take it
as the centre of a 5 by 5 square of blocks and sample all 25. Describe at least two drawbacks
or limitations of this kind of cluster sample.
f What improvements could you suggest to the design of the experiment?
 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 285

NW NE
124051 124052 124053 124054 124055 124056 124057 124058 124059 124060 124061 124062
47 52 50 52 42 46 59 64 58 61 63 62
125051 125052 125053 125054 125055 125056 125057 125058 125059 125060 125061 125062
47 51 49 49 44 51 61 53 60 59 51 60
126051 126052 126053 126054 126055 126056 126057 126058 126059 126060 126061 126062
48 44 43 48 48 45 55 67 53 66 63 65
127051 127052 127053 127054 127055 127056 127057 127058 127059 127060 127061 127062
49 48 48 45 51 45 59 61 54 63 61 64
128051 128052 128053 128054 128055 128056 128057 128058 128059 128060 128061 128062
51 43 44 48 47 46 72 56 58 53 74 60
129051 129052 129053 129054 129055 129056 129057 129058 129059 129060 129061 129062
50 49 51 51 46 48 58 56 57 65 64 63
130051 130052 130053 130054 130055 130056 130057 130058 130059 130060 130061 130062
51 47 50 53 55 53 70 64 55 59 57 68
131051 131052 131053 131054 131055 131056 131057 131058 131059 131060 131061 131062
47 48 47 45 49 46 62 57 67 54 62 65
132051 132052 132053 132054 132055 132056 132057 132058 132059 132060 132061 132062
48 49 47 50 47 51 66 55 68 61 60 68
133051 133052 133053 133054 133055 133056 133057 133058 133059 133060 133061 133062
46 46 50 47 45 58 60 66 62 60 61 49
134051 134052 134053 134054 134055 134056 134057 134058 134059 134060 134061 134062
46 56 47 55 47 47 60 66 60 56 56 66 21
135051 135052 135053 135054 135055 135056 135057 135058 135059 135060 135061 135062
52 41 40 59 38 57 59 59 53 65 67 67
136051 136052 136053 136054 136055 136056 136057 136058 136059 136060 136061 136062
48 46 48 46 52 44 53 65 62 59 60 58
137051 137052 137053 137054 137055 137056 137057 137058 137059 137060 137061 137062
42 38 37 28 35 42 31 24 20 24 22 25
138051 138052 138053 138054 138055 138056 138057 138058 138059 138060 138061 138062
45 36 50 27 33 32 42 33 37 29 36 10
139051 139052 139053 139054 139055 139056 139057 139058 139059 139060 139061 139062
36 40 36 28 37 24 33 28 27 31 24 30
140051 140052 140053 140054 140055 140056 140057 140058 140059 140060 140061 140062
38 35 45 48 45 33 26 26 31 27 44 26
141051 141052 141053 141054 141055 141056 141057 141058 141059 141060 141061 141062
35 36 41 48 33 28 37 32 27 34 32 28
142051 142052 142053 142054 142055 142056 142057 142058 142059 142060 142061 142062
37 36 37 38 36 33 26 20 32 29 35 18
143051 143052 143053 143054 143055 143056 143057 143058 143059 143060 143061 143062
42 37 48 50 40 38 29 31 19 22 34 39
144051 144052 144053 144054 144055 144056 144057 144058 144059 144060 144061 144062
43 31 40 33 38 35 23 37 35 33 27 29
145051 145052 145053 145054 145055 145056 145057 145058 145059 145060 145061 145062
29 34 37 33 47 47 28 24 24 32 35 31
146051 146052 146053 146054 146055 146056 146057 146058 146059 146060 146061 146062
36 32 34 30 31 24 30 29 29 28 26 27
147051 147052 147053 147054 147055 147056 147057 147058 147059 147060 147061 147062
20 29 29 33 24 38 22 29 26 31 26 26
148051 148052 148053 148054 148055 148056 148057 148058 148059 148060 148061 148062
30 40 32 42 40 29 32 31 32 30 29 32
149051 149052 149053 149054 149055 149056 149057 149058 149059 149060 149061 149062
SW 29 51 29 30 50 29 26 21 21 41 31 29 SE
 286 Statistical inference 2.5

INVESTIGATION

Mathematics textbooks
High school mathematics textbooks are complex productions. Here are some features that a
publisher and the author need to consider.
• The language level steadily increases from Year 9 to Year 13.
• Ideally, chapters should be a sensible, consistent length.
• The technical requirements – the number of mathematical equations, such as 2 x + 3 = x ,
5 8
which is generated using an ‘equation editor,’ is high in a strand such as algebra, and the
number of diagrams is high in a strand like geometry or trigonometry. Other strands, like
statistics and probability, tend to be ‘wordy’.

Longman Mathematics Longman Mathematics

ALPHA MATHEMATICS

BETA MATHEMATICS

A Mathematical
Journey for
Year 10 Students
ALPHA MATHEMATICS A Mathematical
Journey for
BETA MATHEMATICS
Year 9 Students

A Mathematical
Journey for
Year 10 Students
A Mathematical
Journey for
Year 11 Students
A Mathematical A Mathematical

Journey for Journey for

Year 11 Students

Year 9 Students
DAVID BARTON
DAVID BARTON

DAVID BARTON

21 DAVID BARTON

Longman Mathematics
Longman Mathematics
SIGMA MATHEMATICS
DELTA MATHEMATICS

DELTA MATHEMATICS SIGMA MATHEMATICS

SECOND EDITION SECOND EDITION
SECOND EDITION

A Year 13 Course
in Mathematics
BARTON and LAIRD

A Year 13 Course with Statistics

in Mathematics
with Calculus
DAVID BARTON

DAVID BARTON

DAVID BARTON STUART LAIRD

Investigate some
of these features.
You should take
appropriate stratified
samples from the data
in the spreadsheet
‘Longman Mathematics
Series Statistics.xls’ (this
is provided on the Theta
Mathematics Workbook
companion CD, and can
also be downloaded from
the website
www.mathematics.co.nz).
 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 287

Student-generated data

The intention of NCEA Achievement Standard 2.5 is that students use their own data (author’s
emphasis) when selecting a sample. The review published in October 2005 included this
comment: ‘… need for students to use their own data for their analysis and basis for making inferences’.
By definition, that means students need to go further than just working with data sets provided
in class, and also it is clear that textbooks cannot be the only source of data sets – so the ones
provided earlier in this chapter are for student practice and revision only, not assessment.
The author makes no comment about the wisdom of collecting data, and then discarding
some of it in order to be left with a sample!

The sampling process

Posing a question or a hypothesis The sampling method
Describe the sampling method in sufficient detail
Before taking a sample and analysing data
so that someone else could repeat it. Justify your
you must have some idea of exactly what
choice of sampling method, with references to
measurements or data values are required. It
the population, and factors such as avoiding
helps to pose a question first, and then set out to
bias, convenience, cost, etc.
answer it.
21
Critical evaluation of your sampling process
LECTURER
Was some of the population excluded from the
A hypothesis is an educated and informed sample? How might this bias have influenced
guess about some aspect of the population your results? Is it possible that some items
that a researcher can attempt to answer may have been sampled more than once, or
using data from a sample or by conducting a perhaps not have been recorded correctly? Did
scientific experiment. your sampling method make it more likely that
some items would be chosen than others? How
accurate were your results? Discuss the effect
How to analyse, interpret and display the data of possible measurement and rounding errors.
Was the sample data a true reflection of the
Always calculate appropriate sample statistics population information you needed to answer
– mean, median, mode, quartiles and standard your question or investigate your hypothesis?
deviation. Use the standard deviation and
interquartile range to refer to the variability of
your sample data. Produce appropriate graphs An example of sampling
for your data, in particular ones that help
The following example covers the processes and
support your conclusions. These will usually
responses required when selecting a sample,
include a frequency graph such as a histogram
making inferences (including conclusions) and
or bar graph, and a boxplot, or comparative
ending with a critical evaluation.
boxplots if analysing two or more different
groups.
TIPSTER This example is deliberately not an
example of an ideal survey using perfect sampling
techniques. It contains areas where the survey could
be improved – this is to show you how to present a
critical evaluation of the sampling process.
 288 Statistical inference 2.5

Hypothesis
The median price that a house is sold for in Auckland is $350 000, and the distribution of house
prices is not symmetric.

Sampling method
For convenience choose a mixture of cluster
sampling and systematic sampling. There are
nine pages (numbered from 1811 to 1819) of
real-estate agents in the Auckland Yellow Pages.
Each page has four columns, with a maximum
of about 50 phone numbers on each.
Use a random number generator or
spreadsheet formula to choose the four
clusters: =RANDBETWEEN(1811,1819),
RANDBETWEEN(1,4), RANDBETWEEN(1,50).
The spreadsheet on the right shows an example
of this.
Visit each location and record all prices in
every second row in their office window.
21
Data analysis
Record all prices in a spreadsheet, calculate sample statistics and produce appropriate graphs. Some
of the data and a brief analysis are shown in the spreadsheet extract below.

To view the
spreadsheet in full
and look at formulae etc.
download ‘Auckland real
estate prices (sample).
xls’ from the Theta
Mathematics Workbook
companion CD or from
the website
www.mathematics.co.nz.
 21 Sampling processes and making inferences 289

Using the sample data to make and justify inferences about the population
The sample data implies that the median house price is only about $280 000, not the value of
$350 000 in the given hypothesis. The main boxplot clearly shows the distribution of house prices is
not symmetric. The median, lower quartile and minimum value are close together, while there is a
big difference between the upper quartile price and the maximum price. The distribution is skewed
towards the higher prices. This effect is also shown by the mean being $100 000 higher than the
median – the extreme high values in the Milford sample distort the mean, but have no significant
effect on the median.

Describe and justify the sampling method

The description is given above. It would not be practical to visit a large number of real-estate
locations and only select a few house prices – hence a cluster sample is faster and more convenient to
obtain. Taking a systematic sample from each location helps with the convenience. Because the data
can be collected comparatively quickly a ‘snapshot’ of prices at the same point in time is possible.
The data here does not actually answer the question accurately. The price at which a house is
advertised is nearly always higher than the price at which it sells for.

Critically evaluate the sampling process

Note that the sample is almost certainly biased, and has many faults. 21
The number of clusters is too low and there is a significant difference between the clusters – the
characteristics of Auckland suburbs mean some have low and fairly uniform prices, while others, like
Milford, have very expensive beachfront property. Further preliminary research would help select
areas for inclusion in a stratified sample, and this would more accurately reflect the population.
As well as the data not supplying the information required in the hypothesis, it is incomplete,
and has duplications. Several selling methods are excluded – sale by tender or auction for example
– where the price is unknown. The list in the Yellow Pages is not exhaustive – private sales are
excluded for example, and some houses are listed with more than one real-estate agent. Another
problem with the list is that some real-estate agents are listed more than once, so are more likely
to be chosen, and also there are an unequal number of agents listed in each column. Some areas of
Auckland may be over-supplied with real-estate offices, again making these areas more likely to be
selected, and hence resulting in bias.
The method used for systematic sampling has faults also – one particular row of advertisements
and photos of houses may include bargains
only, or better quality houses, and some
houses may not be advertised there.
The sampling process could be improved
by gaining access to actual sales data used
by real-estate agents – not easy because they
guard it jealously! This data would answer
the question directly, and should include all
sales within a particular time period, with no
duplication, and so would be representative
of the population.
 290 Statistical inference 2.5

Ideas for collecting data and sampling

In each case provide a question or hypothesis to investigate and answer.

1 The inclined plane

Examples of questions: Are the distances distributed symmetrically?
Is there more variation in the distances if the ramp is steeper?
Set up an inclined plane (a sloping ramp) and release a ball/marble so that it rolls down the
plane and along the floor from exactly the same position each time. Measure the final distance
from the end of the plane for each trial. Comment on the shape of the distribution of distances.

2 Car prices
Examples of hypotheses: The ‘average’ price of a Holden Commodore that is less than
5 years old is $1000.
Cars sold privately are $2000 cheaper than cars sold through a dealer.
Choose one or two popular models of car and collect a number of prices. Sources for
this data include the newspaper, car-yards, Autotrader magazine, or the internet.
Include an explanation of how you selected the samples, and refer to appropriate sample
21 statistics. Discuss limitations of the sampling process, and the reliability of the figures.

3 Lengths of television advertisements

Example of question: Are advertisements on television usually the same length?
Take cluster samples of television advertisements and measure their lengths. Include an
explanation of how you selected the samples, refer to appropriate sample statistics, and discuss
how the lengths are distributed.

4 Lengths of movies
Example of hypothesis: On ‘average’ a movie is two hours long, and movie times are distributed
symmetrically with a few very long and a few very short movies, with
most in the middle.
Take a random sample of movie lengths. Possible sources of data include Skywatch
magazine, your local video/DVD store, or the internet – try www.imdb.com. You
could narrow down the population by concentrating on movies made in one decade only,
or of one particular genre – e.g. ‘Action’.
Include an explanation of how you selected the sample, and refer to appropriate sample
statistics. Discuss limitations of the sampling process, and the reliability of the figures.

For up-to-date links to data sets, visit the website www.mathematics.co.nz or

use the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD.
 NCEA 2.5 Revision exercise 291

NCEA 2.5 Revision exercise

▼

Prices of Toyota Corollas

(models less than 5 years old). 1 The table shows prices in NZ dollars for late model Toyota
Corollas. The prices have been rounded to the nearest $500.
(Prices rounded to the nearest $500.) • The internet prices were a simple random sample.
Internet Newspaper Car-yards • The newspaper prices were collected from an edition
of one newspaper selected from several newspapers.
$11 500 $16 500 $20 500 • The car-yard prices were obtained by visiting every
$10 000 $19 000 $14 500 third car-yard in a city and recording every second
$14 000 $17 500 $21 000 relevant car price.
$12 500 $24 000 $17 000 The question is: ‘Is there a difference in price between these
$14 500 $15 500 $22 000 three methods of purchasing a used car in New Zealand’.
$13 000 $19 500 $20 000 a Extract a stratified sample of 20 cars from this data.
$12 500 $11 500 $23 500 Provide an explanation of your method, and
$12 000 $20 000 $13 500 evidence of how the 20 items were chosen. ACH
$13 500 $22 000 $20 500 b Calculate appropriate statistics from the sample in
$16 500 $19 000 $8 500 part a and produce a suitable graph to display
$16 000 $16 500 $18 000 the sample results. ACH
$12 500 $18 000 $22 000 (The spreadsheet ‘Toyota Corolla prices.xls’
$18 000 $18 500 $20 500 contains the data, and can be downloaded
$11 000 $20 000 $18 500 from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion
$15 500 $17 500 $20 000 CD or the website www.mathematics.co.nz)
$14 000 $16 000 $10 000 c What is the name of the sampling method used
$16 500 $17 500 $15 000 to obtain the newspaper prices? ACH
$16 000 $17 000 $16 000 d What is the name of the sampling method
$8 500 $17 000 $16 000 used to obtain the car-yard prices? ACH
$11 000 $18 000 $15 000 e Use all the data to:
$18 500 $18 000 $15 500 i reach a conclusion about the price
$16 000 $19 500 $21 500 differences, and ACH
$9 000 $19 000 $22 000 ii support your response with reference to
$15 500 $19 000 $21 000 your graph(s) and sample statistics. MRT
$13 500 $19 500 $17 000 f Explain whether this sample is likely to be
$10 000 $17 000 representative of the population of all car prices
$16 500 $20 000 of used cars in New Zealand. MRT
$14 500 $18 000 g Describe some limitations of this sampling process.
$11 000 $13 000 Include an evaluation of the accuracy of data
$17 500 $17 000 collected in this way, and suggest some possible
$10 500 $20 500 improvements. EXC
$12 000 $15 500
$11 000 $18 000
$20 000 $11 500
$13 500
$8 500
$17 000
$17 500
$15 500
$10 000
$9 000
$10 000
292

2.6 Probability
Simulate probability situations and apply the normal distribution

Contents
22 Theoretical probability 293 24 The normal distribution 338
Equally likely outcomes 294 Normally distributed data 340
Probability trees 296 The standard normal distribution 344
Sampling without replacement 302 Symbols for mean and standard deviation 344
Venn diagrams 306 The standard normal curve 344
General principles 307 Tables for the standard normal distribution 345
Contingency tables 310 Using technology to calculate standard
Determining conditional probability from a normal probability 346
contingency table 312 Converting to the standard normal 348
Expected value 315 Using technology to calculate any normal
Expected value from probability tables 315 probability 350
Continuous probability 317 Applications of the normal distribution 352
Calculating an expected value 354
‘Inverse normal’ problems 356
23 Experimental probability and simulation
Using traditional normal tables to obtain
methods 320
normal ‘inverses’ 357
Long-run relative frequency 320
Using technology to obtain normal
Simulation 323
‘inverses’ 359
Investigations in simulating probabilities 326
Applications using ‘inverse normal’
Predator–prey simulations 333
probabilities 361
Simulating values from a normal distribution 364
Constructing a histogram in a spreadsheet 365

NCEA 2.6 Revision exercises 367

 22
Theoretical probability

In life there are many situations which are All events whose outcome is subject to chance,
uncertain. ranging from picking the correct six Lotto numbers,
• If you buy Lotto tickets, you cannot to choosing which side of a coin will land face up, to
definitely say that you have bought predicting how many words there will be in the next
the winning numbers. Only after the television commercial, can be given a probability.
Saturday night draw can you be sure of This probability is a number between 0 and 1, and
the result. the number describes how likely the event is to occur.
• If you drive along a road and round a • The closer to 1 the probability is, the more likely
corner, you cannot be sure whether a the event is to occur.
police officer will be waiting there or not. • The closer to 0 the probability is, the less likely the
event is to occur.
However, either from calculation or
Probabilities are usually described using decimals or
22
experience, we can say whether these or
other events are likely or unlikely. fractions, rather than as percentages or ratios. Thus,
Until now you may have regarded a probability of 0.4 or 2 means that an event will
5
mathematics as a subject with definite
occur two times out of five, on average.
answers. Probability is the mathematical
study of uncertainty.
When a coin is tossed you cannot predict TIPSTER
in advance whether it will land tails or Ratios are best avoided. Often the expression ‘fifty–fifty’
heads up. But you can assume that each is used to express a situation where the user feels an
outcome (heads or tails) is equally likely, event is equally likely to occur or not occur. However,
and say that the probabilities of each are mathematically this is confusing. A ratio 50 : 50 means
0.5. It would be reasonable to use this 1 : 1 or just 1, and 1 happens to be the probability of an
probability to say that if a coin was tossed event that is certain to occur.
300 times, you might expect about 150 heads
and 150 tails. There are three main ways of establishing the value
Probability, then, uses mathematics to of a probability.
describe the likelihood of certain results. 1 By observation – this approach is called long-run
We do this by giving an event a number relative frequency.
between 0 and 1 to describe how likely it is. 2 By using random number methods as a
simulation of the probability.
Probability Likelihood of the event 3 By examining the theoretical background to the
0 The event is impossible event – this approach is called equally likely
outcomes.
0.5 The event is equally likely
to either occur or not occur In the following section we cover the concept of
probability based on equally likely events or known
1 The event is certain to occur
probabilities.
 294 Probability 2.6

Equally likely outcomes

Much of probability is based on the assumption that in many situations events are equally likely to
occur if random choices are made.
• A coin is equally likely to fall either ‘heads’ or ‘tails’ up.
• A six-sided die is equally likely to give any number from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
• The first ball from the weekly Lotto draw is equally likely to produce any number from 1 to 40
inclusive.
In these situations, we claim that the coin is ‘fair’ or that the die is ‘unbiased’. This is another way of
saying that each of the possible outcomes is equally likely.

When outcomes are equally likely the probability of an event is:

number of outcomes favourable for the event
total number of outcomes

Example In Lotto, what is the probability of obtaining a number between 23 and 27 inclusive
when the first ball from the 40 possible balls (numbered from 1 to 40) is released?
= Answer Favourable numbers are 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 (five outcomes).
Total number of outcomes is 40.
Required probability is 5 or 1 .
40 8
Example A letter is chosen at random from the word ‘mathematics’. Find the probability that a
vowel (a, e, i, o, u) is chosen.
22 = Answer There are 11 letters, each of which is equally likely. Four of the letters are vowels (a, e
and i). Note that there are two ‘a’s – these have to be counted twice.
The required probability is 4 .
11
Example A fruit bowl contains four Golden Delicious and five Granny Smith apples (both with
green skins), and seven Gala apples (with red skins). Find the probability that when an
apple is picked at random it has a green skin.
= Answer Nine apples have green skins.
There are 16 apples altogether.
9
The probability is .
16

exercise 22.01
1 A marble is chosen at random from a bag 2 A letter is chosen at random from the
containing 10 marbles, numbered from 1 to 10 English alphabet (26 letters). Calculate the
inclusive. Find the probability that the marble probability that the letter selected is:
chosen is: a a vowel (a, e, i, o, u)
a less than 3 b a consonant (i.e. not a vowel)
b not 8 c before g in the alphabet
c odd d after w in the alphabet
d at least 7 e one of the letters in the word ‘triangle’
e a factor of 10 f between i and o inclusive in the alphabet
f a prime number (Note: prime numbers have g one of the letters in the word
exactly 2 factors – 1 is not a prime number.) ‘mathematics’.
 22 Theoretical probability 295

3 Assume that when a dart is thrown at a 8 Instead of using a six-sided die, Hemi and
dartboard, it hits a number between 1 and Shelly decide to spin a disc marked with the
20 inclusive. If it is equally likely to hit any numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 (as shown).
of the 20 numbers, calculate the probability
that the number hit is:

6
a a multiple of 3 b a factor of 20

1
5
c a prime number.
5 2 Pointer
3

4
3
Hemi spins the disc once, until it comes to
rest with one of the numbers next to the
pointer. Find the probability that the number
obtained is:
a 2 b 3
4 A letter is chosen at random from the word
‘computer’. Calculate the probability that c odd d a factor of 6.
the letter selected is:
9 Two coins are tossed at the same time. The
a a vowel
first coin is marked with a 3 on one side
b before k in the alphabet and a 5 on the other side. The second coin is
c not p. marked with a 2 on one side and a 4 on the
5 Stuart selects a letter at random from the
other. Find the probability that the total of 22
the two numbers is:
word ‘mathematics’. What is the probability
a 5 b 7 or less
that he chooses:
c 8 d odd.
a the letter i? b a consonant?
c either m or a? 10 Here is the calendar for the month of June.
Possible years for this calendar include 1951,
6 A pack of 52 cards (Ace, King, Queen, Jack, 1956, 1962, 1973, 1979, 1984, 1990, 2001, 2007,
10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, for each of the four 2012, 2018 and 2029.
suits, hearts, diamonds, clubs and spades) is
thoroughly shuffled and one card is drawn.
What is the probability that the card drawn Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
is: 1 2
a an Ace? 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b the Jack of clubs? 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
c a diamond? 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
d not a spade? 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
e a heart or a club? If a day is selected from this month at
f a 6 or less (ignore Aces)? random, calculate the probability that the
day chosen is:
7 A pencil-case contains two green, four red, a a Monday
five blue and three black ballpoint pens. One b not a Friday
pen is chosen at random from the case. What
c a Saturday or a Sunday
is the probability that the pen chosen is:
d even-numbered
a red? b not blue?
e a prime-numbered Sunday.
c blue or black? d orange?
 296 Probability 2.6

11 The quadrilateral shown can be named in 13 Enrique, Fatima and Gertrude jointly
several different ways. For example ABCD, own a taxi, which they take turns to
CBAD, etc. drive continuously during the day. The
arrangement is that they share the driving
C
B in the ratio 2 : 5 : 3 respectively. If you make
arrangements to hire the taxi at a randomly
chosen time, what is the probability that
Fatima will be the driver?
A D 14 A confectionery manufacturer makes jelly-
a How many different ‘names’ are beans in several colours: red, orange, pink,
possible? purple, blue, green, white, yellow and
black. A mixing machine fills packets with
b Find the probability that the ‘name’:
these colours according to a pre-set ratio,
i starts with A which is 3 : 2 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 3 : 2 : 5 : 3, for each
ii has all four letters in alphabetical colour respectively. If a jelly-bean is chosen
order at random from a packet, calculate the
iii has B next to C, in either order probability that a black one is selected.
iv has B next to D.
15 Six cards are marked with numbers on
12 Miss Solo has three invitations to send one side and the other side is blank. The
out for her wedding – to Mr A, Mrs B and numbers on the cards are 2, 4, 5, 7, 11 and
Miss C. She addresses three envelopes for 13. The cards are shuffled, and two cards
A, B and C and then leaves the room. As a are chosen and turned face up. Calculate the
22 practical joke her younger brother shuffles probability that the numbers:
the invitations and places them at random a are both odd
into the envelopes. He then posts the b are both less than 10
envelopes. What is the probability that: c have a sum of 18.
a everybody receives an invitation
(Hint: write down all the possible
addressed to themselves?
combinations – there are 15.)
b nobody receives an invitation addressed
to themselves? 16 Two different pairs of socks are washed,
and paired up again at random. Calculate
the probability that both pairs of socks are
matching.

Probability trees
A probability tree is a branching diagram used 1st 2nd 3rd
child child child Result Probability
to show alternative outcomes. At each stage
in the diagram there is a choice, dependent on 0.5 G GGG 0.125
0.5 G
chance. 0.5 B GGB
Here is a probability tree for the different G
0.5 0.5 0.5 G GBG
outcomes of a couple having three children. B
0.5 B GBB
The first two branches represent the two
possible outcomes for the first child: girl or 0.5 G BGG
0.5 0.5 G
boy. Each branch then itself branches into two. 0.5 B BGB
B
These second branches show the two possible 0.5 0.5 G BBG
outcomes for the second child: girl or boy. B
0.5 B BBB
 22 Theoretical probability 297

The four branches then each split into two, representing the two possible outcomes for the third
child. There are, then, eight possible endings on the diagram: GGG, GGB, etc.
If we assume that at any stage boys and girls are equally likely, we can put the probabilities on
the tree. Each branch has 0.5 on it. We multiply along the branches to obtain the probability of the
outcome at the end. Here the probability of GGG is:
0.5 × 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.125 0.5 G
0.5 G
To find the probability of a three-child family having exactly two 0.5 B 0.125
G
girls, we first mark the favourable branch endings with a and 0.5 0.5 0.5 G 0.125
then add the probabilities to get 0.125 + 0.125 + 0.125 = 0.375. B
0.5 B
0.5 G 0.125
0.5 0.5 G
0.5 B
B
0.5 0.5 G
B
0.5 B

TIPSTER
You need to be very clear as to when We needed to add above (to calculate the probability
probabilities are added and when they are of two girls), because the outcomes that gave us two
multiplied. girls were GGB or GBG or BGG.
• Multiply probabilities along branches
to get the probability at the end. This Summary
is because you want the probability
Action Where? Key word
22
of, say, three girls, which requires the
first and the second and the third to Multiply Sideways along branches ‘and’
be girls. Add Vertically at ends of branches ‘or’
• Add probabilities when combining
different outcomes which are
contributing to the desired result. On
a probability tree, do this when you
have several probabilities at the ends
of the branches.

Example Draw the probability tree for when First roll Second roll
a fair six-sided die is rolled twice, and the 1
1 Multiple of 3
required event is that we get a multiple of 3
9
Multiple
3 on both rolls. 1 of 3 2
= Answer Note that the probability of getting 3 3 Not a multiple of 3
1
a multiple of 3 on a single roll is .
3 2 Multiple of 3
1
This is because two out of the six possible 3 Not a 3
outcomes (i.e. {3, 6}) give a multiple of 3. multiple 2
The probability of getting a multiple of of 3 3 Not a multiple of 3

3 on both rolls is 1 × 1 = 1 . We multiply

3 3 9
because we want a multiple of 3 on the first
roll and the second roll.
 298 Probability 2.6

= Answer a
Returned 0.04
0.1
Example A plant nursery specialising in
Kauri
selling native trees has a ‘money- 0.4 0.9
back’ guarantee on two species: Not returned 0.36
kauri and rimu. 40% of the trees
sold under guarantee are kauri, 0.05
Returned 0.03
0.6
and 60% are rimu. The nursery Rimu
finds that 10% of the kauri trees are 0.95
Not returned 0.57
returned for a refund, but only 5%
of the rimu trees are returned. b Multiply the probabilities
a Draw the probability tree for along the ‘kauri’ branch and
this question. the ‘returned’ branch to get
0.4 × 0.1 = 0.04.
b If a tree is chosen at random,
calculate the probability that it c There are two possible ways in
is a kauri tree and is returned. which a tree could be returned.
It could be kauri and returned,
c Calculate the probability that
or rimu and returned. Add
a tree chosen at random is
the probabilities of these two
returned.
outcomes to get
0.04 + 0.03 = 0.07.

exercise 22.02
22 1 Assume that the probabilities of a family 2 A fair coin is tossed three times. On a single
having a boy or a girl are equally likely. toss it can land either heads up or tails up.
Copy and complete the probability tree a Draw a probability tree to show the eight
below for the different outcomes possible in possible outcomes.
a two-child family. b What is the probability that two out of
the three tosses give heads?
1st 2nd
child child
3 There is a very large number of marbles in
a bag. 1 of the marbles are black, and 3 are
4 4
white. Two marbles are drawn from the bag.
Find the probability that:
a both marbles are white
b there is one of each colour.

4 In a ‘Scratch and Win’ lottery, one ticket

in seven wins a prize (of some amount
between $2 and $10 000).
a Calculate the probability that both the
children are girls.
b Calculate the probability that a family P
has one of each.
P = prize
N = no prize

N
 22 Theoretical probability 299

Copy and complete this probability 6 Three-quarters of the stock of a used-car

tree to show the different outcomes for a dealer consists of New Zealand assembled
purchaser of three tickets. Calculate the vehicles, and one-quarter consists of
probability that a purchaser of three tickets: imported vehicles. 40% of the New Zealand
a does not win any prize (i.e. none of the assembled vehicles are over five years old,
three tickets win) and 30% of the imports are over five years
b wins a prize (one or two or all three old.
tickets win a prize). a Draw a probability tree to show these
5 The probability tree below shows the proportions. The first set of branches
different alternatives when customers should be for New Zealand/imports, and
purchase a single item at Noises Music the second set for their age.
Centre. The shop sells videos, CDs and b Calculate the probability that a car
DVDs. The probabilities that a customer chosen at random from this dealer is:
buys one of these items are: i a New Zealand assembled vehicle
under five years old
Video 0.2 ii over five years old.
CD 0.3
DVD 0.5 7 A large city in New Zealand has many
restaurants, both fully licensed and BYO.
Two customers come into the shop, and each The fully licensed restaurants serve 55% of
makes a single purchase. The first branch the people who eat out, while the remaining
of the tree shows the choice of the first 45% of restaurant patrons go to BYO places.
customer, and the second branch shows the • Fully licensed restaurants find that bills
choice of the second customer. are paid as follows: 15% by EFTPOS, 22
65% by credit card and 20% in cash.
V VV
• For BYO restaurants the percentages are
V 10%, 40% and 50% respectively.
Calculate the
probability that a
randomly chosen
bill at a restaurant
C has been paid by
credit card.

a Copy and complete the diagram to show 8 Telecom has listings for both residential and
the outcomes and probabilities at the end business telephone numbers. 18% of the
of the branches. listings are for business numbers. A survey
b What is the probability that: has established that when numbers are
i the shop sells two DVDs? telephoned at random, the probability that
ii the shop does not sell a CD? a business number is engaged is 0.07, while
iii both purchases are the same type? the probability that a residential number is
engaged is 0.13. What is the probability that
a number phoned at random is engaged?
 300 Probability 2.6

9 The LTSA has compiled the following 12 A fair six-sided die has three faces painted
statistics on the age of people seeking a red, two faces painted yellow and one face
driving licence for the first time. painted blue.
• 53% of the people tested are male. Of a If the die is tossed twice, calculate the
these, 42% are 15 years old, 37% are 16 probability that both tosses give the same
and the rest are 17 or older. colour.
• For the females, 23% are 15 years old, b If the die is tossed three times, calculate
38% are 16 and the remainder are over the probability that each colour occurs
16. once.
Calculate the probability that when a person
is chosen at random from the files, they are: 13 Noises, a downtown music store, knows
a 15 years old that 85% of their sales are for CDs. Find the
probability that three consecutive sales are
b a female over 15 years old.
for CDs.
10 A supermarket owner estimates that one-
14 A carpet layer installs both woollen and
quarter of the shoppers at her shop purchase
synthetic carpets, in the ratio 3 : 1. All the
toothpaste each time they come. Her
carpets installed need underlay. There are
sales statistics indicate that 45% purchase
three choices of underlay: heavy-duty,
Brand P, 20% purchase Brand Q and 35%
medium and light. The woollen carpets are
purchase Brand R. For each of these brands
laid with underlays in the proportions 50%
the proportion of fluoride toothpaste is
heavy-duty, 40% medium and 10% light. For
35%, 40% and 30% respectively. A shopper
synthetic carpets, the proportions are 30%,
is stopped at random when they leave
50% and 20% respectively. If a carpet laid by
22 the supermarket. What is the probability
this person is chosen at random, what is the
that they have purchased some fluoride
probability that there is medium underlay
toothpaste?
underneath?
11 An airline offers mystery weekends from
15 There is a choice of five airlines for the
Wellington. This table shows the different
Auckland–Honolulu route. The five airlines
destinations available, and the probability
are A, B, C, D and E. These airlines have,
that the traveller goes there.
respectively, five, seven, nine, one and three
flights per week. Records kept for the last
Destination Probability year to evaluate on-time performance show
Auckland 0.4 that the proportions of late arrivals for each
Christchurch 0.5 airline are 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 25%
respectively. What is the probability that a
Dunedin 0.07
randomly chosen flight on this route will be
Queenstown 0.03 late?

A business rewards an employee 16 Halloween occurs every year on 31 October.

with vouchers for two separate mystery A custom followed by many children that
weekends. Calculate the probability that night is a form of blackmail called ‘Trick or
the employee travels to two different Treat’ – when an adult answers the door to
destinations. a child, they have the choice of giving the
child some food or having a prank played
on them.
 22 Theoretical probability 301

20 Greenfingers Nursery sells tomato seedlings

every year. 50% of the tomato seedlings
are sold in October, 40% in November and
10% in December. Not all of the seedlings
flourish. The respective percentage of
seedlings that survive to maturity are 60%,
90% and 80% for the three months. Calculate
the probability that a seedling chosen at
random from Greenfingers Nursery survives
to maturity.

21 The oil pressure in a car engine is monitored

by a warning light. If the pressure drops too
If two-thirds of adults choose to give a low, the light should turn red; otherwise
child a ‘treat’, calculate the probability that the light remains green. However, the light
when a child calls on two different houses, is not always reliable. When the pressure is
the child gets one ‘trick’ and one ‘treat’. too low the light turns red 97% of the time.
When the pressure is satisfactory the light
17 A motorist has to go through three traffic gives a red warning 1% of the time.
lights on her way to work. These are at Given that the engine oil pressure is too
Arawa St, Berhampore Rd and Colombo St. low 3% of the time, find the probability that
The probabilities that she will have to stop at the light is giving an incorrect reading at any
a set of lights are 0.3, 0.7 and 0.6 respectively. one time.
a Calculate the probability that she gets to
work without having to stop at any of the 22 Bulldog Security Ltd specialises in installing 22
lights. remote-controlled alarm systems for
b Calculate the probability that she has to factories. The systems depend on a network
stop at two of the lights. of battery-operated sensors. All of these
must work for the alarm to go off. Each
18 Aroha enjoys playing darts. She knows from sensor is fairly reliable but fails 1% of the
long experience that, for a single throw, the time. If a burglar enters a factory with four
probability of getting a bulls-eye is 0.05 and sensors, find the probability that the alarm
the probability of missing the board is 0.10. goes off.
Calculate the probability that when she
throws two darts at the board, one of the 23 Ali, Benedict and Wiremu decide to have
darts gets the bulls-eye and the other dart an arm-wrestling tournament amongst
misses the board. themselves. Two of them play first, and
the winner of this game plays the third to
19 A test has two multichoice questions. Each decide the overall winner. The probability
question has four alternatives: A, B, C or that Ali beats Benedict is 0.4, the probability
D. If a student guesses for both questions, that Benedict beats Wiremu is 0.7, and the
what is the probability that she gets both probability that Wiremu beats Ali is 0.8. If
questions correct? any two are equally likely to play first, find
who is most likely to be the overall winner
and the probability that this person wins.
 302 Probability 2.6

24 John wants to have the roof of his house John then checks with each painter’s bank
painted. He has the choice of three roof manager, and is told that the probabilities
painters: Paintfast, Quickpaint and that each one will still be in business in one
Rapidpaint. After making extensive year’s time are respectively 0.5, 0.7 and 0.8.
enquiries, he establishes that the John intends to sell his house in two years’
probabilities of the painters doing the time, and it is most important to him that
job satisfactorily are 0.85, 0.75 and 0.6 the roof be in good order.
respectively. Each painter offers to a Which painter should John choose to
return in one year’s time and repair any paint his roof?
unsatisfactory work. The probabilities that b What is the probability that, if this
the repair job will be satisfactory are 0.85, painter is chosen, John is able to sell his
0.95 and 0.9 respectively. house with the roof in good order?

PUZZLE
The white marbles
Equipment
• Two identical empty bags.
• Six white marbles.
• Six black marbles.
• A blindfold.
22
You have been offered the chance to win a prize.
You have to wear a blindfold so that you cannot see
the bags or the marbles inside. You will be given
one of two bags, and asked to draw a marble from
that bag. If the marble is white, you win the prize.
You are allowed to distribute the 12 marbles
between the bags in any way you like, but you must
use all of them.
How should you distribute the marbles to have
the best chance of winning the prize?

Sampling without replacement

All of the situations so far have assumed that the probability of an event stays the same along the
branches. For example, if a die is tossed twice, the probability of a 2 will be the same on the second
branch as it is on the first branch.
1 Two
The die has no memory: a 2 is just as likely on one toss as it
Two 6
is on any other. There is an infinite store of 2s – all of which are 1
just as likely on any toss. 6 Not a two
But as soon as we sample from a finite or fixed number of
outcomes the probabilities change from branch to branch. Two
Not a
two
Not a two
 22 Theoretical probability 303

Example Consider the problem of calculating the probability of getting two hearts from a pack
of 52 cards when two cards are drawn in succession. (Note that in a pack of 52 cards,
there are 13 hearts.)
13
• For the first card, the probability that it is a heart is obviously , i.e. 1 .
52 4
• Once the first card has been dealt there are only 51 cards remaining in the pack.
Twelve of these are hearts, because one of the 13 original hearts has already been
removed. Therefore, the probability that the second card is a heart is 12 .
51
Following the branches through, the probability that
12 Heart
both the cards are hearts is: Heart 51
13 × 12 = 1 × 4 13
52 51 4 17 52 Not a Heart

= 1
17 Heart
This kind of problem is called one of sampling without Not a
Heart
replacement, because the card drawn first is not put back
Not a Heart
into the pack of cards before the second card is chosen. If
it was put back, the probability of getting a heart would
remain fixed at 1 . But because one of the hearts
4
has been removed, it makes it less likely than 1 that the next card will be a heart.
4
Example Two marbles are drawn in succession from a bag that contains three red marbles and
four blue marbles. Calculate the probability that one of each colour marble is drawn.
22
= Answer On the first branches, P(R) = 3 and P(B) = 4 , obviously.
7 7 2 R
For the second branches, note that there are only R 6
six marbles left in the bag, because one of the original 3 4
7 6 B RB
seven has been removed.
2
• The probability that the second marble is red is
6 4
if the first one was red (because two of the 3 R BR
7 6
remaining six marbles are red if one of the original B
3
red marbles has been removed). 6 B
• The probability that the second marble is red is 3
6
if the first one was blue (because the original
three red marbles are still present).
Likewise, the probabilities for the second marble being blue are influenced by the
colour of the first marble.
• If the first is red, four of the remaining six are blue.
• If the first is blue, only three of the remaining six are blue.
The resulting tree is shown.
To have one marble of each colour, we want outcomes RB and BR. The probability is
given by:
3 × 4 + 4 × 3 = 12 + 12 TIPSTER
7 6 7 6 42 42
= 24 In probability situations, drawing two
42 marbles out of a bag together is regarded
= 4 as the same as drawing one after the other.
7
 304 Probability 2.6

exercise 22.03
1 Ten cards are marked with the numbers 1, 3 A pack of playing cards has 52 cards
2, 3, …, 10. Two cards are drawn from the altogether. Half of these are black (clubs
set. The first card is not replaced before the and spades) and half are red (hearts and
second card is drawn. Each card is examined diamonds). Two cards are drawn, in
to see whether it is odd (O) or even (E). succession, from the pack at random. The
a Copy this diagram, and add probabilities first card is not replaced before the second
to the branches to show what happens one is drawn. Draw a probability tree with
when the two cards are examined. two branches, and use it to calculate the
probability that the two cards are both red.
O OO
O 4 Another pack of playing cards also has
E OE 52 cards altogether – 13 each of clubs,
spades, hearts and diamonds. The pack is
shuffled and two cards are dealt from it.
O EO Draw a probability tree with four branches
E each leading to four more branches, and
E EE use it to find the probability that both of the
cards are spades.
b By multiplying along the odd branches,
calculate the probability that both cards 5 In the game of Lotto, there are 40 balls
have odd numbers on them. numbered from 1 to 40 inclusive. These balls
are thoroughly mixed and then randomly
22 2 The All Black team for a recent test match released one by one without being replaced.
against France had six players from the Calculate the probability that the first three
South Island (S) and nine players from the balls released all come from the group of
North Island (N). The selectors met before numbers 4, 11, 17, 18, 31 and 38. (Hint: draw
the game to choose a captain and a vice- a probability tree with three sets of two
captain. branches. The first branch will split into two
a Copy the diagram, and add probabilities – one of the probabilities is 6 and the other
to the branches to show the different 40
is 34 .)
possibilities. Assume that all choices are 40
equally likely. 6 A large bowl of fruit contains five Valencia
9 8 12 oranges and three navel oranges. Two
N NN 15 × 14 = 35 oranges are selected at random from the
N bowl. What is the probability that one of
S each type is chosen?

7 A dishonest retailer occasionally attempts

N
to re-sell defective goods that have already
S been returned to her. One day she adds
S four defective batteries to the 10 good ones
already on display. All of the batteries are
b What is the probability that both the thoroughly mixed up. A customer purchases
captain and the vice-captain were from two batteries from the 14 later on the same
the South Island? day. What is the probability that the two
batteries are both defective?
 22 Theoretical probability 305

8 A tourist to a foreign city has a guidebook 12 Near the end of winter (the best time of
which lists 19 important statues. Nine of the year for planting fruit trees), a nursery
these were erected in the 19th century, specialising in selling citrus trees has only
and 10 in the 20th century. If the tourist three varieties left: five lemon trees, six
visits two statues at random, calculate the grapefruit trees and four mandarin trees.
probability that both of them were erected in If three citrus trees are sold together one
the 19th century. day, and the purchaser has chosen them at
random, calculate the probability that one of
each variety is chosen.
13 In poker, players often aim for a ‘straight’
– five cards with consecutive numbers. A
player has this hand:

They discard the Ace, and are then dealt a

replacement card. Calculate the probability
9 Six letters arrive in the mail one day. Two that they end up with a straight. 22
have been sent Fastpost, and the other four
by ordinary mail. If two of the letters are 14 Eighteen people are waiting in a courtroom
chosen at random, what is the probability to be called to serve on a jury for a murder
that they have both been sent by Fastpost? trial. Only three vacancies remain for
positions on the jury. Five of the 18 are
10 Neptune Place has just 10 houses altogether, women, and 13 are men. Calculate the
seven of which have pre-school children. If probability that a majority of the three
two houses are chosen at random, calculate people chosen are women.
the probability that neither has pre-school
children. 15 Aroha goes to the Close Encounters dating
agency, and requests that they arrange two
11 In the card game of Blackjack, the particular blind-dates for her from the men on their
combination of Ace and any other card files. She is superstitious, and specifies that
worth 10 points (King, Queen, Jack or 10) is she should only be allocated men who have
called a ‘pontoon’. A pack of cards contains an astrological star-sign of Aries, Gemini or
four Aces, 16 ‘court cards’ each worth 10, Libra. Close Encounters have eight Aries,
and 32 remaining ordinary cards. Draw a five Gemini and seven Libra men on their
probability tree with three branches, each files who are judged to be suitable dates for
splitting up into a further three branches, Aroha. Calculate the probability that the two
to show the nine different possibilities blind-dates have the same star sign.
when two cards are dealt at random from a
pack of 52 playing cards. Hence, calculate
the probability of the two cards giving a
‘pontoon’.
 306 Probability 2.6

Venn diagrams
In some situations you cannot multiply probabilities. This is because the events concerned are not
independent.
Example If 20% of New Zealanders have incomes over $70 000 and 30% of New Zealanders
travel overseas each year, we cannot draw the conclusion that 20% × 30% = 6% fit into
both categories.
The probability that a New Zealander has an income over $70 000 and travels
overseas would be higher than 6%, because the high income means the
New Zealander can afford overseas travel. More information would be needed to find
the probability of being in both categories.
This kind of probability is best dealt with by using sets. The group of people who fit into both
categories is represented by the intersection of two sets. Venn diagrams show this clearly.
• The group of all possibilities or people is represented by a large rectangle.
• Smaller groups or sets of people are represented by circles inside the rectangle.
• Overlapping circles show that the smaller groups have items or people in common.
It helps to be familiar with set notation here.

A∪B
The union of two sets is the set containing the
objects or items in one, or the other, or both.
A B
The symbol for union is ∪.
22

The intersection of two sets is the set containing A∩B

the objects or items in both only.
A B
The symbol for intersection is ∩.

The set of items or objects that are in neither set

is represented by the area outside the circles. A B
 22 Theoretical probability 307

General principles
There are some general principles that apply to all probabilities in Venn diagrams.

The total probability is always 1

A′ is the complementary event to A. A′ means
the event “not in A”.

A’ A Example The probability that it rains

tomorrow is 0.4. The probability
that it does not rain tomorrow is 0.6.

P(A) is the probability inside the circle.

P(A′) is the probability outside the circle.
P(A) + P(A′) = 1

Mutually exclusive events have nothing in common

For mutually exclusive events it is not possible to be in both groups at the same time. This is shown
on a Venn diagram by two sets that do not overlap. Such sets are described as disjoint. This means
that their intersection is the empty set { } or Ø.

Example There are 30 sweets in a bag, five 22

A B of which have a red wrapper
and six of which have an orange
wrapper. Calculate the probability
that, when a sweet is chosen at
random from a bag, it has a red or
A∩B=Ø an orange wrapper.
To find the probability of A or B, we add = Answer P(red) = 5
30
P(orange) = 6
30
the individual probabilities of A and B:
5 + 6 = 11
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) P(red or orange) =
30 30 30

Intersecting events overlap in the Venn diagram

The probability of the intersecting part P(A ∩ B)
is not usually just P(A) × P(B). In most situations
A B
it will be supplied as a piece of extra information.
A ∪ B is the entire area inside both circles,
including the intersection.
Example P(A) = 0.4, P(B) = 0.2, P(A ∩ B) = 0.1.
To find the probability of A ∪ B , add
the probabilities of A and B. This counts Calculate P(A ∪ B).
the intersection twice, so subtract the = Answer P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B).
probability of the intersection. = 0.4 + 0.2 – 0.1
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B) = 0.5
 308 Probability 2.6

Example A survey in a developing country has shown that 45% of the homes have refrigerators,
65% have washing machines, and 30% have both. Find the probability that a home
chosen at random has:
a at least one of these appliances
b neither of these appliances.
= Answer Draw a Venn diagram:
W R
W = set of houses with washing machines. 0.35 0.30 0.15
R = set of houses with refrigerators.
W ∩ R = set of houses with both.
Note that the total probability for W is 0.65, so the part of the circle that does not
overlap with R has a probability of only 0.35. Similarly for R.
a P(at least one appliance) = P(W ∪ R)
= 0.35 + 0.15 + 0.30
= 0.80
b P(neither appliance) is given by the region outside both of the circles. This is 0.2,
because the total probability is 1.

exercise 22.04
1 Draw the Venn diagram for these 6 In New Zealand there are two types of
22 probabilities, and use it to evaluate radio station: AM and FM. A market-
P(A ∪ B): P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.5, P(A ∩ B) = 0.2. research survey has established that on
any given day, the probability that a
2 P(C ∪ D) = 0.7, P(C) = 0.3, P(D) = 0.5. person has listened to AM radio is 0.44,
Calculate P(C ∩ D). to FM radio is 0.71 and to both is 0.32.
Calculate the probability that a person
3 P(G) = 0.59, P(G ∪ H) = 0.81, P(G ∩ H) = 0.44. has listened to radio on any given day.
Calculate P(H).
7 The sports supervisor in a large school
4 Given the probabilities P(A) = 2 , P(B) = 1, and knows that the probability of a Year 12
5 4
P(A ∩ B) = 1 , draw a Venn diagram and use it student entering the athletic sports is
10 0.47, the swimming sports is 0.23 and no
to evaluate: sports is 0.51. What is the probability that
a P(A ∪ B) b P(A′) a Year 12 student enters both sports?
c P(B′)
8 The probability that a person has driven
5 A survey is taken of 100 people to find which an automatic car in the last year is 0.82,
airlines they have flown on in the past year. the probability that they have driven a
Thirty-four people have flown on Auckland manual car is 0.09 and the probability
Air, 39 on Wellington Airlines, and 22 on both. that they have driven both types is 0.07.
How many of the 100 people have: Calculate the probability that they:
a flown on these airlines in the last year? a have driven one type of car but not the
b not flown on either airline in the last year? other
b have not driven in the last year.
 22 Theoretical probability 309

9 Some old-age pensioners have kept 13 The Year 12 Dean knows that, of the 300
meticulous records of the post they receive students in Year 12 at her secondary school,
1 the following numbers take commercial
each day and know that on of all days
5 subjects:
they receive no mail, on 1 of all days they
3
receive only Fastpost mail and on 1 of Business studies 86
4
all days they receive only standard mail. Accounting 95
Calculate the probability that they receive Economics 109
both kinds of mail one day. Business studies and Accounting 23
Accounting and Economics 38
10 Campbell makes extensive enquiries Economics and Business studies 47
amongst his friends. He finds out that, if All three 12
he chooses one of them at random, the
probability that they can skateboard is 0.56, a Draw a Venn diagram with three
the probability that they can both skateboard overlapping circles to represent this
and surf is 0.18 and the probability that they information.
can do neither is 0.37. Find the probability b If a student is chosen at random, what is
that they can only do one, and not the other, the probability that they do not take any
of these sports. of these subjects?

14 A pizza restaurant has collected statistics

from meals ordered by customers to help
with its ordering of ingredients. There are
two types of crust available: crispy and
pan. Some of the probabilities for various 22
combinations are as follows.
11 An employment agency checks applicants • Crispy, mushrooms used: 0.19
for jobs with a security firm. It rejects people • Pan, mushrooms used: 0.25
who are too short, too old, or both too short
• Crispy, onions used: 0.17
and too old. Of 50 applicants it rejected, 37
were too short and 19 were too old. • Pan, onions used: 0.11
One of the rejected applicants is chosen at • Crispy, both mushrooms
random. Calculate the probability that this and onions used: 0.12
applicant is both too short and too old. • Pan, both mushrooms
and onions used: 0.08
12 The Foodcity supermarket chain knows • Crispy, neither mushrooms
that in the week before Easter the following nor onions used: 0.33
probabilities apply to purchases when a Draw a Venn diagram and use it to calculate
shopper goes through check-out: the probability that:
• shopper has hot cross buns: 0.39 a a pizza with mushrooms is ordered
• shopper has Easter eggs: 0.46 b a pizza with onions is ordered
• shopper has neither: 0.23. c a pan pizza with neither mushrooms nor
What is the probability that a shopper has: onions is ordered.
a both hot cross buns and Easter eggs?
b hot cross buns but not Easter eggs?
 310 Probability 2.6

Contingency tables
A contingency table or a two-way table represents the probabilities or the frequencies of events
involving two or more variables, which may or may not be independent. The categories of one
variable are listed along the top and the categories of the other variable are listed down the side. A
two-way table gives the same information as a Venn diagram.
Example Here is data from a sample of 400 learner drivers when they sat a drivers’ licence test.

Passed Failed Totals

Under 18 119 97 216
Over 18 154 30 184
Totals 273 127 400

Note that the same data can also be presented as probabilities. Calculate these by
dividing each frequency by the overall total:

Passed Failed Totals

Under 18 0.2975 0.2425 0.54
Over 18 0.385 0.075 0.46
Totals 0.6825 0.3175 1.0000

If a learner driver is chosen at random, what is the probability that:

22 a the driver passed?
b the driver was under 18 and failed?

= Answer a A total of 273 drivers passed out of 400 altogether.

P(driver passed) = 273 = 0.6825.
400
b A total of 97 drivers were under 18 and failed out of 400 altogether.
P(driver was under 18 and failed) = 97 = 0.2425.
400

TIPSTER Sometimes you are given a contingency table with

incomplete information. You can use the properties that
the frequencies or probabilities in rows and columns have
to sum to the totals to fill in the rest of the information.

exercise 22.05
1 This table shows a month’s capsicum Calculate the probability that when a
production from Mr ‘Blue’ Berry’s orchard, capsicum is chosen at random from
just outside Whakatane. Mr Berry’s orchard:
a a red one is selected
Red Green Yellow b one grown outside is selected
Hothouse 110 270 60 c a yellow or green one is selected.
Outside 580 850 130
 22 Theoretical probability 311

2 This two-way table shows the results of a customer-satisfaction survey completed by travellers
on three different airlines.
Air Kiwi Emu Air Ostrich Airways
Excellent 34 6 15
Satisfied 147 34 40
Dissatisfied 63 71 39

a How many surveys were completed?

b What is the probability that the survey was completed by a traveller on Emu Air?
c What is the probability that a traveller in the survey was dissatisfied?

3 Copy and complete these two-way tables.

a
C C′ Totals
D 7
D′ 14 39
Totals 75
b
P(E) P(E′) Totals
P(F) 0.23
P(F′) 0.08
Totals 0.56 22
4 For each table state whether the coloured cells represent P(A ∩ B) or P(A ∪ B).
a
P(B) P(B′) Totals
P(A)
P(A′)
Totals
b
P(B) P(B′) Totals
P(A)
P(A′)
Totals

5 A large hospital has compiled some data on the a A patient has O positive blood
blood groups of 900 patients admitted for surgery. group.
b A patient belongs to a negative
Rh-positive Rh-negative
blood group.
A 314 55
c A patient belongs to B blood
B 69 12
group.
AB 23 4
d A patient does not have AB blood
O 360 63
group.
Use this data to obtain the best estimates for these e A patient has either A positive or
probabilities. Give answers as decimals correct to 2 dp. O positive blood group.
 312 Probability 2.6

Determining conditional probability from a contingency table

Conditional probability is the probability of an event occurring given that another event also occurs.
Extra information is provided, or assumptions are made, that influence the occurrence of the event.
For example, when drawing cards one after the other without replacement from a pack of 52 well-
shuffled playing cards, if you knew the first two cards were red, this information would make it more
likely that the third card would be black. Why?
In a contingency table calculating a conditional probability usually involves limiting the
possibilities to one row or column only.

TIPSTER
A key term that indicates conditional probability is involved is ‘given that’. This indicates
that instead of calculating probability over all possibilities (the entire sample space) the
possibilities are limited to a subset only – usually one row or column of the table.

Example This table gives information about simplified weather forecasts over a 90-day period in
a region of New Zealand.
Forecast
Dry Wet Totals
Dry 49 8 57
Actual
Wet 5 28 33
22 weather
Totals 54 36 90

Calculate the probability that it actually rains, given that it was forecast to rain.
= Answer The key information is that the forecast of rain was given, so we calculate the probability
out of only the 36 days that rain was forecast:
Of those 36 days it rained on 28.
The required probability is 28 = 7 = 0.78 (2 dp).
36 9

exercise 22.06
1 The table below gives the number of entries for the swimming sports and athletics sports at
Blake High School.
Athletic sports
Entered Did not enter Totals
Entered 78 13 91
Swimming
Did not enter 37 119 156
sports
Totals 115 132 247

Calculate these probabilities for a student from the school selected at random. Give each answer
correct to 2 dp.
a P(student entered the swimming sports).
b P(student entered the athletics sports).
c P(student entered the swimming sports given that the student entered the athletic sports).
 22 Theoretical probability 313

d P(student entered the athletics sports given that the student entered the swimming sports).
e P(student did not enter the athletics sports given that the student did not enter the swimming
sports).

2 The New Zealand Road Code was tightened up in

March 2005, with a major change made to the rules
about using indicators at roundabouts. The table
gives results from a survey at about that time for the
behaviour of 420 consecutive cars travelling through a
roundabout from one particular direction.

Direction of travel
Left turn Straight through Right turn Totals
Indicated correctly 19 104 57
Indicated incorrectly 1 136 12
Did not indicate 8 60 23
Totals 28 300 92 420 22
a What is the probability that a driver indicated correctly?
b What is the probability that a driver used the indicators?
c What is the probability that a driver did not indicate, given they were making a left turn?
d What is the probability a driver was driving straight through the roundabout, given that they
did not indicate?

3 This table summarises percentages for type of crime and the known time of occurrence based on
statistics collected by the Department of Justice in the United States.
(Source: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/)

Fact: ‘Nearly everyone commits crime – only the poor are generally punished for it.’

Time of day
Daytime (6 am to 6 pm) Night-time (6 pm to 6 am) Totals
Crimes of violence 11%
Type of
Property crimes 78%
crime
Totals 41% 100%

a Copy the table and complete it by adding the missing percentages.

b Given that a crime of violence is committed, what is the probability it occurs at daytime?
 314 Probability 2.6

4 The two-way table below shows the results from a study of 133 patients. Some were given an
experimental drug and others were given a placebo.
Drug Placebo Totals
Improvement 72 36 108
No improvement 10 15 25
Totals 82 51 133

Calculate these probabilities for a patient selected at random from the study. Give your answer
as a whole-number percentage.
a P(the patient showed improvement).
b P(the patient showed improvement given that they were given the drug).
c P(the patient was given the drug given that they showed improvement).
5 200 applicants for the police force were graded as follows:
(A) Gender: Male or female.
(B) Height: Under 175 cm, between 175 and 185 cm, or over 185 cm.
Of all 200 applicants:
• 30 were female,
• four were female and over 185 cm,
• 44 were male and under 175 cm,
• seven were female and under 175 cm,
• 105 were male and between 175 and 185 cm.
22 Use this information to copy and complete the two-way table below and answer the following
questions.
Male Female Totals
Under 175 cm
Between 175 and 185 cm
Height
Over 185 cm
Totals

a Suppose one applicant is chosen at random. What is the probability that the applicant is:
i male?
ii over 175 cm in height?
iii male and over 175 cm in height?
b What is the probability that an applicant is male, given that the applicant is over 185 cm tall?
c Given that an applicant is female, what is the probability that the applicant is less than
185 cm tall?
6 This table gives information about simplified weather forecasts over a 90-day period in a region
of New Zealand.
Forecast
Dry Wet Totals
Dry 49 8 57
Actual weather Wet 5 28 33
Totals 54 36 90

Calculate the probability that the weather forecast was correct on any given day.
 22 Theoretical probability 315

Expected value
When a process involving probability is repeated a large number of times, the results are fairly
predictable.
Example If a fair coin is tossed 1000 times, we should get close to 500 heads. We would not
be surprised if we only got 480 heads though, because the coin-tossing is a random
process. But if we obtained 800 heads, there would be something wrong!
In theory we should get exactly 500 heads in the above example. This concept is called expected
value. It is a kind of theoretical average, or ideal result, that should occur.
The expected value need not be one of the possible values. For example, the expected number
of girls in a three-child family, assuming that boys and girls are equally likely, is 1.5. Now it is not
possible to have 1.5 girls in a family – but what what we are saying is that half of the total number (in
this case half of three, i.e. 1.5) is the theoretical average.
How do we work out the expected value?

When a process, involving individual outcomes with a fixed probability (p),

is repeated a fixed number of times (n) the expected value is given by:
Expected value = n × p or np

Example A greengrocer knows that the probability of individual avocados from a certain
orchard being delivered in unripe condition is 0.17. In a shipment of 400 avocados,
how many could be expected to be unripe?
= Answer Expected value = n × p = 400 × 0.17 = 68. 22

Expected value from probability tables

If we know all the possible values that a variable can take, as well as their probabilities, we can
calculate the expected value as follows. We make up a table with the values on top and their
probabilities below:
x …
P(x) …

The expected value is the sum of (values × probability for each value).

Example A sheep-farmer knows that the ewes on his property will produce lambs each year as
follows.

Number of lambs 0 1 2 3
Probability 0.12 0.69 0.18 0.01

Calculate the expected number of lambs produced per ewe.

= Answer Multiply each of the possible values for the number of lambs by its probability, and
add up.
Expected value = 0 × 0.12 + 1 × 0.69 + 2 × 0.18 + 3 × 0.01
= 1.08
We interpret this answer by saying that the theoretical average number of lambs
born per ewe is 1.08. If the farmer had a large number of ewes, he could multiply the
number of ewes by 1.08 to estimate the number of lambs produced per year.
 316 Probability 2.6

exercise 22.07
1 A fair coin is tossed 250 times. Calculate 7 There are eight marbles in a bag altogether
the expected number of heads that will – three red ones and five blue ones. Two marbles
be obtained. are drawn from the bag and the number of red
marbles is noted. Calculate the expected number
2 A biased coin, with probability of heads of times there would be no red marbles if this
0.39, is tossed 400 times. What is the process is repeated 50 times.
expected number of heads that will be
obtained? 8 The table below gives the probabilities for each of
the possible numbers that appear when a fair die
3 Noises Record Shop estimates that the is thrown.
probability of a customer buying a CD
as part of a purchase is 0.85. Find the x 1 2 3 4 5 6
expected number of customers out of 1 1 1 1 1 1
P(x) 6 6 6 6 6 6
the next 400 who buy a CD. Is this the
same as the expected number of CDs Calculate the expected value of the number that
purchased? appears when a die is thrown.

4 At an airport bookstall, 40% of the 9 A biased die has probabilities for each of the
customers purchase fiction material numbers on it given by the table below.
to read, 27% purchase non-fiction
and 15% purchase both. Use a Venn x 1 2 3 4 5 6
diagram to calculate the expected P(x) 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1
22
number out of 500 customers who Calculate the expected value of the number that
make no purchase. appears when this biased die is thrown.
5 An avocado orchard aims to send 10 Travel Unlimited, an agency specialising in cheap
all of its produce to market in edible return travel from Auckland to London, knows
condition. However, its quality-control that its clients opt for stopovers as follows.
expert knows that the probability of
avocados reaching market unripe is Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.07, and the probability of avocados stopovers
reaching market in rotten (i.e. over- Probability 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.04
ripe) condition is 0.21. In a shipment
Calculate the expected number of stopovers.
of 800 avocados, how many could
Interpret this result.
be expected to reach market in good
condition? 11 The Yeasty Bakery sells hot bread every Sunday
morning. The company has kept statistics on the
6 A pair of biased coins is tossed
number of loaves of bread sold per customer, with
200 times, and each time the number of
these results:
heads (i.e. 0, 1 or 2) is recorded. For one
coin P(heads) = 0.4 and for the other Number of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
coin P(heads) = 0.7. Draw a probability loaves
tree to obtain the probability that Probability 0.07 0.3 0.25 0.18 0.1 0.06 0.04
exactly one head appears on any single
Find the expected number of loaves sold per
toss. Hence calculate the expected
customer.
number of 1-head results over the
200 tosses.
 22 Theoretical probability 317

12 Alpha Airlines allows each passenger to bring up to two items of hand-baggage on to their
aircraft, provided they meet certain size requirements. The table below shows the relative
frequency of the number of items per passenger.
Number of items 0 1 2
Probability 0.11 0.71 0.18
Calculate the expected number of items of hand-baggage brought on by each passenger.

Continuous probability
How do we calculate the probability that a piece of string A
B
is cut closer to one end (A) than the other (B)?
We do this by considering a fraction that compares two
lengths:
length in which a point is closer to A than to B
= AM = 1 M
total length AB 2
(where M is the midpoint of the piece of string).
This idea is very similar to the definition of probability
for equally likely outcomes, in which we compare:
number of favourable outcomes
.
total number off outcomes
The difference is that for a piece of string we cannot count the number of possible places where the 22
string can be cut (there is an infinite number). However, we can measure the length where the string
could be cut, and compare it with the total length.

LECTURER • Probabilities which can only be calculated

from measurements are called continuous.
• Probabilities that are calculated by
counting outcomes are called discrete.

Example A stop-watch is stopped at random. Calculate the probability that the second-hand is
between 10 and 30 seconds.
= Answer Draw a clock.

10

Compare the fraction of the circle in which the second-hand

could be (between 10 and 30) with the whole circle:
20 seconds = 1
30
60 seconds 3
 318 Probability 2.6

LECTURER
An interesting paradox here is that continuous measurements can never actually be equal to any
particular value. In the example above we want the second-hand to be somewhere between 10 and 30. We
do not need to state whether 10 and 30 themselves are included or excluded, because a time will never
be exactly 10 seconds or 30 seconds.
To be exactly 10 seconds, the time would have to be 10.000 000 000 000 0 … seconds, which is
unmeasurable! All that we can say with certainty is that a time is between two values, rather than equal
to one value.

exercise 22.08
1 A clock is stopped at a randomly chosen 8:05 Who’s the Boss?
time, and the position of the second-hand 8:30 21 Jump Street
noted. What is the probability that the 9:30 Superstars of Wrestling
second-hand has stopped:
Calculate the probability:
a between 15 and 45 seconds?
a that the power cut occurs during the
b before 5 seconds? Network News
c after 37 seconds? b that all of the Lotto results are recorded
d at 30 seconds exactly? c that some of Superstars of Wrestling is
22 2 Renate takes a pair of scissors and cuts a 6 m
recorded.
piece of string (AB) into two pieces. Assume 4 Two elephants are tied up to each other
that she is equally likely to cut a piece of by a rope which has a weak strand in it.
string anywhere along its length. Calculate When they pull against each other, the
the probability that she cuts the string: rope connecting them breaks. What is the
a more than 1 m from A probability that the rope breaks closer to the
b less than 2 m from B middle than to either end?
c closer to A than to B
d exactly half-way. 5 Electricity is carried underneath Cook Strait
between two terminals on the North and
3 Kaitoa decides to record 4 hours of television South Islands by a 40 km cable. A fault
programmes on his video recorder. He sets occurs somewhere at random along the
the recorder to start at 6 pm and to stop at cable. Calculate the probability that the fault
10 pm. The following week when he gets occurs:
home after a holiday, he discovers that not a closer to the North Island terminal than
all of the programmes have been recorded the South Island one
due to a power cut. The video recorder b within 2 km of the middle of the cable
has no back-up battery, so if the power is c within 5 km of either terminal.
switched off no more recording takes place.
Here is the schedule of programmes that he 6 An archer aims an arrow at a circular target,
wanted to record: 1 m in radius. There is an inner circle in
6:00 Network News the centre of the target, with radius 20 cm.
6:30 Wonderful World of Disney Assuming that the arrow is equally likely
7:30 Cosby Show to hit any part of the target, what is the
8:00 Lotto results probability that it hits the inner circle?
 22 Theoretical probability 319

7 A tree is planted exactly in the middle of a 6 m by 6 m square garden. The garden is surrounded
by a wall. One day a mushroom appears in the garden. Calculate the probability that the
mushroom is closer to one of the corners of the wall than it is to the tree.

INVESTIGATION

50c and the polar bears

A zoo has reported incidents with people throwing money into a polar bear enclosure in the
belief it will bring them good luck. Most of the time this causes no
major problems to the bears. There is one exception – the 50c piece,
which is the largest coin currently in circulation in
New Zealand. A coin of this size causes problems when ingested by
a polar bear. A 50c coin measures 30 mm across at its widest point
– that is, the radius is 15 mm.
The zoo has asked you to explain how effective a wire-mesh
fence would be in stopping this problem. There is one available
with square strands spaced 5 cm apart.
There are four possibilities when a coin is thrown at the fence.
5 cm
Result Probability
(A) Coin misses all the strands Coin enters the enclosure
(B) Coin touches one strand 22
(C) Coin touches two strands
(D) Coin touches four strands Coin bounces back off the fence

1 Explain what the result would be most of the

time if the coin touched one or two strands of
the fence when thrown.
2 Explain why it is not possible for the coin to
touch exactly three strands of the fence when
thrown.
Take a piece of A4 paper, and draw a 5 cm square
grid on it.
3 Simulate what happens with throwing coins
at a fence by dropping a 50c coin on the grid
100 times. Use your results to complete the
third column of the table.
4 Estimate the percentage of times that the fence is effective.
5 Draw a square measuring 5 cm by 5 cm. On the square, mark these regions:
• possible positions for the centre of the coin if it misses all strands (A),
• possible positions for the centre of the coin if it touches one strand (B),
• possible positions for the centre of the coin if it touches two strands (C),
• possible positions for the centre of the coin if it touches four strands (D).
6 Use the areas of the regions in the table to calculate the probabilities of (A), (B), (C) and
(D) exactly. Hence, calculate the probability that the fence is effective.
 23
Experimental probability and
simulation methods

Long-run relative frequency

When the underlying probability of an event cannot be found exactly, we can still estimate it by
taking many observations.
Example Consider the following situation:
A radio station (let’s call it 44 FM) is running a promotion. They promise $5000 to
anyone who answers a phone-call from the radio station and says, without prompting,
‘44 FM is my radio station’. The station makes one phone-call every hour to a number
selected at random from the local telephone directory. The problem lies in establishing
the probability that the call will be answered in this way.
23 The only possible approach is to keep records, and to see what value the fraction
number of successful people approaches as more and more calls are made.
total number of calls
Each day 12 calls are made. Here are the statistics kept by the radio station 44 FM as
the promotion continues:
Day 1: 0 people answer ‘44 FM’
Day 2: 1 person answers ‘44 FM’
Day 3: 2 people answer ‘44 FM’
Day 4: 1 person answers ‘44 FM’
Day 5: 0 people answer ‘44 FM’
Day 6: 3 people answer ‘44 FM’
Day 7: 0 people answer ‘44 FM’
Day 8: 1 person answers ‘44 FM’
Day 9: 2 people answer ‘44 FM’
Day 10: 1 person answers ‘44 FM’
Day 11: 1 person answers ‘44 FM’
number of successful people
This is what happens to the fraction after each day:
total number of calls
0 1 3 4 4 7 7 8 10 11 12
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132
1
After 11 days, the fraction is . Of course, this is not the correct probability. If the
11
records were kept for longer this fraction would not remain at this value. But after
11 days it is our best estimate of the probability.
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 321

These fractions can also be expressed as decimals. For example:

Day Relative frequency

1 0.0000
2 0.0417
3 0.0833
4 0.0833
5 0.0667
6 0.0972
7 0.0833
8 0.0833
9 0.0926
10 0.0917
11 0.0909
The longer the process continues, the more this decimal should settle down to a
particular value.
In this example a good estimate of the probability would be 0.09.

In general, using this long-run relative frequency approach,

the probability of an event is given by:
number of times the event occurred
total numbber of observations
23
This spreadsheet extract shows what happens to the long-run relative frequency of ‘heads’ when a
fair coin is tossed. It is obtained by simulating tossing a coin a large number of times and recording
the value of (number of heads) ÷ (number of tosses). One way of using random numbers to simulate
the outcomes heads or tails is to allocate 0.0000 to 0.4999 to tails and give this the value 0, and 0.5000
to 0.9999 to heads and give this
the value 1.
Of course from theoretical
probability we would expect
P(heads) = 1 . The long-run
2
relative frequency approaches
0.5, but at any given point, even
after many simulated tosses,
we cannot expect it to be 0.5
exactly.
 322 Probability 2.6

The following exercise gives ideas for establishing the long-run relative frequency of some events.

exercise 23.01
1 Get a drawing pin, and toss it in the air. It b Repeat part a for a page chosen at
will land either point up or point down. Toss random from a book written in Maori.
the drawing pin 100 times, and keep note of
the fraction of tosses in which the pin-point 6 In the card game Blackjack, the particular
lands up and down, after 10, 20, 30, 40, … combination of Ace and any other card
tosses. worth 10 points (King, Queen, Jack and
10) is called a ‘pontoon’. A pack of cards
2 Watch a game of netball. How successful are contains four Aces, 16 ‘court cards’ each
the goal-shoots? Does the success rate vary worth 10, and 32 remaining ordinary cards.
from team to team, or from grade to grade? Shuffle a pack of cards thoroughly, and
Analyse 50 successive attempts at shooting deal a pair of cards from it. Repeat this
the ball through the hoop. What is the best process 75 times to
estimate of the probability that the shot will estimate the probability
be successful? of getting a ‘pontoon’.
(Note: in Exercise 22.03,
3 The ability to roll one’s tongue is a genetic question 11 you were
trait – some people can do it, and others asked to work out this
cannot. The trait cannot be learned. probability exactly!)
Interview 40 fellow students, and then
estimate the probability that a person chosen 7 In 1988 the colour of car number-plates
23 at random is a tongue-roller. in New Zealand was changed. Instead
of having white symbols on a black
4 What proportion of the general population is background, the plates were changed to
left-handed? Carry out a survey to find the black symbols on white.
best estimate of the probability that a person Choose 300 cars at random, and calculate
chosen at random is left-handed. Define left- the long-run relative frequency for the
handedness carefully before you start. proportion of cars with the new number-
plates. Suggest some problems involved in
5 One of the short stories in The Return of making this estimate.
Sherlock Holmes, by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle,
8 In the gambling game of Lotto, televised
is called ‘The Dancing Men’. In this story a
every Saturday night at 8 pm, 40 balls
code is used to disguise a message.
(numbered from 1 to 40 inclusive) are mixed.
Then six of them are released at random.
After the six winning balls appear, a final
‘bonus’ number is drawn by releasing one
The code is deciphered using the knowledge more ball.
that certain letters in the English language A Lotto gambler needs to choose six
occur more frequently than others. The order numbers before the weekly draw. The
of usage for the most commonly occurring gambler’s chosen six numbers have to
letters is: include at least three of the six balls plus
the bonus ball to win a prize. For example,
E T A O I N S H R D L U
the gambler may choose the numbers 4, 11,
a Choose a page at random from this 17, 18, 31 and 38. The lucky numbers could
textbook, and obtain the relative be 1, 4, 17, 19, 28, 35, and the bonus 29. The
frequencies for each of these letters. gambler would not win a prize because only
Do your results support this assertion? two numbers match the ‘lucky’ ones.
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 323

Use some random number tables

to choose 150 sets of six numbers PUZZLE Baker’s dozen auction
between 1 and 40 inclusive. Then
watch the weekly Lotto draw to A group of 13 people made the winning bids for all the
check how many of your items offered at an auction. They decide to share the
150 sets would win a prize. Use cost equally, with each person in the group paying in a
this result to provide an estimate whole number of dollars. Here is how they bidded:
of the probability of winning a First item $1
prize in Lotto. Second item $3
Third item $6
Fourth item $10
Fifth item $15
… and so on.
What is the minimum possible number of items in the
auction?

Simulation STARTER
Discuss – What is a flight
simulator? Why is it used? What
are some of the advantages of
using a flight simulator instead 23
of flying an aircraft?

A simulation imitates a real

situation, and is supposed to give Advantages of simulating probability experiments
similar results, and so acts as a • Often there is no cost.
predictor of what should actually • Because the simulation can be carried out quickly there
happen. It is a model in which is a saving in time and effort.
repeated experiments are carried • Some processes may be complex, and difficult to
out for the purpose of estimating calculate exact probabilities.
what might occur in real life. In a • It is easy to keep count of the number of trials.
simulation, a computer program • If a spreadsheet is used there is a printed record of what
or spreadsheet formulae can be happens.
constructed to follow assumed
probabilities. Disadvantages of simulating probability experiments
In this section we focus on • It may be difficult to check you are actually using the
simulating different probability right formulae.
situations. We can allocate random
• Some knowledge of spreadsheet formulae is required.
numbers to events so that in the
long run their relative frequency is • Sometimes there is lack of access to a computer.
supposed to be approximately the • Some probabilities take a long time to settle down to the
theoretical probability. exact value, or close to it.
 324 Probability 2.6

The first example is provided to explain the process.

Example Simulating tossing a fair coin

A very simple example of a simulation is where the action of tossing a coin can be
modelled by using random numbers.
First we assume that we can obtain random decimals between 0 and 1.
Random decimals can be obtained from a spreadsheet, a scientific calculator
or special books of statistical tables. Any decimal is equally likely, so the
process matches the randomness of tossing a coin that we require.
We allocate groups of random decimals to each possible outcome.
• Heads: 0.000 000–0.499 999
• Tails: 0.500 000–0.999 999
Here is an example of 10 random
decimals generated by a spreadsheet
and the allocation of the outcomes
‘Heads’ and ‘Tails’.
To repeat the experiment, place the
cursor in any cell, and press the F9 key.
This spreadsheet is called ‘Heads or
Tails.xls’ and is provided on the Theta
Mathematics Workbook
companion CD and on the
23 www.mathematics.co.nz
website.
Formulae:
• in column A each cell has the formula =RAND()
• in column B the formula in cell B3 is =IF(A3<0.5,‘H’,‘T’). This allocates ‘H’ for
random decimals less than 0.5, and ‘T’ otherwise.
Advantages of this particular simulation compared with coin-tossing:
• the simulation saves finding a coin!
• it avoids the impossible task of checking whether the coin being used is fair,
• the ‘coin-tossing’ can be carried out instantly,
• there is no risk that the process is not being carried out correctly, using a wrong
coin-tossing technique,
• it is no more difficult to toss the coin 1000 times than only 10 times,
• the experiment can be repeated over and over.
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 325

Example Estimate the probability that the four members of a family were each born on a
different day of the week by carrying out a simulation.
= Answer We assume that each of the seven days of the week is equally likely – an unlikely
assumption today when induced births are common.
This means each day of the week has a probability of 1 and we can allocate random
7
numbers to the days of the week as follows.

Day of the week Random number

Sunday 1
Monday 2
Tuesday 3
Wednesday 4
Thursday 5
Friday 6
Saturday 7

In a spreadsheet the formula

=RANDBETWEEN(1,7) gives
random numbers between
1 and 7. To simulate a large
number of four-person families
we generate quadruples of
these random numbers a large
number of times and count 23
how many have different days
of the week for all 4. In the
spreadsheet here we simulate
20 families. This is not enough
to give a very accurate estimate.
In column A we place numbers
from 1 onwards to keep track of
the number of trials. In columns
B to E we show the random
number that represents each
person’s day of birth. (Columns
F to I are optional – in here we
can show the resulting day of
the week.)
The next step is to look at the four days of the week for each trial and decide whether
they are all different. You can either do this by looking at the days, or use a formula in
column J that gives 1 if the numbers in columns B to E are all different. This formula
is = IF(B2=C2,0,IF(B2=D2,0,IF(B2=E2,0,IF(C2=D2,0,IF(C2=E2,0,IF(D2=E2,0,1)))))).
This works by testing each pair in turn, and giving 0 if the pair is the same, otherwise
eventually giving 1 – indicating all four days are different. At the bottom of column J
the occurrences of ‘all different’ are added up.
The resulting relative frequency for the simulation is given in cell E25.
 326 Probability 2.6

TIPSTER
To improve the simulation, many more than 20 trials are needed. You can download the spreadsheet
‘Day of the week simulation (1000 trials).xls’ from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD
or from the www.mathematics.co.nz website and run it repeatedly to get a more accurate estimate.
Pressing the F9 key repeats the simulation. The theoretical probability that the members of a four-
person family each have a different day of birth is 120 = 0.35 (2 dp).
343

Investigations in simulating probabilities

exercise 23.02
1 Waiting for heads
John is idly tossing a fair coin and wondering how long it will take for a head to appear.
He decides to simulate coin-tossing on a spreadsheet several times and use it to estimate
the mean number of times the coin has to be tossed until a head appears. Here are the
results from 12 sequences of tosses.
a Why does cell L7 have
a value of 4? In your
23 explanation refer to the
cells in row 6.
b Estimate, from this
simulation, the mean
number of times the coin
has to be tossed until a
head appears.
c What changes could be
made to the spreadsheet
to make the estimate
more accurate?
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 327

2 Fives and sixes

Nga and Piri are playing a game of Monopoly. They use two six-sided dice with faces labelled
1–6. The sum of the numbers on the top faces is used to decide how many spaces each player
moves. This gives a number between 2 and 12. They are wondering how likely it is that the sum
will be 10, 11 or 12. They know that they will need at least one 5 or 6 to get this kind of sum.
We can use a spreadsheet to simulate tossing a pair of six-sided dice. The
=RANDBETWEEN(1,6) formula gives a random counting number between 1 and 6 inclusive.
This extract from a spreadsheet shows what the first few rows could look like.

a Produce your own spreadsheet to simulate tossing two dice a total of 200 times. Use your
results to estimate the probability that the sum is 10, 11 or 12.
b Explain why the probability (that the sum is 10, 11 or 12) is exactly 1 . (Hint: use the following
6
table.)

1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
4 23
5
6

c Calculate the probability that at least one 5 or 6 appears when a pair of dice are tossed.

3 The petrol station and the coloured cards

A petrol station is giving away collectors’ cards with each purchase. These cards come in five
different colours – red, blue, green, yellow and orange. Each colour is equally likely. When a
customer has collected all five colours, they qualify for a free car-wash.
a Explain why more than five purchases will need to be made by most customers.
We can ‘simulate’ this promotion by spinning a wheel marked with the five colours and seeing
how many times it takes before each of the five colours has appeared.
Another way of seeing what happens is to use a spreadsheet. The spreadsheet ‘simulates’ the
promotion by using random decimal numbers between 0 and 1.
 328 Probability 2.6

Random decimal Result

0–0.199 999 999 Red
0.2–0.399 999 999 Blue
0.4–0.599 999 999 Green
0.6–0.799 999 999 Yellow
0.8–0.999 999 999 Orange

How does the spreadsheet work?

• In column A we show the number of purchases so far.
• In column B we use the formula =RAND() to generate random numbers.
• In column C we show what kind of colour the random number has given us. This is done using
an ‘IF’ statement. In cell C2 we use:
=IF(B2<0.2,’red’,IF(B2<0.4,’blue’,IF(B2<0.6,’green’, IF(B2<0.8,’yellow’,’orange’))))
• In columns D–H we keep track of the number of times each colour has appeared. In cell D2
this is done with a ‘COUNTIF’ statement: =COUNTIF($C$2:$C2,’red’)
• Finally, we need a quick way of deciding when to stop. This is when all five colours have
appeared. So, in column I we count the number of different colours. In cell I2 we use a
COUNTIF statement: =COUNTIF(D2:H2,’>0’)
This spreadsheet shows what happens when these formulae are entered and copied downwards
a number of times. In this particular example, it shows a customer had to make 16 purchases
before all five colours had appeared.
23 b Produce this spreadsheet
yourself. Because random
numbers are involved, the
results in your spreadsheet
will be different from here.
c When you are satisfied your
spreadsheet is working
correctly, try ‘recalculating’
the values. You do this by
pressing the F9 key.
d Now recalculate the
spreadsheet at least 50 times.
Write down the number of
purchases needed to get all
five colours each time.
e Explain how you would
estimate the ‘average’
number of purchases needed
to qualify for a free car-wash.
f Investigate to find out the
number of purchases needed
if a sixth colour, equally likely with the others, was added.
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 329

4 Boys and girls

A statistical myth much relied on by maths teachers in probability lessons worldwide
is the assumption that a single human birth is equally likely to result in a boy or a girl.
The true probability is unknown of course, but the observed ratio is more like 51.5%
boys and 48.5% girls. The probabilities are not equal for a number of reasons.
• Selection of gender for societal/family reasons.
• Infanticide in some families so the birth is never reported.
• The process in which gender is determined at conception may not feature two
equally likely outcomes.
• There is some evidence that after wars, for example, there is a small but significant
increase in the proportion of boys born.
Carry out a simulation using at least 1000 trials on a spreadsheet to estimate the
probabilities that:
a there are three boys
b there are three girls
in a four-child family, all of whom are the result of single births. Use the values
P(boy) = 0.515 and P(girl) = 0.485.

5 Three members of a family

Estimate the probability that each of the members of a three-person family was born on
a different day of the week to the others by carrying out a simulation.

6 The gamblers 23
Two players (A and B) have a total of seven fair six-sided dice, each numbered 1–6.
They decide to play a game in which A throws four dice and counts the total, and
B throws three dice and counts the total. Obviously A is more likely than B to get a
higher total, but sometimes B will win. Here is an example in which B wins:
A: 1, 5, 3, 2, giving a total of 11
B: 4, 6, 3, giving a total of 13
a Carry out a simulation to estimate the probability that A gets a higher total than B.
b The rules of the game can be constructed so that A and B are each expected to win
the same amount of money in the long run, making it a ‘fair’ game. If B pays $1 to A
each time A wins, how much should A pay B when B wins to make the game ‘fair’?
 330 Probability 2.6

7 The Chinese Lunar Calendar

Symbol Years
Dragon 1928 1940 1952 1964 1976 1988 2000
Snake 1929 1941 1953 1965 1977 1989 2001
Horse 1930 1942 1954 1966 1978 1990 2002
Goat 1931 1943 1955 1967 1979 1991 2003
Monkey 1932 1944 1956 1968 1980 1992 2004
Cockerel 1933 1945 1957 1969 1981 1993 2005
Dog 1934 1946 1958 1970 1982 1994 2006
Pig 1935 1947 1959 1971 1983 1995 2007
Rat 1936 1948 1960 1972 1984 1996 2008
Ox 1937 1949 1961 1973 1985 1997 2009
Tiger 1938 1950 1962 1974 1986 1998 2010
Rabbit 1939 1951 1963 1975 1987 1999 2011

Carry out a simulation to estimate the probability that in

a group of four people there are two or more people born
in the same Chinese Lunar Year. Include a comment on
any assumptions you make, and how realistic they are.

8 The dartboard
23 A person is throwing darts at a dartboard and is wondering what their mean score will be each
time. We assume that the dart will always land on the dartboard and will not bounce off. Any
distance between the centre and the edge is equally likely. The score depends on two factors:
• the distance from the centre of the board, and
• the sector landed on (1 to 20),
as follows:
Distance from
centre (mm) Score
0 –5 Bull’s eye 50
5 –11 Inner 25
11 –73 Sector number
73 –79 Treble 3 × sector number
79 –122 Sector number
122 –128 Double 2 × sector number
128 –168 Outside 0

a Carry out a simulation to estimate the mean score when a dart lands on a dartboard under
these conditions. (Hints: there are two random numbers associated with each dart – the
distance from the centre, and the sector it lands on. For the score you could use an ‘IF’
formula similar to the one in the example.)
b Explain whether the result of this simulation is close to what you would expect by
considering the layout of the dartboard.
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 331

9 The overbooked car-ferry

A car-ferry operating between Invercargill and Stewart Island has space for 12 cars. Because the
service is so popular, passengers must make bookings for their cars.
Over the years, the percentage of people with cars who fail to arrive has been constant at
about 20%. The operator of the car-ferry therefore accepts 15 bookings for each voyage.
Let’s investigate to find out how often people with cars would have to be turned away. This
involves estimating the proportion of voyages where more than 12 bookings arrive. We can
‘simulate’ the arrival or non-arrival of booked cars by using random numbers. Use a calculator
with a random digit function. 0 and 1 can represent a ‘non-arrival’ and the digits 2–9 can
represent the arrival of a car with a booking.
Copy this table, and complete the second row with a or a to show whether each of the
15 bookings arrived at the car-ferry.
Booking number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Arrived?

a How many cars arrived?

b How many cars did not arrive?
c Was it necessary to turn away any cars with bookings? Explain.
Co-operative activity
d Everyone in the class should repeat this simulation, so that each person has two results.
Collect the results from everyone, and use these to estimate the long-term proportion of
voyages where cars with bookings have to be turned away.
Further investigation 23
e Use a spreadsheet to repeat this simulation 50 times. The formula =RAND() gives a random
decimal between 0 and 1. This can be inserted into an IF statement in the spreadsheet:
=IF(RAND()<0.2,0,1) so that it gives 0 (for non-arrival) 20% of the time, and 1 (for arrival)
80% of the time. This extract from a spreadsheet shows how the first two simulations could
appear.
 332 Probability 2.6

10 The licorice factory and the triangle inequality

A licorice factory produces thin strands of licorice. 2
Any whole number length from 1 to 30 cm is
equally likely.
The triangle inequality states: ‘the two 13
5
smaller sides of a triangle add to more
15
than the longest side’.
a Carry out a simulation to estimate the 17
probability that a triangle can
be formed from any three pieces of 19
licorice chosen at random from the Not possible to
factory’s output. The spreadsheet extract A triangle can be formed form a triangle
shows how you could set
out your results.
b Investigate to find out
whether the restriction
that the longest possible
length is 30 cm makes
any difference to the
result in part a.

23

11 Ten to one it’s Pythagoras

Consider the same licorice factory as in question 10. This time we restrict the output so that the
first two pieces are equally likely to be any whole number length between 1 and 10 inclusive,
and the third piece is any whole number that will make a triangle with the first two. The lengths
can be simulated using these formulae:
• A3 = First length = RANDBETWEEN(1,10)
• B3 = Second length = RANDBETWEEN(1,10)
• Third length = RANDBETWEEN(MAX(A3:B3)-MIN(A3:B3)+1,A3+B3-1)
Note: in any triangle with side Acute Right angled Obtuse
lengths p < q < r the following
properties hold:
a Carry out a simulation to q r
q r
estimate these probabilities. q
r
i The triangle is right-angled.
ii The triangle is acute.
p p p
iii The triangle is obtuse.
2 2
r <p +q 2 2 2
r =p +q 2 r > p2 + q2
2
b Explain why the combination of the
MAX and MIN formulae is needed for the third length.
c Explain why A3+B3-1 is used in the formula for the third length instead of A3+B3.
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 333

12 The cars and the goat (the Monty Hall problem)

Several years ago, in an article in Parade magazine written by Marilyn vos Savant, this question
was posed:

You are a contestant on a game show. The host shows you

three closed doors and tells you that one door is hiding a
car, and the other two doors are each hiding a goat.
After you have chosen one of the doors, the host opens
one of the other two doors, to reveal a goat (as he knew it
would).
‘Now’, he says, ‘would you like to change your choice?’

Decide whether or not you should change your choice.

This problem gets its name from a TV game show called ‘Let’s Make a Deal’, hosted by Monty
Hall. If you have internet access, use a search engine with the key words
‘Monty Hall’ to research this problem. You may be able to find a website that runs
a simulation of the different choices.
The Monty Hall problem is very controversial, because the answer is felt by many people,
including some mathematicians, to be counter-intuitive.

Predator–prey simulations
In nature some populations of animals/plants are related – one is the predator, and the other is the 23
prey. For example, the predator may be the wolf, and the prey may be the rabbit. Other examples
that occur in nature are:
• the lion and the zebra,
• the koala and the eucalyptus tree.
The numbers of the two populations are related, because the predator feeds off the prey and keeps
the numbers in check. However, if the predator is too successful in catching the prey, its numbers will
drop too, because there isn’t enough food. In turn, the fall in predator numbers means it is possible
for the number of prey to increase again, and so on.
In many situations in nature and economics there is a tendency towards equilibrium – for
example if the price of bread is too high, very few people buy it, so the manufacturer has to produce
less and lower the price; and if the
price is too low, people buy a lot
and the manufacturer can raise
the price again. In the same way a
predator–prey model is dynamic, with
a tendency to change but also often to
find an equilibrium level.
The numbers of both populations
in a predator–prey relationship can
be simulated to show what happens.
Use such a simulation with caution,
because the real situation is infinitely
more complex! In real-life the
following factors also apply.
 334 Probability 2.6

• Numbers of both populations may also be affected by climatic and environmental factors, disease,
etc., and the prey may not have an unlimited food supply.
• The predator may not rely solely on the prey for its food supply.
• There may be other threats to the prey than the predator.
• The populations may not be ‘closed’ – migration from another population may be possible.
• The predator may be too successful, kill all the prey, and then die out itself.
In a simple predator–prey simulation we make the following assumptions.
• The prey only die by being killed by the predator.
• The predator only dies of natural causes.
• The system is closed – e.g. a forest or an island.
Visit www.mathematics.co.nz for links to applets that model predator–prey relationships.

STARTER A real-life case study – The Canadian lynx and the snowshoe hare
Usually it is impossible to obtain accurate yearly counts
of animal populations in the wild. However, thanks
to the meticulous record-keeping of the Hudson Bay
Company in Canada from the mid-19th century, and
the assumption that the number of pelts traded would
be proportional to the population of animals, we have a
useful data set that shows a two-species predator–prey
23 relationship. The plot below shows the data.
Thousands of lynx

160
Thousands of hare

Hare
120 Lynx 9
80 6
40 3
0
1845 1865 1885 1905 1925
Year

1 The number of each population oscillates regularly. Describe the

main
feature of the oscillations for each population.
2 Do the increases and decreases in the predator population precede
or lag behind similar changes in the prey population? Suggest an
explanation.

A predator–prey relationship can be modelled by mathematical equations. Here is an example

showing a model for a possible relationship between cats and mice on an island.
Example The population of cats and mice on an island changes each month as follows:
New cat population = 0.8 × no. of cats + 0.0012 × no. of cats × no. of mice
New mouse population = 1.5 × no. of mice – 0.012 × no. of cats × no. of mice
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 335

LECTURER Simple predator–prey equations have several components. The factors 0.8 and
1.5 explain what would happen to each population on its own – the predator
numbers would decrease without food, and the prey would increase without being hunted. The product
term prey × predator explains the interaction between the two species – it is positive for the
predator and negative for the prey because the predator is eating the prey.

Suppose initially (in month 1) there are 38 cats and 180 mice.
We will round numbers to the nearest whole number.
Here are the calculations for month 2:
Number of cats = 0.8 × 38 + 0.0012 × 38 × 180 = 39
Number of mice = 1.5 × 180 – 0.012 × 38 × 180 = 188
The spreadsheet shows the numbers in each population and the relationship between
them as time elapses. Note that the population numbers in columns A and B are
formatted to appear as whole numbers.

23

The entries for the first three rows in the

spreadsheet are as shown below. The formulae
in row 3 can be copied downwards. The graph
is produced by using the Chart Wizard in
ExcelTM and choosing the Line graph option.
 336 Probability 2.6

exercise 23.03
1 Produce, download or open the ‘Predator–prey simulation 1 (Cats and mice).xls’
spreadsheet yourself. (It is on the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD
and on the website www.mathematics.co.nz)
a Describe what happens after 30 months (this is not shown in the graph above).
b The model breaks down when one of the numbers becomes negative. After how many
months does this occur?
c If there were no cats on the island, describe what the model predicts
would happen to the population of mice.
d If there were no mice on the island, describe what the model
predicts would happen to the population of cats.

2 The Mediterranean Sea can be regarded as a closed marine system. To

some extent there is interaction between sharks and another species of fish.

France
Ita
ly
Spain
Asia

23 Mediterranean Sea
Africa
Egypt

The populations of sharks and fish each year (both in thousands) are related to the
populations the previous year. They can be modelled by the following equations:
New shark population = 0.85 × no. of sharks + 0.0012 × no. of sharks × no. of fish
New fish population = 1.45 × no. of fish – 0.0125 × no. of sharks × no. of fish
Initially (year 1) there are 38 000 sharks and 140 000 fish. The numbers are estimated for the
same time each year.
a Calculate the number of sharks and the number of fish in year 2. Note: substitute 38 and
140, not 38 000 and 140 000. Write ‘in thousands’ at the end.
b Produce a spreadsheet, and a related graph, to model the relationship between the two
populations.
c In what year does the number of sharks first exceed the number of fish?
d Which population will die out first, and when is this predicted to happen?
e Replace the first and subsequent occurrences of a negative number with 0, and then
estimate the number of years it takes for the other population to die out.
 23 Experimental probability and simulation methods 337

3 The potential damage from introduced pests to a wild-life sanctuary can be predicted by a
predator–prey model.
In this case the predators are ferrets and the prey are fantails. The model demonstrates the
impact of introducing three ferrets when there are 250 fantails. The equations link the numbers
each month to the numbers the previous month.
New ferret population = 0.4 × no. of ferrets + 0.005 × no. of ferrets × no. of fantails
New fantail population = 1.06 × no. of fantails – 0.2 × no. of ferrets × no. of fantails
a Copy this table and extend it downwards to show the population numbers for each month
until both species have died out.

Month number Number of ferrets Number of fantails

1 3 250
2
3
… … …

b What percentage increase each month is assumed for the fantail population if there are no
ferrets present?
c What does the term ‘0.2 × no. of ferrets × no. of fantails’ represent in the fantail formula, and
why is it subtracted?

4 A marine biologist has proposed a model for the relationship between the number of toheroa
on Ninety-Mile Beach and the number of visits to the beach from off-road vehicles that enter 23
the beach each year. In year 1 there are estimated to be 300 million toheroa and 45 000 visits by
off-road vehicles. The model assumes that the numbers of each are counted at about the same
time each year. The number of visits by vehicles (in thousands) and the total estimated toheroa
population (in millions) each year are given by these equations:
Number of vehicle visits = 1.15 × (vehicle visits in previous year) (1)
Toheroa population = 1.4 × (population in previous year) – 0.006
× (vehicle visits in previous year) × (population in previous year) (2)
or, in simplified form: v = 1.15v and t = 1.4t – 0.006vt, where v is the number of vehicle visits and
t is the number of toheroa.
a What percentage increase each year would be assumed for the toheroa population if there
was an effective ban on vehicle access to the beach?
b What change would be made to equation (1) if the number of vehicle visits was assumed to
increase by 20% each year?
Use a spreadsheet or programmable calculator for the following questions.
c When does the model predict that the toheroa population will die out if there are no
restrictions on vehicle visits?
d If vehicle visits are banned altogether after 10 years, in what year will the toheroa population
recover to its original level?
e An off-road vehicle users club argues that a total ban is unfair and that in a few years the
total number of vehicle visits should be frozen at the level applying at that time. Under what
circumstances would this proposal save the toheroa indefinitely?
 24
The normal distribution

STARTER
Science-fiction writers have come up with several possibilities about how much people in the
workforce in the 22nd century could be paid. Here are some possibilities about how income
could be distributed.
(A) Everyone could get the same salary.
(B) People could be paid according to their age. The government controls fertility so that the
same number of children are born each year.
(C) People could be paid as they are now – a few very poor people and a few very rich people,
24 with most in the ‘middle classes’.
(D) There could be a large ‘underclass’ of poor people, and an equally large number of very rich
people.

(1) (2)
1 Match each of these four graphs with
No. of people

No. of people

one of the above possibilities.

Salary Salary

(3) (4)
No. of people
No. of people

Salary Salary

Your teacher holds up a piece of string. The students in the class have to estimate its length in
centimetres.
2 What shape would you expect the histogram of the guesses to look like? Explain.
 24 The normal distribution 339

exercise 24.01
1 Match these distributions with the most 2 These two graphs show the number of
suitable graph (A–E) from those drawn passengers carried each day by two different
below. airlines, Air Wellington and Canterbury
Airlines.
Canterbury
(A) (B) Airlines

Air Wellington

(C) (D) a Which airline carries the most passengers?

b Which airline has the greatest variation in
the number of passengers carried each day?

3 NZ Rental Cars adds new cars to its fleet every

January and July. After a car is 18 months old,
(E) it is sold. In March they checked the odometer
readings on their cars, with these results:
A

a The heights of children and adults in a B 24

primary school.
C
b The heights of all 16-year-old students
in a school.
c The number of students who gained a
mark less than a given percentage in a Match the graphs A, B and C with cars that are
test. 2, 8 and 14 months old.
d The heights of all 16-year-old female 4 Rex and Palma have three favourite fishing
students in a school. spots. They fish at a different one each time
e The number of times each number from they take their boat out, and keep records of
1 to 40 occurs in Lotto. the number of fish they catch each time. These
f The time it takes for a ferry to cross the graphs show the results.
Waitemata Harbour from Devonport to
Blue Grotto Black Rocks
Auckland City.
Frequency

Frequency

g The winning times for males and

females in all the international
10 000 m races held last year.
0 20 0 20
Number of Number of
fish fish

Red Cliff
Frequency

0
Number of 20
fish
 340 Probability 2.6

a Which fishing spot gives the highest mean number of fish?

b Which fishing spot has the most consistent results?
c Which fishing spot has the least consistent results?

Normally distributed data

Many sets of data collected in nature and other situations fit what is called a normal distribution.
• Most measurements are near the middle.
• There are a few extreme values either below or above the mean which have unusually small or
large measurements.
Normally distributed data is described by giving the mean (the middle value) and the standard
deviation (a measure of the spread, introduced in Chapter 21).
Examples a The length of pine needles is normally distributed, with a mean of 100 mm and
standard deviation of 7 mm.
b The weights of suitcases checked in at an airport are normally distributed, with
mean weight 19 kg and standard deviation 5 kg.
c The lifetime of a light-bulb is normally distributed, with mean 900 hours, and
standard deviation 150 hours.
The graph for each of the above fits a bell-shaped curve, as drawn below.

a b c
24

79 100 121 4 19 34 450 900 1350

Although each curve has a different central point (mean) and different spread
(standard deviation), they share the common shape.

In questions involving normally distributed data, you will usually be given the mean and the
standard deviation (sd).
Any data that is normally distributed fits certain proportions. These results apply regardless
of whether we are considering lengths of leaves, or weights of suitcases, or lifetimes of light-
bulbs, etc.

1 68% of the data lies within 1 standard 2 95% of the data lies within 2 standard
deviation (either side) of the mean. It is deviations (either side) of the mean. It is
likely or probable that the data will be in very likely or very probable that the data
this region. will be in this region.

1 sd 2 sd
68%
95%
 24 The normal distribution 341

3 99% of the data lies within 3 standard 4 The normal curve is symmetrical. The
deviations (either side) of the mean. It is probabilities of all possible events add to
almost certain that the data will be in this 100% or 1. This allows us to subdivide the
region. area below the curve:

3 sd
99% 34% 34%
0.5% 2% 13.5% 13.5% 2% 0.5%

LECTURER The percentages 68%, 95% and 99% for data being within 1, 2 and 3 standard
deviations of the mean only apply if the data is normally distributed.

Example An architect chooses slate for a conservatory floor. Each piece is to measure 300 mm ×
300 mm × 15 mm minimum thickness. Because slate is a natural product, each piece
varies in weight, but the weights are known to be normally distributed with a mean of
945 g and a standard deviation of 10 g.
a What percentage of pieces weigh between 925 g and 965 g?
b What percentage of pieces weigh more than 935 g? 24
c Below what weight will a piece of slate almost certainly be?
d 400 pieces of slate are ordered for the floor. Estimate how many will weigh less
than 925 g.
= Answer First draw a normal curve, with a mean of
945 and a standard deviation of 10.
a 925 g and 965 g are each 2 standard deviations
below and above the mean, respectively.
This corresponds to a 95% probability. 915 925 935 945 955 965 975
b 935 g is 1 standard deviation below the mean:
Mean
TIPSTER
1 sd
34% 50% Notice how the standard deviation
gives the information needed to
935 945 write in the scale on the base of the
normal distribution diagram.
34% (half of 68%) of the weights lie
between the mean and 1 standard
deviation below the mean; 50% of the weights lie above the mean.
Therefore, 84% weigh more than 935 g.

c The wording ‘almost certainly’ corresponds to 3 standard deviations. Weights will

almost certainly be below a value which is 3 standard deviations above the mean:
945 + 3 × 10 = 945 + 30 = 975 g.
 342 Probability 2.6

d 925 g is 2 standard deviations below the mean. 2.5% of the weights will be below
this point:
Mean

2.5%

925 945

Calculate 2.5% of the total of 400 pieces ordered:

2.5% × 400 = 10 pieces.

exercise 24.02
1 Estimate the mean and standard deviation c X is almost certain to be less than what
for each of these normal curves. value?
a b d 84% of the values of X are below what
value?
e 99.5% of the values of X are above what
value?

4 A school-uniform manufacturer supplies

trousers to a local college. It has found
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 from several years’ orders that the waist
24 measurements are normally distributed,
c d with a mean of 79 cm and a standard
deviation of 5 cm.
a What proportion of trousers measure less
than 74 cm around the waist?
12 16 20 24
b What proportion of trousers measure
between 79 and 89 cm around the waist?
30 36
c What proportion of trousers measure
more than 94 cm around the waist?
d Find the values of c and d in
2 X has a normal distribution with a mean of 6
the statement ‘99% of the waist
and a standard deviation of 2 units. Find the
measurements are between c cm and
following percentages.
d cm’.
a The percentage between 4 and 8.
e Find the value of k in the statement ‘A
b The percentage less than 2. waist measurement is very likely to
c The percentage greater than 4. exceed k cm’.
d The percentage between 2 and 12.
e The percentage less than 10. 5 The speeds of cars at a particular point on a
motorway are normally distributed, with a
3 X has a normal distribution with a mean of mean of 95 km/h and a standard deviation
30 and a standard deviation of 5 units. of 10 km/h.
a Between what two values is X likely to a What percentage of cars are travelling
be? between 75 km/h and 115 km/h?
b Above what value is X very likely to be? b Between which two speeds is a car
almost certain to be moving?
 24 The normal distribution 343

c What percentage of cars are travelling

more than 105 km/h?
d Below what speed is a car likely to be
moving?

6 A Rolex Oyster Perpetual is a famous, and

expensive, brand of watch. However, it is
possible to obtain cheap, counterfeit copies
of this watch in several countries. The cheap
watches do not keep very accurate time
– as a rule, they lose several seconds per
week. The time lost per week is normally
distributed, with a mean of 40 seconds and a
standard deviation of 20 seconds.
a What percentage of these watches lose
less than 20 seconds per week? c Between what two measurements will a
b What percentage lose over a minute per baby girl almost certainly weigh?
week? d If there are 300 baby girls born at the
c What percentage of the watches gain hospital in a month, how many could be
rather than lose time? expected to:
d One of these watches probably loses i weigh over 2.0 kg?
more than p seconds per week. Calculate ii weigh between 2.3 and 3.2 kg?
the value of p.
9 Expensive porcelain
e 16% of the watches lose less than figurines made by a 24
q seconds per week. Calculate the value certain manufacturer
of q. have weights that are
f In a consignment of 800 watches, how normally distributed
many could be expected to: with a mean of
i lose more than 20 seconds per week? 375 g and a standard
ii be accurate to within a minute per deviation of 17 g.
week? Sometimes fake
figurines are offered for
7 A secondary school principal maintains that sale at markets. Lindsey
male staff members are not appropriately found a figurine at a
dressed unless they are wearing a tie. He has market that weighed
a collection of 150 ties himself, the lengths of 352 g. She claimed it
which are normally distributed with a mean must be a fake, because it was so light.
of 142 cm and a standard deviation of 2 cm. a Explain whether her claim is correct.
Estimate the number that measure less than b Another figurine weighs 435 g. Explain
140 cm. what conclusion you can draw.
8 The birth weights of baby girls at a hospital 10 A certain variety of carrot is called Taranaki
are normally distributed, with a mean of Strongtop. The length of a carrot is normally
2.6 kg and standard deviation of 0.3 kg. distributed, with a mean of 16.5 cm and a
a Above what measurement is a baby girl standard deviation of 0.7 cm. A carrot is
likely to weigh? chosen at random from a fruit and vegetable
b What percentage of baby girls weigh less shop. It is 18.5 cm long. Comment on
than 3.2 kg? whether this carrot is likely to be a Taranaki
Strongtop.
 344 Probability 2.6

11 The weights of some coffee mugs are 13 The weights of cobblestone pavers chosen to
normally distributed, with a mean of surface a driveway are normally distributed,
250 g and a standard deviation of 8 g. with a mean of 1.56 kg and a standard
A large number of mugs are delivered to a deviation of 10 g.
pottery shop; 588 of the mugs weigh less a The number of cobblestones required to
than 258 g each. Estimate how many mugs pave the driveway is 1260. Estimate the
were delivered to the shop. number that weigh between 1.53 and
1.55 kg.
12 The amount of annual rainfall for the town b Some similar cobblestone pavers were
of Ngapipi is normally distributed, with a delivered for another driveway. Twenty
mean of 917 mm and a standard deviation of them weighed more than 1.58 kg.
of 38 mm. What is the probability that two Estimate the number of cobblestones
consecutive years each have a rainfall: delivered altogether.
a exceeding 917 mm? c If two cobblestones are chosen at
b less than 993 mm? random, calculate the probability that
they both weigh between 1.54 and
1.59 kg.

The standard normal distribution

Each set of data that is normally distributed has a different mean and a different standard deviation.
It is therefore impossible to give probabilities for every situation. Instead, we convert to what is
called the standard normal distribution. This has a normal curve with a mean of 0 and a standard
24 deviation of 1.
Special tables give probabilities between zero and any positive value on a standard normal
curve. These can be used to give probabilities, between any two values, for data that is normally
distributed.

Symbols for mean and standard deviation

An ordinary normal curve (e.g. lengths of leaves, weights of suitcases or lifetimes of light-bulbs) has
a mean of µ and standard deviation of σ.

To convert an ordinary normal measurement (x) to a

standard normal measurement (z) use the equation:
x−µ
z =
σ

The z-value tells us how many standard deviations x is away from the mean. Almost all normally
distributed data is within 3 units of standard deviation of the mean.

The standard normal curve

The scale under the curve is labelled from –3 to 3. Z
• 0 shows the location of the mean.
• –3 represents 3 units of standard deviation below the mean.
• 3 represents 3 units of standard deviation above the mean. –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
 24 The normal distribution 345

Tables for the standard normal distribution

Here is an extract from standard normal probability tables.
AREAS UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE

This table gives the area under the standard normal

curve between 0 and z, shaded in the diagram.

0 z

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

These give, for example, P(0 < Z < 1.2) = 0.3849
(see the graph below).
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.3849
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088
0.6 0.2258 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0 1.2
0.7 0.2580 0.2612 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2996 0.3023 This means that 38.49% of normally distributed
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 data lies between the mean and 1.2 units of
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 standard deviation above the mean.
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944
The standard normal curve is symmetrical. 24
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 The total probability above the
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 mean = 0.5 = the total probability below the
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394
mean.
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 We can use the symmetry properties of the
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 curve when calculating areas underneath.
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678

Examples

a P(–1.2 < Z < 0) = 0.3849 b P(Z > 1.2) = 0.5 – 0.3849 = 0.1151

0.3849 0.3849 0.1151

–1.2 0 1.2 0 1.2

c P(Z < –1.2) = 0.1151 d P(Z < 1.2) = 0.5 + 0.3849 = 0.8849

0.1151 0.5 0.3849

–1.2 0 0 1.2
 346 Probability 2.6

Using the differences columns

The differences columns on the right-hand side of the normal distribution tables (given at the end of
the book) allow us to look up z-values to 4 significant figures.
Example Find P(0 < Z < 1.478).
= Answer z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0754 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141 4 8 12 15 19 22 27 31 35
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517 4 8 11 15 19 22 26 30 34
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879 4 7 11 14 18 22 25 29 32
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 27 31
0.6 0.2258 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2518 0.2549 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
0.7 0.2580 0.2612 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2996 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133 3 6 8 11 14 17 19 22 25
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 18 21
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 15 16
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 14
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13

The two most significant figures (1.4) tell us where to enter the tables on the left. Then,
the column for the third figure (7) gives us the probability 0.4292. The fourth figure (8)
is used to look down the appropriate difference column (headed up 8) until we reach
the 1.47 row. This gives the value 11. We then add 11 to 4292 (4292 + 11 = 4303), giving
24 us P(0 < Z < 1.478) = 0.4303.

Using technology to calculate standard normal probability

Achievement Standard 2.6 implies that appropriate technology can or should be used in
producing simulations and evaluating probabilities. In particular, it is possible to use several
methods other than the old-fashioned pre-technology approach of using four-figure tables to
determine normal probabilities. These include:
• spreadsheets,
• mathematical software packages, and
• scientific calculators.

Spreadsheets
In ExcelTM, standard normal probability calculations are handled as follows. Note that the mean is 0
and the standard deviation is 1, so these values do not need to be entered.

The required probability The formula in ExcelTM Graph

P(Z < k) =NORMSDIST(k)

0 k
 24 The normal distribution 347

Examples

P(Z < 1.78) =NORMSDIST(1.78)

giving a result of 0.962 462

0 1.78

P(Z > –0.8) =1-NORMSDIST(-0.8)

giving a result of 0.788 145

–0.8 0

P(–1 < Z < 2) =NORMSDIST(2)-NORMSDIST(-1)

giving a result of 0.818 595

–1 0 2

24
Mathematical software packages and calculators
Unlike spreadsheets, computer software that performs mathematical calculations varies greatly
– in the syntax (language it uses), how the calculations are actually performed, and in how the
information is inputted. Similarly, different makes of calculator are not consistent in the way values
are entered or in the key sequences needed to perform normal probability calculations.
Example Here is an example, using TI InterActive!TM.
The formula that evaluates P(Z < k) is called NormalCDF.
Four inputs are required: the lower limit, the upper limit, the mean and the standard
deviation. The example shows output for P(Z < 1.4).

NormalCDF(-∞, 1.4, 0, 1)
.919243
TIPSTER
If you have a calculator that can determine
In this example the input was
normal probabilities, make sure you know
-∞, 1.4, 0 and 1 in that order.
how to use it well before assessment time,
Note: the -∞ symbol indicates there
and revise this frequently. Like any branch of
is no lower limit and has a special
maths, it pays to have some idea of what a
command or key in the
sensible answer would be, and it is always a
TI InterActive!TM software.
good idea to draw a normal curve and mark
in the mean, and values 1, 2 and maybe 3
standard deviations above and below the
mean.
 348 Probability 2.6

exercise 24.03
1 Determine the probabilities represented by these diagrams. 2 Use appropriate
a b technology, or the
standard normal
tables, to calculate these
0 1.4 –1.632 0 probabilities.
a P(0 < Z < 2.347)
c d b P(–1.47 < Z < 0)
c P(Z > 0.54)
–1.925 0
0 1.07 d P(Z > –2.121)
e P(Z < 1.398)
e f
f P(Z < –2.744)
g P(0.367 < Z < 1.676)
0 1.721 –0.82 0
h P(–1.13 < Z < –0.07)
g h i P(–2.49 < Z < 1.96)

0 1.128 2.094 –2.3 –0.4 0

24 –1.82 0 0.899

Converting to the standard normal

The key to working with questions asking for probabilities of normally distributed items is to work
with standard normal probabilities.
We use x to represent a value from data that is normally distributed. This is converted to z, which
is the corresponding standard normal value. z represents the number of units of standard deviation x
is away from its mean.
Use the equation:
x−µ
z = ,
σ
where µ is the mean, and σ is the standard deviation.
Example X has a normal distribution with a mean of 26 units and a standard deviation of
5 units. Show how to calculate the probability that X has a value less than 34.

= Answer P(X < 34) = P Z < (

34 − 26
5 )
= P(Z < 1.6) A B
On the standard normal curve, this probability
is represented by all the area to the left of 1.6.
By symmetry, the area of the part labelled A is 0.5, 0 1.6
and the area of the part labelled B is in the standard normal tables.
P(Z < 1.6) = P(Z < 0) + P(0 < Z < 1.6)
= 0.5 + 0.4452
= 0.9452
 24 The normal distribution 349

exercise 24.04
1 Match each diagram with the most likely 3 X has a normal distribution with a mean of
probability from the given list. Note: no 90 and a standard deviation of 20. Calculate
calculations are required – you should be able these probabilities.
to do this by comparing the shaded area in a P(X > 97)
each diagram with a probability. b P(X > 63.4)
a b c P(X < 79)
d P(X < 121.3)

4 X has a normal distribution with a mean of

38 and a standard deviation of 7. Calculate
40 50 40 50
these probabilities.
c d a P(X < 47)
b P(40 < X < 51)
c P(31.6 < X < 37.4)
d P(28.9 < X < 43.5)
30 50 70 40 50 60
5 Baldwins Casualwear manufactures large
e quantities of jeans to sell at their warehouse
outlets to teenagers. Before planning another
run of jeans, they decide to measure a large
number of volunteers to obtain accurate
information on waist measurements for the
24
40 50 60 target customers. They find that the waist
measurements are normally distributed,
List: {0.682 689, 0.841 344, 0.579 259, 0.158 655,
with a mean of 79 cm and a standard
0.9545}
deviation of 4 cm.
What percentage of waist measurements
2 X has a normal distribution with a mean of
are:
40 and a standard deviation of 5. Use the
conversion: a over 85 cm?
x−µ b between 74 and 87 cm?
z =
σ c under 80 cm?
to calculate these probabilities.
a P(X > 43)
b P(X > 38.74)
c P(X < 49)
d P(X < 29.6)
e P(41 < X < 51)
f P(31.6 < X < 37.4)
g P(28.9 < X < 43.5)
 350 Probability 2.6

Using technology to calculate any normal probability

An ExcelTM spreadsheet can handle any normal probability calculation. The syntax, or
way the formula is written, is NORMDIST ( k , µ ,σ , TRUE).
Example X has a normal distribution with a mean of 13.5 and a standard deviation of 4. Use
ExcelTM to calculate P(X < 11).
= Answer

11 13.5

Example X has a normal distribution with a mean of 29 and a standard deviation of 6. Use
ExcelTM to calculate P(22 < X < 37).
= Answer The required probability corresponds to the pink area.

22 29 37 29 37 22 29
P(22 < X < 37) = P(X < 37) – P(X < 22)
24 0.7871 = 0.9088 – 0.1217

To obtain this we calculate the difference of two probabilities.

Calculator and software packages can also determine normal probabilities, given the following
information.
• Lower limit.
• Upper limit.
• Mean.
• Standard deviation.
Example Using TI InterActive!TM, to evaluate P(22 < X < 37) when µ = 29 and σ = 6 . (Note: this
is the same sample as the speadsheet above.)
= Answer Four inputs are required, in this order: the lower limit, the upper limit, the mean and
the standard deviation. The output is shown below.

NormalCDF(22, 37, 29, 6)

.787116
 24 The normal distribution 351

exercise 24.05
1 X has a normal distribution with a mean of 36 and a standard deviation of 8. Use
appropriate technology to calculate these probabilities.
a P(X < 39) b P(X < 27.5)
c P(X > 33) d P(X > 41.74)
e P(39 < X < 51) f P(33.6 < X < 39.2)
g P(28.9 < X < 43.5)

2 X has a normal distribution with a mean of 19 and a standard deviation of 1.73. Match each
probability below with the correct spreadsheet formula from the given list.
a P(X < 21)
b P(X > 21)
(A) =NORMDIST(19,21,1.73,TRUE)
(B) =NORMDIST(21,19,1.73,TRUE)
(C) =1-NORMDIST(21,19,1.73,TRUE)

3 X has a normal distribution with a mean of 19 and a standard deviation of 1.73. Match each
probability below with the correct spreadsheet formula from the given list.
a P(18.9 < X < 23.4)
b P(X < 18.9 or X > 23.4)
(A) =NORMDIST(23.4,19,1.73,TRUE)+NORMDIST(18.9,19,1.73,TRUE) 24
(B) =NORMDIST(18.9,19,1.73,TRUE)+1-NORMDIST(23.4,19,1.73,TRUE)
(C) =NORMDIST(23.4,19,1.73,TRUE)+NORMDIST(21,19,1.73,TRUE)-1
(D) =NORMDIST(18.9,19,1.73,TRUE)-NORMDIST(23.4,19,1.73,TRUE)
(E) =NORMDIST(23.4,19,1.73,TRUE)-NORMDIST(18.9,19,1.73,TRUE)

4 Use appropriate technology to obtain these probabilities.

a P(X < 14.6), mean = 18, standard deviation = 5.2.
b P(X > 19.3), mean = 20.8, standard deviation = 1.25.
c P(78 < X < 102), mean = 107, standard deviation = 17.

5 The total hours of sunshine measured each year in Dullsville are normally distributed, with a
mean of 2050 h and a standard deviation of 35 h. Calculate the probability that the total annual
sunshine hours are:
a under 2000 hours
b over 2040 hours
c between 2000 and 2040 hours.

6 A decorative and tasty vegetable is known in the United States as the ‘bell pepper’. We know it
as the capsicum. A market gardener in Horowhenua supplies large numbers of capsicums to a
national supermarket chain. The weights of the capsicums are normally distributed, with a mean
of 175 g and a standard deviation of 20 g. Find the probability that the weight of a capsicum
chosen at random is:
a between 175 g and 215 g
b under 200 g
 352 Probability 2.6

c between 140 g and 210 g

d between 190 g and 220 g
e over 100 g.

Applications of the normal distribution

Example The lengths of Christmas tree branches from a pine-tree plantation can be assumed to
be normally distributed, with a mean length of 1.8 m and a standard deviation of 0.2
m. What percentage of branches would measure less than 2.07 m?
= Answer First draw a normal curve with µ = 1.8 and σ = 0.2
to get a feeling for the question. X

Calculate P(X < 2.07):

( )
1.8 2.07
P(X < 2.07) = P Z < 2.07 − 1.8 (convert to standard normal)
0.2
= P(Z < 1.35)

0.5 0.4115

0 1.35
24
= 0.5 + 0.4115 (from tables)
= 0.9115 (i.e. 91.15%).
The problems in the next exercise can be done either by using standard normal probability tables or
appropriate technology.

exercise 24.06
1 Every time people use a liquid-soap 2 Egmont Gold and Manchester Table are two
dispenser, the volume of soap produced is varieties of carrot. The lengths of Egmont
normally distributed, with a mean of Gold are normally distributed, with a mean
7 mL and a standard deviation of 1.5 mL. of 18 cm and a standard deviation of
a Calculate the probability that over 9 mL 2.5 cm. The lengths of Manchester Table are
comes out of the dispenser. normally distributed, with a mean of 20 cm
b Calculate the probability that between and a standard deviation of 4 cm. Which
4 mL and 5 mL is dispensed. variety of carrot is more likely to measure
less than 15.75 cm?
 24 The normal distribution 353

3 Some radio stations announce the correct 5 A forestry nursery in the Bay of Plenty
time on the hour, every hour, before a plants Douglas fir seedlings. Those that
news bulletin. A commonly used method survive are measured after five years, and
to indicate time, to the exact second on the it is found that their diameters are normally
hour, is to broadcast six pips, each 1 second distributed, with a mean of 22 cm and a
apart. The last pip denotes the hour exactly. standard deviation of 2 cm.
This service was originally pioneered by the a A tree is measured and found to have a
BBC. diameter of 30 cm. Comment on whether
Many radio stations have lower this tree is a five-year-old Douglas fir.
standards and announce the time verbally. b Two trees are chosen at random.
The times of these announcements are i Calculate the probability that both
normally distributed, with the correct time measure under 20 cm.
being the mean, and a standard deviation of
ii Calculate the probability that one tree
4 seconds.
measures under 20 cm, and the other
Calculate the probability that one of these
measures over 20 cm.
announcements is within 5 seconds of the
correct time.
6 Precision Technology Limited tests the
4 Here are 20 lap times, in seconds, for a hard discs on its personal computers by
Formula Pacific race at Manfeild, near continuously accessing data from them
Feilding in the Manawatu. until failure occurs. When it has enough
data it plans to offer a guarantee for a certain
57.8 61.2 59.0 56.1 59.3
period. It finds that the time to failure is
60.2 59.8 59.4 58.6 56.9
normally distributed, with a mean of
60.3 59.5 58.0 58.4 59.3
58.7 57.1 59.9 58.2 59.0
4000 hours and a standard deviation of 24
900 hours.
a Calculate the mean and standard a What percentage of hard discs fail before
deviation of these lap times. 90 days?
b What percentage of the times are over b Calculate the probability that a hard disc
60.0 seconds? lasts over 6000 hours.
c Now assume that lap times are normally c Two consecutive hard discs were tested.
distributed, with the same mean and Calculate the probability that they both
standard deviation as calculated in part failed before 3500 hours.
a. Calculate the probability that a lap
d If three hard discs were tested, calculate
time is over 60.0 seconds.
the probability that the first failed before
4000 hours, the second before 5000 hours
and the third before 6000 hours.

7 Ace and Brite are two brands of light-bulb.

The lifetime of each brand is normally
distributed. For Ace the mean is 1800 hours
and the standard deviation is 300 hours;
for Brite the mean is 2100 hours and the
standard deviation is 500 hours.
a Calculate the lifetime at which both light-
bulbs are equally likely to have failed.
b What is the probability that a light-bulb
lasts longer than the lifetime in part a?
 354 Probability 2.6

Calculating an expected value

To calculate an expected value in the long run, multiply the total number of trials by the probability.
Example A factory makes glass bottles for filling with lemonade. The weights of the bottles are
normally distributed, with a mean of 150 g and a standard deviation of 4.6 g. If a bottle
weighs more than 160 g, it is too heavy and must be rejected. From a random sample of
5000 bottles, how many may be expected to be rejected?
= Answer First calculate the probability that a single bottle is overweight:

( )
P(X > 160) = P Z > 160 – 150 (convert to standarrd normal)
4.6
= P(Z > 2.174)

X Z

150 160 0 2.174

From tables: P(Z > 2.174) = 0.5 – 0.4852 = 0.0148

Out of 5000 bottles, 1.48% of them could be expected to be overweight –
i.e. approximately 74.

24 exercise 24.07
1 A gardener believes that there is 3 A market gardener in the Bay of Plenty
considerable variation in the amount of grows capsicums. The weights of the
petrol he uses when mowing his lawn, capsicums are normally distributed, with a
due to the length of grass, dampness mean of 175 g and standard deviation of
or otherwise of the grass, and whether 20 g. Estimate the number of capsicums in a
his motor-mower is correctly tuned. consignment of 240 that could be expected
The amount of petrol used is normally to weigh over 185 g.
distributed, with a mean of 1.56 L and a
standard deviation of 85 mL. How many 4 The Celle Ligure Italian restaurant makes
weeks in a year would he use more than their own pasta. They are highly renowned
1.6 L if he mows his lawn every week? for their ‘Fettuccini Sybil’ dish in particular,
which they serve with a tomato and basil
2 A milk-treatment plant sells 1-L cartons sauce. Their fettuccini machine produces
of milk to shops and milk vendors. The strands of fettuccini, the lengths of which are
machine filling the cartons is not very normally distributed, with a mean of 24 cm
accurate and the actual volume dispensed is and a standard deviation of 0.8 cm. Strands
normally distributed, with a mean volume of fettuccini that are outside the limits 23 cm
of 1017 mL and a standard deviation of and 26 cm are regarded as not meeting their
11 mL. culinary standards, and are reprocessed.
A milk vendor buys 2500 cartons of milk How many strands of fettuccini out of
every day from the plant. How many of 1500 will need reprocessing?
these cartons could be expected to be below
the labelled volume of 1 L?
 24 The normal distribution 355

5 One of the duties of a Plunket Nurse is to a How many baby boys out of 400 could be
weigh six-month-old babies. After much expected to weigh under 7.5 kg at this age?
experience she has established that at this b In one month the nurse weighed a large
age the weights of baby boys are normally number of baby boys, and found that
distributed, with a mean of 8.6 kg and a 29 of them weighed between 9 and 10 kg.
standard deviation of 0.8 kg. Estimate the number of baby boys that she
weighed altogether.

6 Quicksmart Technology Limited tests the

circuits on an alarm system by continuously
switching them on and off until failure occurs.
It finds that the time to failure is normally
distributed, with a mean of 4000 hours and a
standard deviation of 900 hours.
a If Quicksmart Technology tests
450 circuits, how many would still be
operating satisfactorily after 5000 hours?
b In another test, Quicksmart Technology
found that 24 circuits failed before
3000 hours. How many circuits were tested?

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION 24
The normal curve and the witch of Agnesi
Maria Agnesi was a well-known Italian mathematician who lived in the 18th century. She is
particularly famous for a graph she produced which looks slightly like a normal curve.
The graph (rather than Maria herself!) is known as the ‘witch of Agnesi’ due to a
mistranslation from Italian. The curve was originally described as Versaria, meaning ‘turning in
all directions’. This was confused with adversaria, meaning a ‘female that is contrary to God’.
The ‘witch of Agnesi’ is very easy to construct. y
• Draw a circle with a radius of a touching
the x-axis at the origin (0, 0). 2a
• Draw the horizontal line y = 2a
(this is parallel to the x-axis).
a
• Then draw any chord (e.g. OA) from the
origin. This cuts the circle at A and the
horizontal line y = 2a at B. O
• Now locate the point P where the vertical (0, 0) x
line through B cuts the horizontal line
through A. B

The locus of all these points P gives the curve. A P

O
(0, 0)
 356 Probability 2.6

• The equation of the curve for the witch of Agnesi is:

3
y = 2a 2 .
a +x
• The equation of the standard normal curve is:
−x2
y = 1 e 2 .
2π
As a spreadsheet formula (when x is the value in cell A3), this can be expressed as:
=1/SQRT(2*PI())*(EXP(-(A3^2)/2))

1 Construct the witch of Agnesi yourself. Show at least four different points on the curve.
2 Write down the equation for the witch of Agnesi when the value of a = 1.
3 Open a spreadsheet. In column A have values for x starting at –3 and going up to 3 in steps of
0.2.
4 In cell B3 enter the formula for the witch of Agnesi equation (in part 2), and copy it
downwards a number of times.
5 In cell C3 enter the formula for the standard normal curve, and copy it downwards a number
of times.
6 Use the graphing tools to produce a graph showing both curves. Print out your result.
The spreadsheet extract shows how the first few
rows should appear.
7 Use the internet to search information
24 on this curve. Use a search engine with the
key words ‘witch’ and ‘Agnesi’.

‘Inverse normal’ problems

Now we look at problems where we know the probability or percentage in advance, and have to find
the cut-off point that gives that probability.
Consider the diagram drawn here:

Area is 0.79

4 6 8 10 12 14
k to find

In general, we know the area under the curve, and want to determine the value on the x-axis that
gives that area. Expressed mathematically the problem is: ‘Determine k so that P(X < k) = 0.79’.
There are two possible approaches, depending on whether standard normal tables are used,
followed by a conversion to a distribution with the given mean and standard deviation; or whether
the value is calculated directly using a calculator, computer or spreadsheet.
 24 The normal distribution 357

Using traditional normal tables to obtain normal ‘inverses’

So far, we have calculated probabilities after converting an x-value to a z-value, and then looking up
an entry in the normal distribution tables.
Instead of using a z-value and looking up the probability in the tables, we search for the
probability in the main body of the tables first and then read off the z-value from the side (and top,
for more accuracy) which gives that probability.
Example Calculate the value of k for which P(0 < Z < k) = 0.3770.
= Answer In this extract from the normal distribution tables, the value 0.3770 is highlighted. By
reading off the side and top, we see this corresponds to a z-value of 1.16.

0 z

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772

0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123

0.6 0.2258 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454
0.7 0.2580 0.2612 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 24
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2996 0.3023 0.3051
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315

1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554

1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279

For more accuracy, the differences columns on the right of the standard normal tables (given at the
back of the book) can be used.
Example Calculate the value of k for which P(0 < Z < k) = 0.12.
= Answer The closest entry in the tables below 0.12 is 0.1179, which corresponds to a z-value
of 0.30. This differs from the given 0.12 by 0.0021. The closest value to 0.0021 in the
differences column on the right is given by the entry of ‘22’ in the column headed ‘6’.
This ‘6’ gives the next figure of accuracy for 0.30.
i.e. k = 0.306.
More generally, a percentage or probability is given and an x-value (for any normal distribution) has
to be calculated. We do this by first calculating the standard normal z-value, and then converting to
the corresponding x-value using:
x − µ.
z =
σ
A more convenient rearrangement is:
x = σ z + µ.
 358 Probability 2.6

Example X has a normal distribution with a mean of 14 and a standard deviation of 5.

P(X < k) = 0.3512. Calculate the value of k.
= Answer First draw a normal curve to get a feeling
X
for the question.
0.3512
Note that k is below the mean, and will
therefore have a negative z-value.
k 14
The probability between k and the mean is
0.5 – 0.3512 = 0.1488.
0.1488 gives a z-value of 0.382 above the mean. 0.1488 0.1488
Therefore, by symmetry, the z-value below the
Z
mean will be –0.382.
Substitute into x = σ z + µ.
–0.382 0 0.382
k = 5 × − 0.382 + 14 = 12.09

exercise 24.08
(Appropriate for using normal tables.)
1–3 Calculate the values of k for the probabilities 4–7 Calculate the values of k for the given
indicated in these diagrams. Each diagram is of probabilities.
the standard normal curve (Z) with a mean of 0.
1 a b 4 a P(0 < Z < k) = 0.3167
Z Z
b P(0 < Z < k) = 0.4506
24 0.377 0.485 c P(0 < Z < k) = 0.1169
0 k 0 k
c 5 a P(k < Z < 0) = 0.0934
Z
0.3172 b P(k < Z < 0) = 0.4661
c P(k < Z < 0) = 0.3557
0 k

2 a b 6 a P(Z < k) = 0.9005

Z Z
0.1492 b P(Z < k) = 0.3722
0.39
c P(Z > k) = 0.1059
0 k 0k
d P(Z > k) = 0.6189
c Z d Z
0.19 0.78 7 a P(–k < Z < k) = 0.9500
b P(–k < Z < k) = 0.4500
k 0 0 k
c P(–k < Z < k) = 0.8172
e Z f Z
0.66 0.98 8 X has a normal distribution with a mean
of 200 and a standard deviation of 40.
k 0 0 k Calculate the values of t for each of the
3 a Z
b Z
given probabilities.
0.95 0.82 a P(X < t) = 0.8246
b P(X > t) = 0.7126
–k 0 k –k 0 k
c P(X > t) = 0.3340
c Z
d P(X < t) = 0.1912
0.318
–k 0 k
 24 The normal distribution 359

Using technology to obtain normal ‘inverses’

We can use ExcelTM to solve problems such as: ‘Determine k so that P(X < k) = 0.79’.
Note: in contrast to the ordinary normal probability problems, in this case the probability is given
and you are required to find the value that corresponds to that probability.
The spreadsheet formula NORMINV returns inverse normal values given three items of
information:
1 probability,
2 mean,
3 standard deviation.
The syntax is =NORMINV(probability,mean,standard deviation).
Example X is normally distributed with a mean of 9 and a standard deviation of 2. Determine k
so that P(X < k) = 0.79.
= Answer The diagram helps interpret the information.
It would seem reasonable that the value of
k would be somewhere between 10 and 11 Area is 0.79
if the diagram is accurate.
Here is the output from ExcelTM, the formula
appears in cell A1 and the result alongside
in cell B1. 4 6 8 10 12 14
k to find

24

Some calculators and mathematical software packages can also make ‘inverse’ normal calculations.
Typically, the input required will be the given probability, the mean and standard deviation. The
formula will take the area represented by the probability and determine the x-value that the area has
as its upper boundary. In TI InterActive!TM the syntax for the command is invNorm(probability, mean,
standard deviation).
Example X is normally distributed with a mean of 212 and a standard deviation of 7. Determine
k so that P(X > k) = 0.325.
= Answer Draw a diagram to help picture the given information.
The area to the right of k is 0.325. Therefore the area
to the left is 1 – 0.325 = 0.675.
The screen dump from TI InterActive!TM gives:
0.325
invNorm(0.675, 212, 7)
212 k
215.176

That is, P(X > 215.176) = 0.325.

 360 Probability 2.6

exercise 24.09
1 Each diagram shows a normal 2 Calculate the value of k in each diagram. In each
curve with a mean of 10 and a case the curve is for a normal distribution with a
standard deviation of 3, and an mean of 35 and a standard deviation of 4.
associated probability. Match each a b
diagram with the correct spreadsheet
formula that would be used to calculate
the value(s) on the horizontal axis from
the list below.
a 0.63

0.24
0.85 35 k k 35

c d

j 10

b 0.72

24 0.12
0.77
k 35 35 k

3 Calculate the value of k in each diagram. In each

10
case the curve is for a normal distribution with a
k
mean of 85 and a standard deviation of 5.5.
c
a

0.8
0.38 b
= =
85 k

0.55
l 10

c k 85
(A) =NORMINV(0.85,10,3)
(B) =NORMINV(0.38,10,3)
(C) =NORMINV(0.77,10,3) 0.42 d
(D) =NORMINV(0.31,10,3)
(E) =NORMINV(0.15,10,3) 85 k
(F) =NORMINV(0.23,10,3) 0.36
(G) =NORMINV(0.89,10,3)
k 85
 24 The normal distribution 361

4 Calculate the value of k1 and k2 in each 5 X has a normal distribution with a mean
diagram. In each case the curve is for a of 155.6 and a standard deviation of 4.82.
normal distribution with a mean of 42 and a Calculate the values of d for each of the
standard deviation of 1.56. given probabilities.
a a P(X < d) = 0.985
b P(X < d) = 0.425
0.68 6 X has a normal distribution with a mean
of 66.6 and a standard deviation of 0.13.
k1 42 k2 Calculate the values of d for each of the
given probabilities.
b
a P(X > d) = 0.819
b P(X > d) = 0.0319
0.95

k1 42 k2

Applications using ‘inverse normal’ probabilities

Example Natalie cycles to her grandmother’s house every day after school. The time for the
journey is normally distributed, with a mean of 25 minutes and a standard deviation
of 4 minutes. There is a 90% probability that she arrives at her grandmother’s house
24
before 4 pm. When does she leave school?
= Answer (Using tables)
First find the time below which 90% of her
journeys take. We want the shaded area 0.90
under the normal curve to be 0.90.
This means the area between 25 and the 25 x
required time is 0.40.
1.281 units of standard deviation gives
a probability of P(0 < Z < z) = 0.40. 0.40
Substituting into x = σ z + µ :
x = 4 × 1.281 + 25 = 30.12 minutes. 25 x
This means 90% of all journeys take under 30.12 minutes.
Thus, Natalie should leave at (4 pm – 30 minutes) = 3:30 pm to have a 90% probability
of arriving at her grandmother’s house by 4 pm.
 362 Probability 2.6

= Answer (Using appropriate technology)

Draw a diagram that shows how the time
for the journey is distributed to help interpret
0.90
the information.
Entering NORMINV(0.9,25,4) into
25 x
ExcelTM gives 30.126 208.
This means 90% of all journeys take under 30.13 minutes.
Thus, Natalie should leave at (4 pm – 30 minutes) = 3:30 pm approximately to have a
90% probability of arriving at her grandmother’s house by 4 pm.

exercise 24.10
1 An Army recruiting officer measures 4 A speed camera is situated in a location where
the lengths of the feet of all new the speeds of vehicles can be modelled by a
recruits before outfitting them with normal distribution with a mean of 103 km/h and
Army-issue boots. He knows that a standard deviation of 4 km/h. The camera is
these foot-lengths are normally calibrated so that it takes photos of the fastest 4% of
distributed, with a mean of 260 mm cars. What speed are these cars exceeding?
and a standard deviation of 15 mm.
12% of the recruits have feet so large 5 One of the athletic disciplines in the decathlon is
that they do not fit any of the boots. throwing the javelin. An athlete is training for the
Find the maximum foot-length (to decathlon. After repeated sessions he has found
24 the nearest millimetre) which the that the length he can throw the javelin is normally
Army-issue boots fit. distributed, with a mean of 75 m and a standard
deviation of 3 m. What is the length he exceeds
2 After selling Lotto tickets for five seven times out of 10?
years, an agent knows that weekly
sales are normally distributed, with 6 A chocolate manufacturer, Theta Ltd, makes candy-
a mean of $3500 and a standard coated chocolate sweets. These sweets, similar to
deviation of $650. What level of large Smarties or Pebbles, are called Theta-Bites. The
weekly sales would the agent exceed weight of a Theta-Bite is normally distributed, with
85% of the time? a mean of 35 g and a standard deviation of
4 g. The quality controller at the Theta factory
3 Applicants for a life-saver’s position rejects 30% of all Theta-Bites because they are too
had to meet a minimum height small. What is the minimum permissible weight for
requirement. In a sample of 350 a Theta-Bite (to the nearest gram)?
applicants, 21 were rejected because
they were under the minimum
height. Analysis of the heights of the
applicants showed that they were
normally distributed, with a mean of
175 cm and a standard deviation of
6 cm. What height were the
applicants required to exceed?
Explain any rounding decision that
you made.
 24 The normal distribution 363

7 The lifetime of Eterna 12-volt car batteries is 11 The Greenfingers Gardening Club runs
normally distributed, with a mean of 1200 a competition every year to reward the
days and a standard deviation of member who has grown the heaviest
250 days. The manufacturer decides to set pumpkin. The entries are normally
a guaranteed minimum lifetime that will distributed, with an unknown mean µ and
involve only 5% of the batteries failing a standard deviation of 0.6 kg. Calculate the
before a certain time. Find this time to the mean if 14% of the entries exceed 5.7 kg.
nearest month.

8 Rangitata College tests the intelligence of all

new entrants at Level 9. Their test results in
marks that are normally distributed, with
a mean of 110 and a standard deviation of
14. The bottom 7% are classified as slow
learners, and the top 11% are placed in an
accelerated class.
a What is the minimum mark needed to
avoid being classified as a ‘slow learner’?
Explain any rounding decision that you
made.
b What is the minimum mark needed to be 12 A traditionally operated vineyard in the
eligible for the accelerated class? Explain Mosel Valley in Germany harvests its grapes
any rounding decision that you made. manually. Each worker is issued with a
wicker basket and returns some time later
9 A racehorse trainer has a very successful with a basketful of grapes. The weight of
24
record of training thoroughbreds to win a load of grapes is normally distributed
Group I and II races. As a result, she is with a mean of 16.6 kg. Three-quarters of
deluged with hopeful owners wanting her the weights are less than 17.9 kg. Calculate
to train their newly purchased yearlings. the standard deviation of the weight of a
She picks and chooses these horses on the basketful of grapes.
basis of the time they take to run 1200 m.
This time is normally distributed, with a 13 An orchardist near Whakatane grows
mean of 1 minute 17 seconds and a standard three varieties of avocado: Hass, Fuerte
deviation of 2.5 seconds. If the trainer only and Hopkins. The weights of each variety
accepts the fastest 10% of horses, what time are normally distributed, with means and
do these horses need to beat to be accepted standard deviations (in grams) given in the
for training? table.
Mean Standard deviation
10 The Lait Blanc milk treatment factory has a
machine which fills 1-L cartons. The amount Hass 325 65
of milk in a carton is normally distributed, Fuerte 400 35
with a mean of 1006 mL and a standard Hopkins 315 80
deviation of 4 mL.
a Which variety is most likely to weigh less
a Calculate the proportion of cartons that
than 350 g?
meet the labelled weight.
b Which variety is least likely to weigh
b 7% of cartons are rejected because
more than 440 g?
they have been over-filled. What is the
maximum weight of milk sold in a carton c If 10% of each variety are rejected as
from the Lait Blanc factory? ‘underweight’, which variety has the
heaviest ‘underweight’ fruit?
 364 Probability 2.6

d If one of each variety of avocado is chosen at random,

calculate the probability that all three weigh more than 400 g.

Simulating values from a normal distribution

Considering a normal distribution with a given mean and standard deviation, what are some typical
values? The properties of the normal distribution tell us that just about all are within 3 standard
deviations of the mean, but how do we obtain values that actually reflect normally distributed data?
We can apply simulation techniques to provide as many
typical values from a normal distribution as required. We
generate random decimals, and change each one into an x-value
for the normal distribution with given mean and standard
deviation. Each random decimal is taken to be the probability
from the extreme lower value of the distribution. For example, the 0.2137
random decimal 0.2137 would yield a value below the mean as
shown in the diagram.
Simulated value generated
We obtain the actual value by doing an ‘inverse normal’ by random decimal
conversion, assuming we know the mean and standard deviation.
The values can be obtained by using a random decimal
generator in a spreadsheet and converting each one using the formula
=NORMINV(probability,mean,standard deviation) where the probability
is a random decimal.

24 Example Simulate a sample of five values from a population that is normally distributed, with a
mean of 29.58 and a standard deviation of 6.227.
= Answer Generate five random decimals and use the NORMINV formula to convert each one,
with 29.58 as the mean and 6.227 as the standard deviation. In the spreadsheet place
the random decimals in column A, and the associated simulated values in column B.
Formulae

Actual results

The five simulated values are the numbers in column B.

 24 The normal distribution 365

A further use of simulated values is to organise them graphically into a histogram. If there are
sufficient values, the underlying normal distribution should be apparent.

Constructing a histogram in a spreadsheet

These instructions are based on the example above (simulating a sample of 100 values from
data that is normally distributed, with a mean of 29.58 and a standard deviation of 6.227).
1 The simulated values or data are assumed to be in column B (let’s say they go from B3 to B102).
Make a suitable choice for the class intervals. For example, there could be 10 of them:
10–15, 15–20, 20–25, 25–30, 30–35, 35–40, 40–45, 45–50, 50–55, 55–60.
The number of internal boundaries that separate each class interval is one fewer than the number
of intervals. In this example, there are nine of them: 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55.
2 In column C, starting at C3 and going downwards to C11, type in appropriate values for the class
interval boundaries. The interval boundaries are 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55.
3 Select a block of adjoining cells in column D. This block should have one more cell than the block
in column C, so in this example select the block D3:D12.
4 In the Formula Bar (with the block in column D still selected) type the formula
=FREQUENCY(B3:B102,C3:C11). Press F2. Then press CTRL-SHIFT-ENTER simultaneously. This
gives an array of 10 numbers in column D; that is, the frequencies for each class interval.
5 Use the Chart Wizard to draw the graph. Use the Column type, with appropriate headers.
6 To change the resulting bar graph into a histogram, double-click one of the bars, and in ‘Options’
change the Gap width to 0, and click on OK.
24

pg365.indd 365 7/9/06 10:18:25 PM

 366 Probability 2.6

exercise 24.11
1 Simulate a sample of eight values d The expected number of bottles that
from a normal distribution with a exceed the 2-L capacity is actually 53,
mean of 244 cm and a standard to the nearest whole number. Write
deviation of 11 cm. down some working to explain how this
number is calculated.
2 The heights of children in a Year 2 class in a e What change could be made to the
primary school can be modelled by a simulation to increase the chances of the
normal answer in part c being closer to 53?
distribution, f What changes could be made to the
with a mean spreadsheet to produce a histogram that
of 118 cm and fits the outline of a normal curve more
a standard closely?
deviation of
4 cm. Simulate 5 An airline charges for excess baggage as
a sample of follows.
10 heights
from this Weight that is 20 kg or under: No charge.
class. $15 for each whole kg exceeding the
maximum 20 kg allowance.

For example:
24 • 20.8 kg: no charge, because it is not one
3 The weights of suitcases handled at an whole kilogram over the allowance,
airport check-in counter are normally
• 27.8 kg: excess charge of 7 × $15 = $105.
distributed, with a mean of 19 kg and a
standard deviation of 1.732 kg. A new The airline has asked you to prepare a
employee is not sure of what to expect and simulation to estimate the total excess-
left school in Year 11, so knows nothing baggage charges collected from a flight
about the normal distribution. Prepare a of 400 people. The simulation should
sample of six typical suitcase weights for the be modelled on the assumption that the
employee. weights of checked-in luggage per person
are normally distributed, with a mean of
4 A quality controller in a soft-drink factory 21 kg and a standard deviation of 3.5 kg.
has asked you to prepare a simulated a What is the estimated total of the charges,
sample for the liquid volume dispensed from your simulation?
into 500 2-L bottles. The volumes can be b If the weight limit per person was
modelled by a normal distribution, with a lowered to 18 kg, estimate the increase in
mean of 1960 mL and a standard deviation income for the airline.
of 32 mL. c If the weight limit per person was raised
a Produce a spreadsheet with to 24 kg, estimate
500 simulated values from this the loss in income
distribution. for the airline.
b Use the graph-drawing tools to produce
a histogram for this data. The histogram
should have eight equal class intervals.
c How many of the simulated values
exceed the 2-L capacity of a bottle?
 NCEA 2.6 Revision exercises 367

NCEA 2.6 Revision exercises

▼

1 A small street has 12 houses. They are numbered 3 In a large hospital, a sample of 1400 patients was
so that even numbers are on one side, and odd taken to find the number who were smokers and
numbers on the other. Houses are separated by the number who were drinkers. This table shows
thick hedges, so each house can only be seen by the results.
the houses on the opposite side of the street.
Smokers Non-smokers
1 3 5 7 9 11
Drinkers 554 631
Non-drinkers 79 136

a Calculate these probabilities for a patient

chosen at random from this group. Give your
answer correct to 2 dp.
i P(patient is a drinker)
ii P(patient is a smoker)
2 4 6 8 10 12
iii P(patient is both a smoker and
a Design and carry out a simulation method a drinker) ACH
(with 30 trials) using a fair coin and one b Given that a patient smokes, calculate the
fair six-sided die to estimate the probability probability that he/she drinks. MRT
that when a pair of houses are chosen c If a patient chosen at random does not
at random each one can be seen from drink, calculate the probability that
the other. ACH he/she smokes. MRT
b Repeat the simulation using a spreadsheet,
with 1000 trials. Note: repeats within 4 200 drivers volunteer to take part in a fuel
pairs are not allowed. EXC consumption survey. Each driver has the same
make and model of car. At the end of the survey,
2 A driving instructor has kept data on how many the fuel consumption figures are collated.
attempts her pupils make before they pass the They are found to be normally distributed,
practical part of their driving test. with a mean of 7.3 L/100 km and a standard
deviation of 0.05 L/100 km.
Number of attempts Male Female a How many drivers have a fuel consumption
1 70 83 figure of more than 7.4 L/100 km? ACH
2 26 35 b What percentage of drivers have fuel
consumption figures which differ by more
3 11 19
than 0.1 L/100 km from the mean? ACH
4 5 2
c Several years later, the manufacturer runs
A pupil is chosen at random from the instructor’s another survey. Assuming that the mean is
files. Find the probability that the pupil: now 7.2 L/100 km, and that the standard
a is female deviation has remained the same, estimate
how many drivers took part if 80 of them
b is successful at the first attempt
have fuel consumption figures of over
c takes more than two attempts to pass the
7.25 L/100 km. MRT
practical test
d Given the mean and standard deviation in
d takes at most three attempts to pass. ACH
part c, the manufacturer wishes to advertise
that 90% of all drivers will obtain a fuel
consumption figure better than
x L/100 km. Find the value of x. EXC
368

2.7 Sequences
Solve straightforward problems involving sequences

Contents
25 Introducing sequences 369 Sum of the first n terms of a geometric
Recursive definition of sequences 370 sequence 393
Sigma notation 372 Applications of geometric sequences 394
Using a spreadsheet to generate sequences 374 The sum to infinity of a geometric sequence 397
Using the Chart Wizard to produce a graph Applications of sums to infinity 399
of the sequence 375
Spreadsheets and recursively defined
28 Growth and decay 401
sequences 376
Compound interest 402
Inflation 403
26 Arithmetic sequences 380 Depreciation 403
Terms of an arithmetic sequence 380 Applications 404
Using simultaneous equations in arithmetic Rearrangements of the growth/decay formula 405
sequence problems 382 1 Calculating P in the compound interest
Sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic formula 406
sequence 383 2 Calculating r in the compound interest
Applications of arithmetic sequences 386 formula 406
3 Calculating n in the compound interest
formula 406
27 Geometric sequences 389
Adding to the original investment 409
Terms of a geometric sequence 389
Spreadsheet applications 410
General term of a geometric sequence 389
Using simultaneous equations in geometric
sequence problems 391 NCEA 2.7 Revision exercises 411
 25
Introducing sequences

The technical stuff

A sequence is defined as a mapping from the natural numbers to the real numbers. What does
this mean?
A mapping is a formula, for example:
6 + 3
n
into which we substitute the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, … } to get another set of numbers,
the sequence.
Example Write down the first six terms of the
LECTURER
sequence given by 6 + 3 .
n
= Answer t1 = 6 + 3 = 9 We use the symbol tn to represent the
1 general term, or nth term, of a sequence. 25
t2 = 6 + 3 = 6 The formula for a sequence, or the terms
2
of a sequence, are enclosed in diamond-
6
t3 = + 3 = 5
3 shaped brackets, i.e. < >.

t4 = 6 + 3 = 4.5
4
6
t5 = + 3 = 4.2
5
6
t6 = + 3 = 4
6
The sequence is < 9, 6, 5, 4.5, 4.2, 4, … >.

exercise 25.01
1 Write down the next three terms in these 2 Write down the first four terms of the
sequences. sequences with these general terms.
1
a 1, 3, 5, 7, … b 4, 2, 1, , …
2 a 3n + 2 b n+2 c n+3
n 2n − 1
c 2, –6, 18, –54, … d 1, 4, 9, 16, … 2
d n +n –
e ( 1) nn f 2n
e 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, … f –15, –11, –7, –3, …
h n −1
2
g 1
g 1, 8, 27, 64, … h 1, 1, 1 , 1 ,… n n+1
4 8 16 32 n ; n> 2
i 3, 7, 15, 27, … i
2−n
 370 Sequences 2.7

3 Write down the first three terms of the 8–13 More problems for lateral thinkers. Find
sequence given by tn = n + 1 . the pattern, and write down the next two letters
n or words.
4 (Multichoice) Which sequence is formed 8 J, F, M, A, M, …
from the formula tn = 3 + 2n2? 9 O, T, T, F, F, S, S, …
(A) 3, 5, 11, 21, … 10 I, V, X, L, C, …
(B) 3, 5, 7, 9, …
11 choice, nature, degree, estate, column, …
(C) 5, 11, 21, 35, …
12 L, H, M, R, T, M, M, M, M, L, S, B, A, S, A, …
(D) 5, 7, 9, 11, …
(E) 5, 20, 45, 80, … 13 H, M, K, R, M, L, P, M, B, …
14 Draw the next diagram for this sequence.
5–7 And now some problems for lateral
thinkers. Write down the next two terms for each
sequence.
5 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, … (Hints for questions 12 and 13 are given on
6 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, … p. 379.)
7 61, 52, 63, 94, 46, 18, …

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Identical triplets
Use a calculator or spreadsheet to investigate these sequences.

25 (A) tn = 2n (B) tn = n2 – n + 2
(C) tn = 5(n2 – n + 2) – 2n + 2 (D) tn = 14 – 23n + 13n2 – 2n3
n(n2 − 3n + 8)
(E) tn = –n3 + 7n2 – 12n + 8 (F) tn =
3
(G) tn = 4n + 4 (H) tn = 1 +
n(n2 + 5)
5−n 6

1 Explain what similarities there are.

2 Is it possible to define a sequence by listing the first three or four terms?

Recursive definition of sequences

Instead of having a formula that gives us each term of a sequence when natural numbers are
substituted, an alternative approach is to have:
• the first term given to us, t1, and
• a formula telling us how to get the next term, i.e. tn + 1, from the term before, tn.
We can get t2 from t1, and then get t3 from t2, and so on. Such a definition is called recursive.
 25 Introducing sequences 371

It is important to understand how the labelling works here. The number in the subscript tells us
which term it is in the sequence:
t1 = 1st term
t2 = 2nd term
t3 = 3rd term, etc.
In general, then, tn is the nth term. The term after the nth term is the (n + 1)th term,
i.e. tn + 1, and the term before the nth term is the (n – 1)th term, i.e. tn – 1.
The sequence is: t1, t2, t3, t4, …, tn – 1, tn, tn + 1, …

Example The first term of a sequence is 3, and the (n + 1)th term is given by tn + 1 = 5tn – 11. Write
down the first four terms of this sequence.
= Answer If n = 1, tn + 1 = 5tn – 11 becomes t2 = 5t1 – 11 = 5 × 3 – 11 = 4
If n = 2, tn + 1 = 5tn – 11 becomes t3 = 5t2 – 11 = 5 × 4 – 11 = 9
If n = 3, tn + 1 = 5tn – 11 becomes t4 = 5t3 – 11 = 5 × 9 – 11 = 34
The sequence is < 3, 4, 9, 34, … >.

TIPSTER
How does this recursive definition work in this case? To obtain
any term, multiply the current term by 5, and subtract 11.

25
exercise 25.02
1 Write down the first four terms of these 3 Calculate the next four terms of these
recursively defined sequences. recursively defined sequences.
a tn + 1 = tn – 2; t1 = 5 a tn + 1 = tn – tn – 1; t1 = 6, t2 = 2
b tn + 1 = 2tn; t1 = –3 b tn + 1 = 3tn + 2tn – 1; t1 = 1, t2 = –3
c tn + 1 = 3tn – 4; t1 = 2 t
c tn + 1 = n ; t1 = 6, t2 = 3
d tn + 1 = 3tn – 2; t1 = –1 tn − 1
e tn + 1 = 1 – tn; t1 = –6 d tn + 2 = tn – tn + 1; t1 = –3, t2 = 4
t
f tn + 1 = n ; t1 = 16
4 4 Write down the fourth term of the sequence
g tn + 1 = (tn)2 – tn; t1 = –2 defined by tn = tn – 1 + n; t1 = 5.

2 Calculate the second, third and fourth terms 5 Write down a recursive formula to identify
of these sequences. each sequence below.
a tn + 1 = 4tn ; t1 = 4 a 1, 3, 5, 7, …
b tn + 1 = 3(tn)2; t1 = 1 b 2, 4, 8, 16, …
c 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, …
 372 Sequences 2.7

Sigma notation
The special symbol Σ
is used to mean ‘the sum of’. This symbol is the Greek capital letter sigma.
The numbers below and above the sigma symbol show the first and last terms to be added. These
numbers are called limits of summation. Sigma notation is written:
upper
limit

∑ term
lower
limit

Example A sequence has t1 = 4, t2 = 7, t3 = 6, t4 = 3, t5 = 10, …

Calculate:
4
a ∑ ti
i=1
5
b ∑ ti
i=3

= Answer a t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 = 4 + 7 + 6 + 3 = 20
b t3 + t4 + t5 = 6 + 3 + 10 = 19
Sometimes the sequence formula (or rule) itself is placed after the sigma symbol. Then each
individual term has to be calculated before adding.
5
Example Evaluate ∑ (4i − 2).
i=1
= Answer Substitute, in turn, each natural number between 1 and 5 into the formula (4i – 2), and
add:
25
2 + 6 + 10 + 14 + 18 = 50
When there is no possible doubt about the variable, it is sometimes omitted when writing down the
limits of summation. Each of the expressions below is equivalent to the others:
i=7 7 7
∑ 5i = ∑ 5i = ∑ 5i TIPSTER
i=1 i=1 1
Note that the common factor of 5 meant that we did
Each one represents the sum:
not have to multiply each number by 5 before adding.
5(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7) = 5 × 28 = 140

exercise 25.03
1 Given the sequence <ti> = 3–15 Evaluate each of these sums.
<1, 4, 7, 10, 13, …>, evaluate: n=4 1
3 5 6 3 ∑ (2n − 3) 6 ∑ (2 x + 6)
a ∑ ti b ∑ ti c ∑ ti n=1 x= −3

1 2 1 n=2 6
2 Write these sums in sigma notation. 4 ∑ n2 7 ∑ (2x + 6)
a t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 + t5 n = −2 x=2

b x8 + x9 + x10 + x11 x=5 5

∑ (x + 4)(x − 3) ∑ nn− 1
2
5 8
x=1 2
 25 Introducing sequences 373
4 4
9 ∑ 1
n
13 ∑ 4 × 2n 16 Given a1 = 2, a2 = 5, a3 = 9, a4 = 14 and a5 = 20,
1 n=2 calculate:
5 5  5 2
∑ ∑
1
∑
2
( a ) 2  ai 
10 ∑ 2n 14 ∑ 3n + 1
−1
a
1
ai b
1
i c 
 1 

−2

∑( )
5 n 8
17 Write these sums in sigma notation.
11 1
2
15 ∑ ( − 1)n a 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11
2 1
1
b 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + 49 + 64
12 ∑ ( − 1)i i 2 c 8 + 12 + 16 + 20 + 24 + 28 + 32
−3 d 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + 16

INVESTIGATION

Painted cubes
This large cube The outside of the large cube has been painted.
(measuring 4 cm When this happens we get four different types
by 4 cm by 4 cm) of small cube:
is made up of 64
small cubes, each
measuring 1 cm
by 1 cm by 1 cm.

Alpha Beta Gamma Delta

Coloured
3 2 1 0
25
faces:

1 How many of the 64 cubes will be Alpha 4 How many Gamma cubes are there?
cubes? 5 Explain where the Delta cubes come from.
2 Whereabouts on the large cube do they 6 How many Delta cubes are there?
come from?
3 How many Beta cubes are there?

As the size of the large cube varies, the number of Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta cubes changes
too.
7 Copy this table and complete it to show the numbers of the different kinds of small cube.

Size of large Number of Number of Number of Number of

cube (n) Alpha cubes Beta cubes Gamma cubes Delta cubes
n=2
n=3 8 12 6 1
n=4
n=5
n=6
 374 Sequences 2.7

8 Explain in your own words why the rule for the number of Beta cubes can be written as
12(n – 2).
9 Investigate to find a rule for the number of Gamma cubes.
10 Investigate to find a rule for the number of Delta cubes.
11 Use the results of this investigation to explain why n3 = 8 + 12(n – 2) + 6(n – 2)2 + (n – 2)3.

Using a spreadsheet to generate sequences

The terms of a sequence can easily be calculated using a spreadsheet.
One way of doing this is to key in counting numbers (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …) in the first column (A), and
then the formula for the terms of the sequence in the second column (B). The formula only needs to
be entered once, in cell B1; it should be expressed in terms of cell A1. The formula in cell B1 can then
be copied downwards, to cells B2, B3, B4, etc. The formula stays the same, but now refers to cell A2,
A3, A4, etc.

TIPSTER 1 Remember a formula must begin with an equals sign.

2 To copy a formula from a particular cell, highlight the cell, right-click the
mouse and choose Copy. Then drag the mouse to highlight the cells you
want to copy to. Finish by pressing Enter or right-click and choose Paste.

Example Show how a spreadsheet can calculate the first six terms of the sequence < 40 – 5n >.
= Answer Type the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 in cells A1–A6.
25 In cell B1 type =40-5*A1.
Copy cell B1 downwards to cells B2–B6.
This places formulae in these cells.
Note: you don’t see the formulae themselves when you
do this, only the results.

This spreadsheet shows the result. The sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 … itself can be

obtained from a formula. This
extract from a spreadsheet shows
how. Type 1 in cell A1, then in cell
A2 type the formula =A1+1.
Copy cell A2 downwards.

The sequence is < 35, 30, 25, 20, 15,

10, … >.
 25 Introducing sequences 375

exercise 25.04
Produce spreadsheets which calculate the first 12 terms of these sequences. Save each spreadsheet
with a name such as ‘Sequence1.xls’ or similar.

1 < 2n – 1 > 4 < n2 > 7 < (–1)n >

2 < 3n + 5 > 5 < n3 + 4 > ( − 1)n
8 n+
60 2n + 1 n
3 6
n n+1

Using the Chart Wizard to produce a graph of the sequence

After the values of a sequence have been calculated in a spreadsheet, they can very easily be
displayed in a graph.
To graph the values (and the natural numbers along the horizontal axis), follow these steps in
Microsoft ExcelTM .
1 Use the mouse to highlight the block of cells containing both the n-values and the sequence of
terms (e.g. A1:B6).
2 Click on the Chart Wizard button on the toolbar.
3 From the Chart type options click on the XY (Scatter) choice.
4 Click on Finish.
5 Then move and size
the graph as required.
25
 376 Sequences 2.7

This extract from a spreadsheet

shows the result for the
sequence < 40 – 5n >. This is
the same example as on the
previous page.

exercise 25.05
Use your spreadsheets saved earlier to produce graphs of each sequence in Exercise 25.04.

Spreadsheets and recursively defined sequences

In a recursively defined sequence we have two pieces of information:
1 the first term – this can be entered in cell A1,
2 the formula that links each term with the previous term – this should be typed in cell A2 and
should be expressed in terms of cell A1.
Example In a game of poker, two gamblers are raising the stakes by doubling the money already
25 there and adding $1 each time. The first stake is $3, so the next stake will be $7, then
$15, and so on.
The sequence of stakes can be recursively written as:
t1 = 3
tn + 1 = 2tn + 1
In a spreadsheet we can produce this sequence by entering:
• the first term (3) in cell A1,
• the recursive formula in cell A2 – in this example the formula is =2*A1+1.
Then copy cell A2 downwards a number of times.
These two spreadsheets
show what you type, and the results.
 25 Introducing sequences 377

exercise 25.06
1–3 Use a spreadsheet to calculate the first 7 A political party has proposed a transaction
20 terms of each of these recursively defined tax. Each time an amount of money changes
sequences. As a check, write down the 16th term hands, the government will take 1%, leaving
of each sequence. 99% for the new owner of the money. The
recursive formula for the new amount of
 tn + 1 = 3tn − 1  tn + 1 = (tn )2 − 4
1  3  money is tn + 1 = 0.99tn.
 t1 = 2  t1 = 3 Suppose a builder starts with $1000.
He pays this to a sub-contractor, who
 t
 tn + 1 = n + 30 pays someone else, and so on. At each
2  2
 t1 = 40 stage the government takes 1%. Produce a
spreadsheet showing what happens to the
4 A recursive sequence is said to be constant money. How many transactions does it take
if successive terms all have the same value. before the value of the money has halved?
Set up a spreadsheet to calculate successive
terms of the sequence that has the recursive 8 This drawing shows cannon-balls stacked
formula tn + 1 = ( tn ) + 2tn .
2 in pyramids with a square base. There is a
sequence that gives the number of cannon-
a Describe what happens to the sequence if
balls on each layer.
t1 = –2.
b One of the constant values for this
sequence is 0. Investigate, by trying
different starting values, to find out the
other one.

5 What starting value should be used to

make a recursive sequence with formula 25
tn + 1 = 2tn – 4 a constant sequence?

6 A space-probe is a Write down a calculation that shows that

launched into Earth- a pyramid with three layers of cannon-
orbit, where it travels balls contains 14 cannon-balls.
at a speed of b Produce a spreadsheet that shows the
40 000 km/h. number of layers, the number of cannon-
It then heads out balls on each layer, and the total number
of the solar system, of cannon-balls altogether. Do this for 20
doubling its speed layers.
every day. This extract from a spreadsheet shows
how the first few rows should appear:
a Produce a spreadsheet showing what
happens to the speed of the space-probe
each day.
b It is impossible for the probe to travel
faster than the speed of light, which is
approximately 1 080 000 000 km/h. Use
the spreadsheet to predict how many c 12 000 cannon-balls are available for
days it will take to reach this speed. stacking in one of these pyramids. How
many layers will the largest possible
pyramid have? How many cannon-balls
will be left over?
 378 Sequences 2.7

9 Another way of stacking round objects (such The numbers of round objects on each
as apples) is to place them in equilateral layer are called the ‘triangular’ numbers:
triangles, one on top of another.

1 3 6 10

a What is the fifth ‘triangular’ number?

b Produce a spreadsheet that shows the
first 50 triangular numbers. Place them
one after the other in a column.

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION The Fibonacci sequence

One of the greatest mathematicians from the He assumes the rabbits do not escape and
Middle Ages was Leonardo of Pisa (the city none die. The answer involves the series of
famous for its Leaning Tower), born about numbers:
ad 1175. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …
Pisa used to be an important trading The sequence this problem produces is known
centre, and Leonardo’s father (Guglielmo as the Fibonacci sequence.
Bonaccio) worked for the government
as a customs officer. Because his father’s
job involved plenty of travel around the
Mediterranean, young Leonardo (son of
25 Bonaccio, which translates to ‘Fibonacci’)
had many dealings with traders in North
Africa. He soon became aware of the
advantages of the Hindu–Arabic system of
arithmetic and numbering (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, …) compared with the Roman
one (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, …) which was still
being used in Italy at that time. Fibonacci
wrote several books on mathematics, but
is most famous for this ‘rabbit’ problem he
posed in Liber Abbaci, meaning ‘The Book of
the Abacus’ (or ‘The Book of Calculating’)
which was published in 1202 and revised in
1228.
1 Explain in words how each term in the
A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place sequence is obtained from the previous
surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many two.
pairs of rabbits can be produced from that pair
2 Write down the recursive formula for the
in a year if it is supposed that every month each
Fibonacci sequence.
pair begets a new pair which from the second
month on becomes productive?
 25 Introducing sequences 379

When the triangular numbers are added e ‘When you multiply any three
together, giving the total number of round consecutive counting numbers together
objects in the pile, we get a sequence called and divide by 6, you get a tetrahedral
the ‘tetrahedral’ numbers. The first three number’.
numbers in this sequence are < 1, 4, 10, … >. Use this comment to write down a
c What is the fourth tetrahedral number? formula for the nth tetrahedral number.
d Add a column to your spreadsheet to
show the first 50 tetrahedral numbers.

Hints for Exercise 25.01

12 Sport
13 Politics

3 Generate the first 100 terms of the 5 Investigate what happens with the
Fibonacci sequence in a spreadsheet sequence of ratios of successive terms
column. The first few rows are shown in from the Fibonacci sequence, that is:
this extract. 1 = 1, 2 = 2, 3 = 1.5, 5 = 1.6! , …
1 1 2 3
Calculate these ratios in column D, then
produce a graph to show what happens to
the value of these ratios as more and more
are taken.
6 Use the internet to research
some other property of the
Fibonacci sequence. Explain the property 25
in your own words.

Extension
7 The Golden Ratio was introduced on
page 56, it is:
1 + 5 = 1.608 approximately.
4 There is a formula that gives each 2
of the Fibonacci numbers: Explain why the ratio of successive pairs
of terms from the Fibonacci sequence
1  1 + 5  n n
1− 5  
  −  2   approaches the value of the Golden Ratio
5  2     (L).
Hint: call three successive terms x, y
Enter this in cell C3 as a and x + y. Then:
spreadsheet formula expressed in y x+y
terms of the value in cell A3, then = = L.
x y
copy it downwards. Express y in terms of L and x, then replace
y in the first two fractions with this
TIPSTER expression. Form a quadratic equation in L
and solve it to calculate the value of L.
For the use =sqrt( ), and take care
with the position of terms in brackets.
 26
Arithmetic sequences

Terms of an arithmetic sequence

In an arithmetic sequence, each term is calculated by
adding or subtracting the same number each time. This
number is called the common difference.
Examples 1, 7, 13, 19, 25, 31, … a sequence with a
common difference of 6
5, 0, –5, –10, –15, … a sequence with a
common difference of –5

We use the letter a to represent the first term of the arithmetic sequence.
We use the letter d to represent the common difference.
26 The formula for the general term (i.e. nth term) of an arithmetic sequence is:
tn = a + (n – 1)d

Example Calculate the 46th term of the Example 110 is one of the terms in the
arithmetic sequence 4, 9, 14, 19, … sequence <14, 18, 22, 26, …>
Which term number is it?
= Answer a = 4, d = 5
t46 = 4 + (46 – 1) × 5 = Answer The sequence is arithmetic
with a = 14, d = 4 and tn = 110.
= 4 + 45 × 5 = 229 The problem is to determine
the value of n.
tn = a + (n – 1)d
110 = 14 + (n – 1) × 4
= 14 + 4n – 4
4n = 100
n = 25
that is, 110 is the 25th term in
the sequence.
 26 Arithmetic sequences 381

exercise 26.01
1 Write down the next two terms in these arithmetic 5 The first term of an arithmetic
sequences. sequence is 8, and the common
a 6, 11, 16, … b 30, 20, 10, … difference is –5. What is the 22nd
c 114, 131, 148, … d 223, 335, 447, … term?
5 3 1
e 8, 8, 8, … f 4.592, 3.205, 1.818, …
6 Write down the next two terms in
these arithmetic sequences.
2 Find the required term in the following sequences.
a p, 3p, 5p, …
a 4, 6, 8, 10, … t50
b 3c – 4b, c – 2b, –c, …
b –5, –2, 1, 4, … t26
– –
c 7, 2, 3, 8, … t40 7 Find the required term in the
d 213, 230, 247, … t48 following sequences.
e –1, 7, 15, 23, … t32 a 16p, 14p, 12p, 10p, … t35
1 1
f 3, 3 2 , 4, 4 2 , … t27 b x, 2x + 2y, 3x + 4y, 4x + 6y, … t15
g 6, 5 3 , 5 1 , 5 1 , … t65
4 2 4 8 Which term number is the given term
h 13.198, 12.591, 11.984, 11.377, … t178 in each of the following sequences?
a The term 103 in the sequence
3 Find a formula for the nth term of these sequences. 1, 3, 5, 7, …
a 1, 3, 5, 7, … b –8, –3, 2, 7, … b The term 291 in the sequence
15, 18, 21, 24, …
c 31 , 34 , 73 , 10
3
,… d 1000, 900, 800, 700, …
c The term 536 in the sequence
4 a Which of these six graphs show terms from an 43, 60, 77, 94, …
arithmetic sequence? d –274 in the sequence
41, 36, 31, 26, … 26
(A) (B)
e 178 34 in the sequence
tn × tn ×
× 1 34 , 2 21 , 3 14 , 4, …
× ×
× ×
× 9 An arithmetic sequence has a first
n n term of 15, and the eighth term is 43.
What are the first four terms of the
(C) (D) sequence?
tn tn ×
×
× × × 10 How many terms of the sequence
× × × <2, 6, 10, 14, 18, …> have a value of
less than 297?
n n
(E) (F) 11 The first two terms of an arithmetic
sequence are a + 2b and 7b. Find the
tn × tn
third term.
×
×× ××××

n n
b Explain how you can tell whether a graph shows an
arithmetic sequence.
 382 Sequences 2.7

PUZZLE
Sequential clock display
Joel has set his digital clock to 24-hour mode. He
notices that the four digits are in arithmetic sequence.
Make a list of all the possible times that the clock
could be showing.

Using simultaneous equations in arithmetic sequence problems

If two terms in an arithmetic sequence are known, as well as their positions in the sequence, then
there is enough information to determine other terms in the sequence. The approach is to set up a
pair of simultaneous equations and solve them to work out a and d first.
Example An arithmetic sequence has t4 = 46 and t7 = 31. Calculate the first term, a, and the
common difference, d, and hence write down the first five terms of the sequence.
= Answer Use the formula for the general term:
tn = a + (n – 1)d
t4 = 46 46 = a + (4 – 1)d 46 = a + 3d
t7 = 31 31 = a + (7 – 1)d 31 = a + 6d
This gives us a pair of simultaneous equations in a and d:
26 a + 3d = 46 (1)
a + 6d = 31 (2)
–3d = 15 (1) – (2)
d = –5
Substitute d = –5 into (1):
a – 15 = 46
a = 61.
The sequence is <61, 56, 51, 46, 41, …>.

exercise 26.02
1 The third term of an arithmetic sequence is 4 What is the common difference of the
16, and the ninth term is 82. Find the first arithmetic sequence with a sixth term of –56
six terms of the sequence. and an 11th term of 11?

2 Calculate the first five terms of an arithmetic 5 Find the third term of the arithmetic
sequence which has a 12th term of 168 and a sequence with t6 = 24 and t15 = 21.
fifth term of 7.
6 The first three terms of an arithmetic
3 Find the first term of an arithmetic sequence sequence are <k, 2k + 5, 2 – k, …>. Calculate
which has a seventh term of 167 and a the value of k.
19th term of 23.
 26 Arithmetic sequences 383

7 Find the first four terms of an arithmetic 9 How many multiples of 5 are there between 293
sequence where the sum of the third and and 928?
fourth terms is –7, and the difference
between the 14th and 19th terms is 15. 10 Show that <log(a), log(ab), log(ab2), log(ab3), …>
is an arithmetic sequence. What is the common
8 How many multiples of 4 are there difference?
between 156 and 196 inclusive?

Sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence

The formula for the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic
sequence is:
Sn = n [ 2 a + (n − 1)d ]
2 TIPSTER
There is another formula that gives the sum which is useful
in some situations. It is: Sometimes the sum of
a number of consecutive
Sn = n ( a + l )
2 terms in a sequence is
where a is the first term and l is the last term. described as a partial sum.

Example Calculate the sum of the first Example A sequence is defined by

20 terms of the sequence T(i) = 3i – 2. Show that the sum of
2, 6, 10, 14, … the first n terms of this sequence is
= Answer a = 2, d = 4, n = 20 given by:
3n2 − n . 26
Substitute into
2
Sn = n [ 2 a + (n − 1)d ]: = Answer First write out some terms to get a
2
feeling for the sequence:
S20 = 20 [ 2 × 2 + (20 − 1) × 4 ] <3i – 2> gives the sequence
2
= 10(4 + 19 × 4) <1, 4, 7, 10, 13, …>.
= 10 × 80 Here a = 1 and d = 3:
= 800 Sn = n [ 2 a + (n – 1)d ]
2
10
n
= [ 2 × 1 + (n – 1) × 3 ]
Example Evaluate ∑ (5n + 2) . 2
1
= Answer The sigma notation here n
= ( 2 + 3n – 3 )
2
represents the sum of the first
10 terms of the sequence that = n (3n – 1)
2
has T(n) = 5n + 2, so when listed 2
by terms is 7, 12, 17, …
3
= n –n
2
a = 7, d = 5, n = 10
S10 = 10 [ 2 × 7 + (10 − 1) × 5 ]
2
= 5(14 + 9 × 5)
= 70 + 225
= 295
 384 Sequences 2.7

exercise 26.03
1 Sum these arithmetic sequences to the 9 The sum of the first 86 terms of an arithmetic
number of terms indicated. sequence is 1290. If the common difference is
a 1, 4, 7, 10, … 15 terms 14, find the first term of the sequence.
b –5, –3, –1, 1, … 28 terms
c 120, 115, 110, 105, … 14 terms 10 An arithmetic sequence has a common
1 2 difference of –5, and the sum of the first
d 3, 3 3 , 3 3 , … 15 terms
26 terms is 468. Calculate the first term of
e 1, 2, 3, 4, … 1000 terms the sequence.
1 1
f 4, 5 2 , 7 , 8 2 , … 18 terms
g 1.414, 1.97, 2.526, 3.082, … 37 terms 11 An arithmetic sequence has third term 5,
and common difference 2. Calculate:
2 An arithmetic sequence is defined a the first term
by the rule T(n) = 4n – 1. b the sum of the first 10 terms.
24
Calculate ∑ T(n) . 12 Calculate the first four terms of an
1 arithmetic sequence, given that the sum of
3 Evaluate the following partial sums. the first six terms is 15, and the sum of the
40 100 first nine terms is 63.
a ∑ (2n + 3) b ∑ (n + 7)
1 1 13 The fifth term of an arithmetic sequence is
30 13, and the sum of the first five terms is 45.
c ∑ (5n − 4) Calculate the first term and the common
2 difference of the sequence.
4 A sequence is defined by Ti = 5i + 1. Find a
formula for the sum of the first n terms of 14 Sum the multiples of 7 between 63 and 511
26 this sequence. inclusive.

5 Find a formula for the sum of the first 15 A special type of number is formed by
n terms of these sequences. arranging digits in order from smallest to
largest so that there are the same number of
a 1, 3, 5, 7, …
digits as the ‘value’ of that digit:
b –8, –3, 2, 7, …
1
c 31 , 34 , 73 , 10 ,…
3 122
d 1000, 900, 800, 700, … 122333
1223334444
6 Sum these arithmetic sequences to the 122333444455555
number of terms indicated.
a How many digits are needed if the last
a 4p, 9p, 14p, 19p, … 61 terms
–
one is 5?
b 8x, 5x, 2x, x, … 16 terms
b How many digits are needed if the last
c 15x – 3y, 20x – y, 25x + y, 30x + 3y, … one is 8?
666 terms
c Write down a rule that gives the number
7 The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic of digits if the last one is n.
sequence with first term 4 and common
16 The sum of the first 20 terms of an arithmetic
difference 6 is 784. Calculate the value of n.
sequence is p, and the sum of the first
8 The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 8, 22 terms is q. Write down expressions for the
and the sum of the first 20 terms is 730. Find common difference, and the sum of the first
the common difference. 18 terms.
 26 Arithmetic sequences 385

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
The parking building
Some architects are designing a large, multi-level
parking building. The fixed cost for designing and
managing the whole project is $1 200 000. The first level
costs $3 500 000 to build, and then the cost of building
each level is $75 000 more than the previous level.

Level Cost
First $3 500 000
Second $3 575 000
Third $3 650 000
… …
The income per month for each level is $45 000.
The owners have to make a decision about how many levels to build to give the maximum
percentage return per month. For example, the percentage return for two levels is calculated
as follows:
Income = 2 × $45 000 = $90 000
Cost of building = $1 200 000 + $3 500 000 + $3 575 000 = $8 275 000
90 000
Percentage return = × 100 = 1.0876%
8 275 000 1

1 Produce a spreadsheet that shows the percentage return for up to 11 levels. This extract 26
shows how the first few rows could appear.

2 How many levels should be built so that the owners get the maximum possible return per
month?
 386 Sequences 2.7

Applications of arithmetic sequences

exercise 26.04
1 Kim buys a car with an odometer reading 6 The table shows prices for the four smallest
of 55 600 km. What would be the reading size running shoes stocked by Best Foot
after 40 days if Kim drives 90 km per day on Forward Ltd.
average?
Item number Shoe size Price for a pair
2 Paving stones are laid in a series of straight
lines to cover a barbecue patio. The first line 1 6 $79.45
has 10 paving stones, and each successive 2 61 $81.95
2
row has one more stone than the previous 3 7 $84.45
row. The area is 66 rows deep. Calculate how
4 71 $86.95
many stones are needed to pave the patio. 2

3 A fence with a sloping The shoe sizes increase by 0.5 at each step
top edge is to be (excuse the pun!) and the prices increase at a
constructed of constant rate.
17 straight fence a How much would you expect a pair of
palings. The first size 11 shoes to sell for?
paling is 1760 mm 1760 b What is the size of a pair of these shoes
mm
in height, and each that sells for $124.45?
successive paling is
14 mm higher than the 7 In a Douglas fir nursery, trees are planted in
one before. Calculate rows – each row containing three less trees
the height of the last paling. than the previous one. If the final row has
26 4 When taking up jogging to keep fit, Bruce
10 trees and the first row has 223, calculate:
a the number of rows
runs 500 m the first morning and adds a
b the total number of trees.
further 50 m each morning he goes out
running. If Bruce runs four mornings a
8 The interest earned on an account in the first
week, calculate:
month is 10c, the second month is 12c, in the
a how far he will run on the final morning third month is 14c, and so on. Calculate the
of the fifth week total interest earned after 191 months.
b how far he will have run in total after
five weeks of training. 9 A bolt falls off an aircraft. It falls 4.7 m in the
first second, 14.3 m in the second second,
5 Billy and Howard are fund-raising by 23.9 m in the third second, and so on. What
participating in a sponsored walk from was the altitude of the aircraft if the bolt
Picton to Bluff – a total distance of 949 km. took 12 seconds to reach the ground?
Billy starts by walking north from Bluff,
and Howard heads south from Picton. Billy 10 A transport planner has collected data about
walks 40 km the first day, 38 km the second the number of passengers on a particular
day, 36 km the third day, and so on. Howard train journey at each stop from the first
walks 12 km the first day, 13 km the second station to the centre of town. An arithmetic
day, 14 km the third day, and so on. sequence makes a good model for the
a How far apart are they after one day? number of people on the train. Some of the
b How far apart are they after two days? data is given in the table on the next page.
c On what day do they meet?
 26 Arithmetic sequences 387

First Second Third Centre

station station station … of town
Number of
passengers 205 245 285 725

a The same number of passengers board the train at each station after the first. What is this
number?
b Write down the values of a and d in this arithmetic sequence.
c Write down a formula for the number of passengers on the train at the nth station.
d Use the formula in part c to write down and solve an equation for the number of stations on
this journey.
11 A university student takes out a student 14 A fish farmer starts with 400 salmon
loan for $6500. The student spends $150 per and sells 10 at the end of each week to a
week on expenses. How many weeks will it restaurant.
take until the student only has $2000? • Each salmon costs 50c a week to feed.
• Each salmon sells for $10.
12 The seats in the dress-circle of a theatre are a After how many weeks have all the
arranged so that the front row and back salmon been sold?
row are arcs of circles with the same centre.
b Calculate the total cost of feeding the
There are 31 seats in the first row, and each
salmon.
row has two more seats than the row in front
of it. How many rows are there if there are c How much money does the fish farmer
864 seats altogether? make or lose altogether?

15 The diagram shows a set

of ‘domino’ steps. These
can be built so that they
have many levels.
26
a Copy and
complete this
table to show
the number
of dominoes
needed
13 A set of steps
altogether
is built with
for different
paving stones
numbers of levels.
as shown.
The bottom Number of Number of dominoes
step has four levels needed to build the steps
paving stones, 1 3
and three 2 8
paving stones 3
are added for each successive step.
4
a How many paving stones will be needed 5
for the 15th step?
b How many paving stones will have been b Find an expression for the number of
used for the first 15 steps altogether? dominoes needed altogether when there
are n levels. (Hint: use the formula for the
sum of terms of an arithmetic sequence.)
 388 Sequences 2.7

16 A quantity surveyor is working on plans 19 The bars on a xylophone are cut so that
for a 33-storey tower block. She estimates that each one is 4 mm longer than the one
each storey will cost $175 000 more than the one before. The shortest one is 129 mm. The
below it. The top storey will cost $6 435 000 to sum of the lengths of all the bars is
build. The basement and foundations will cost 4425 mm. Calculate:
$7 700 000. Calculate the total cost of the a the number of bars
building, to the nearest million dollars. b the length of the longest bar.

17 A fencing contractor is building a rabbit-proof 20 a Calculate the number of digits

fence in a straight line across a plain. He starts needed to number the pages of these
by using a truck to collect fence posts from a books.
conveniently sited depot, and drops off 240 fence i A book with 60 pages .
posts every 500 m along the intended route.
ii A book with 600 pages.
After each delivery the truck returns to the
depot to collect more posts. iii A book with 6000 pages.
a How long is the fence if a total of b A book has n pages, where
4320 posts are delivered? 100 ≤ n ≤ 1000. Find a formula, in its
simplest form, that gives the number
b What is the total distance travelled by the
of digits needed to number the
truck to deliver the 4320 posts?
pages of this book.
18 The Smith family and the Taylor family
21 An athlete needs to set up hurdles along
are each paying into a holiday plan
a straight section of running track.
separately. The table shows the initial
She collects the hurdles from a central
deposit, the first weekly payment, and the
store, which is x metres from where she
amount they increase their savings by each week.
places the first hurdle. She then returns
Smiths Taylors
and collects another hurdle, which she
26 Initial deposit $3610 $4520
places y metres past the first hurdle.
She continues collecting and placing
First weekly payment $70 $60
hurdles – ensuring that hurdles are
Increase each week $15 $5
placed y metres apart. Altogether there
So for example by the end of week 3 the are n hurdles. After placing the last
Smiths would have saved: hurdle she returns to the store.
Obtain an expression for the total
Deposit: $3610
distance she covers to place all the
First weekly payment: $70 hurdles in position.
Second weekly payment: $85
Third weekly payment: $100
Total: $3865
After how many weeks will each family
have saved exactly the same amount?

Suggestion: produce
PUZZLE The 51 pearls a spreadsheet to
investigate this puzzle. There
51 pearls are threaded together on a string. The smallest
is an example of an interactive
(and cheapest) pearls are at each end. Starting from these, each
one on the Theta Mathematics
pearl is worth $100 more than the one on its outside. The middle
Workbook companion CD, and
pearl is the largest and most expensive. Altogether the string of
at the www.mathematics.
pearls is worth $139 000. Calculate the value of the middle pearl.
co.nz website.
 27
Geometric sequences

Terms of a geometric sequence

In a geometric sequence, each term is calculated by multiplying the previous term by the same
number each time. This number is called the common ratio.
Examples 2, 8, 32, 128, … a sequence with a common ratio of 4
− −
36, − 12, 4, 34 , … a sequence with a common ratio of 31

General term of a geometric sequence

We use the letter a to represent the first term of the geometric sequence,
and the letter r to represent the common ratio. The formula for
the general term (i.e. nth term) of a geometric sequence is:
tn = a × rn – 1 27

Example What is the value of r (the common ratio) in the geometric sequence 24, 36, 54, 81, …?
= Answer To calculate r, divide any term by the previous term:
t2
= 36 = 1.5
t1 24
As a check, divide two other consecutive terms. This should give the same result:
t4
= 81 = 1.5
t3 54

Example The first four terms of a geometric sequence are 6, 12, 24, 48, …
a Calculate the seventh term.
b Write down a formula for the nth term.
= Answer a a = 6, r = 2
t7 = 6 × 27 – 1
= 6 × 26
= 6 × 64
= 384
b tn = a × r n − 1
= 6 × 2n − 1
 390 Sequences 2.7

exercise 27.01
1 Write down the next three terms in the 7 Find a formula for the nth term of these
following geometric sequences. geometric sequences.
a 6, 12, 24, 48, … a 3, 6, 12, 24, …
b 4, 2, 1, 21 , … b 180, 60, 20, 6 23 , …
− − −
c 9, − 3, 1, 1 , … c 81 , 14 , 21 , 1, …
3
d 2, 6, 18, 54, … d 5, –10, 20, –40, …
−
e –16, –4, –1, 41 , … e 64, 96, 144, 216, …
−
f 8, − 2, 21 , 81 , …
8 Write down the next three terms in the
g 1, –1, 1, –1, … following geometric sequences.
a x, x2, x3, x4, …
2 Write down the common ratio for each of b 2x3, –4x5, 8x7, –16x9, …
the geometric sequences in question 1.
9 Write down the common ratio for each of
3 Find the required term in the following the geometric sequences in question 8.
geometric sequences. Give all answers as
whole numbers or fractions. 10 Write down the fifth term in the geometric
a 5, 10, 20, 40, … t9 sequence 2, 2 2 , 4, 4 2 , …
b 4, 2, 1, 21 , … t10
c 1, 3, 9, 27, … t13 11 Calculate the first term of these geometric
1
d 16, 4, 1, 4 , … t8 sequences.
a With common ratio 4, and ninth term
4 Find the required term in the following 786 432.
27 geometric sequences. Give all answers in b With common ratio 3, and 11th term
standard form correct to 4 sf. 944 784.
a 8, 64, 512, 4096, … t7 c With common ratio 21 , and sixth term 120.
b 1, 1.1, 1.21, 1.331, … t29 d With common ratio –2, and eighth term
−
c 91 , 31 , 1, − 3, … t12 1920.
d 128, 32, 8, 2, … t14
12 Find a formula for the nth term of the
5 A geometric sequence has t2 = 1008, t3 = 840, geometric sequence <54x5, 18x4, 6x3, …>.
t4 = 700, and so on. Calculate the first term,
t1. 13 The first term of a geometric sequence is
11 . Calculate the
216, and the eighth term is 1 16
6 Write down the required term for each of common ratio.
these geometric sequences.
a 1, –1, 1, –1, … t37
– –
b 2, 2, 2, 2, … t44
c 8, –8, 8, –8, … t308
 27 Geometric sequences 391

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Watering down drinks
A bar sells ‘Tropical’ fruit drink. This drink is made up of a mixture of pure pineapple juice
(80%) and water (20%). The drink is stored in a 40 L container. Each time the level of drink has
dropped by 1 L the dishonest bar-tender adds 1 L of water to the container to refill it.
One way of following what happens is to use a spreadsheet. Formulae can be copied
downward to do the successive calculations.
The initial amounts of juice and water, and the percentage of juice in the drink are shown in
row 3. The results of the first ‘watering down’ are shown in row 4.
1 Write down the spreadsheet formula (in terms
of cells A3 and/or B3) that gives the result in
cell C3.
2 Write down the spreadsheet formula for cell A4.
3 Write down the values that should appear in
row 5.
4 How much pure pineapple juice will be in the
container after it has been refilled 10 times?
Give your answer to the nearest millilitre.
5 The cafe receive complaints about the taste of
the drink when the amount of water exceeds the amount of pineapple juice. After how
many refills does this happen?

27
Using simultaneous equations in geometric sequence problems
If two terms in a geometric sequence are known, as well as their positions in the sequence, then there
is enough information to determine other terms in the sequence. The approach is to set up a pair of
simultaneous equations and solve them to work out a and r first.
Example A geometric sequence has a third term of 36, and a fifth term of 324. Calculate the
common ratio, and the first term.
= Answer t3 = 36 36 = ar3 – 1 36 = ar2 (1)
t5 = 324 324 = ar 5 – 1 324 = ar 4 (2)
These are two simultaneous equations, which we solve by eliminating a first to find r.
However, we do this not by subtracting, but by dividing (2) by (1):
ar 4 = 324
ar 2 36
r = 9
2

r = ±3 (Note that there aree two possible values for r in this example.)
To find a, substitute r = ±3 into equation (1):
a × 32 = 36
9a = 36
a=4
 392 Sequences 2.7

exercise 27.02
1 The first term of a geometric sequence is 28, 5 Find the third term in a geometric sequence
and the third term is 7. Calculate: which has a first term of –81, and a fifth term
−
a the common ratio of 811 .
b the eighth term.
6 18, x, 32, are three consecutive terms in a
2 A geometric sequence has a sixth term of 32, geometric sequence. Calculate the value(s)
and the 10th term is 512. Calculate: of x.
a the value of r, the common ratio
7 The first three terms in a geometric sequence
b the value of a, the first term
are <x + 2, x – 2, x – 4, …>. Calculate the
c the 15th term. value of x.
3 The fourth term of a geometric sequence is 3, 8 a2 – b2 and a – b are the first two terms in a
1
and the eighth term is 27 . Find the 12th term. geometric sequence. Find the third term.
4 Calculate the second term of a geometric 9 Consider the sequence <5, 5x + 1, 52x + 1, …>
sequence which has a third term of –5 and an
1 . a Explain whether the sequence is
eighth term of 625
geometric.
b Write down an expression for the 10th
term.

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
27 The grains of rice
The game of chess was invented many centuries ago, probably in China or India. One legend
associated with its discovery goes like this:

The Emperor of China was so pleased with this new game that he offered the inventor
any reward of his choice. The inventor thought for a while, and then said: 1 2 4
‘Give me one grain of rice for the first square of the chessboard on the first day,
then give me two grains for the second square on the next day, then give me four
grains for the third square on the next day, and so on’.
The Emperor thought this was an insignificant reward, and promptly agreed.
A month (30 days) later, the Emperor, facing financial ruin, had the inventor’s head
cut off!

• 1 grain of rice weighs about 2 mg (0.002 g).

• 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 1 000 000 g.
1 Produce a spreadsheet that shows the number
of grains of rice for each of the 64 squares, and
the total number of grains given out at each
stage. This extract shows how the first few
rows could appear.
 27 Geometric sequences 393

2 Produce a graph showing how the total 5 Use your knowledge of geometric
number of grains given out increases. sequences to write down a formula for the
3 What is the total number of grains after number of grains for the nth square.
64 squares? Express your answer in 6 Look carefully at the relationship between
standard form correct to 4 sf. the numbers in columns B and C, and then
4 What is the weight of this total number suggest a formula for the total number of
(in tonnes)? grains given out after the nth square is
reached.

Sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence

The formula for the sum of the first
n terms of a geometric sequence is:
LECTURER If r is less than 1, it is more
convenient to use the form:
a(r n − 1) a(1 − r n )
Sn = Sn =
r−1 1−r

Example Calculate the sum (to the nearest whole number)

of the first nine terms of the geometric sequence 125, 225, 405, 729, …
= Answer Clearly a = 125.
To find r, divide any term by the previous term:
r = 405 = 1.8
225
a(r n − 1)
Substitute into Sn = r − 1 :
27
125  (1.8)9 − 1
S9 =
1.8 − 1
( )
= 125 198.3593 − 1
0.8
= 30 837
exercise 27.03
1 Sum these geometric sequences for the 3 Find the sum of the first 55 terms of these
indicated number of terms. geometric sequences.
a 5, 10, 20, 40, … 10 terms a –1, 1, –1, 1, …
b 1, 3, 9, 27, … 12 terms b 7, –7, 7, –7, …
c 4, 2, 1, 1 , … 16 terms
2
d 64, 16, 4, 1, … 8 terms 4 Find the sum of the first 84 terms of these
geometric sequences.
2 Calculate the sum of these geometric a 2, –2, 2, –2, …
sequences with negative common ratios for b –100, 100, –100, 100, …
the required number of terms.
a 1, –7, 49, –343, … 9 terms 5 The sum of the first five terms of a geometric
–
−
1 sequence is 19.375. If the common ratio is
b 16, 4, 1, 4 , … 10 terms
− − 0.5, find the first term.
1 1 1
c 8 , 4 , 2 , 1, … 12 terms
d –81, 27, –9, 3, … 9 terms
 394 Sequences 2.7

6 The sum of the first eight terms of a geometric sequence is 3280. If the common ratio is 3,
calculate the third term.

7 The formula for the sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence is Sn = 5n – 1. Find the first
four terms of the sequence.

8 A saver makes a series of regular deposits – one at the same time each month. Each deposit has
value $A and the interest rate is k per month. The table shows the current value of each deposit
after n months, just before the next deposit is due.

Deposit number Value after n months

a Obtain a formula for the total value of all
1 A(1 + k)n
the deposits.
2 A(1 + k)n – 1
b A bank offers 9.38% p.a. compound interest,
3 …
which is equivalent to 0.75% paid monthly
4 … and compounded. Calculate the total value,
… just before the 19th deposit is due, of a
n–2 A(1 + k)3 series of 18 deposits of $200 each, made at
n–1 A (1 + k)2 the same time each month.
n A(1 + k)

Applications of geometric sequences

Increases and decreases in real-life situations are often expressed in percentages. If a quantity is
increasing by the same percentage each time it is measured or calculated, then there is a pattern of
multiplication by the same number, and we have a geometric sequence.
27 In any problem that involves percentage increases or decreases you can use multipliers. The
multiplier is used as the common ratio (r) in the geometric sequence formula.

( )
In general 1 + p is the multiplier used to give the result when a quantity (A) is increased by p%
100
and ( 1 − ) is the multiplier used to give the result when a quantity (A) is decreased by p%.
p
100

Example Calculate the multiplier needed to:

a increase A by 12% b decrease A by 5%.
= Answer a 12 = 1.12 . b The multiplier is
The multiplier is 1 + 100 5 = 0.95 .
1 − 100
Many geometric sequence problems are expressed in terms of a repeated increase or decrease by the
same percentage at each step. In formulae for the general term or the sum of n terms, a ‘multiplier’
can be used as the common ratio.
Example The production on a wheat farm is decreasing by 8% each year due to increasing
salinity in the soil. In Year 1 the production was 660 tonnes.
a Calculate the production in Year 4.
b Calculate the total production for Years 1–10.
= Answer The production can be represented by a geometric sequence with a = 660 and
r = 1 – 0.08 = 0.92.
 27 Geometric sequences 395

a tn = a × rn – 1
t4 = 660 × (0.92)3
= 514 tonnes (nearest whole number).
a(1 − r n )
b Substitute into Sn =
1−r
660  1 − (0.92) 
10
S10 =
1 − 0.92
( )
= 660 1 − 0.4344
0.0
08
= 4666 tonnes (nearest whole number).

exercise 27.04
1 A family purchase a beach house for 4 Another photocopier is used to enlarge
$350 000. They have been assured by the real- images. The percentage increase in area from
estate agent that it will gain in value by 10% one image to the next is constant. The area
each year. Each year on the anniversary of the of the first image is 4.6 mm2. The area of the
purchase they use this claim to calculate the fifth image is 107.8 mm2. Calculate the area
value of the house. If the claim is correct, how of the third image.
much will the house be worth five years after it
was purchased?

2 The amount of sand on a beach is decreasing

by 4% each year due to wave action. In Year 1 5 Use the formula for the sum of terms
there is estimated to be 11 500 tonnes of sand in a geometric sequence to estimate the
on the beach. Calculate the amount of sand total number of your ancestors born last 27
remaining in Year 5. millennium (ad 1000 to ad 2000). Make
these assumptions:
• there is a gap of about 25 years between
each generation,
• there has been no inbreeding.
a Write your answer is standard form
correct to 2 sf.
b The population of the world in ad 1000
was about 300 000 000. Which of the two
assumptions is more likely to be wrong?

6 A pump removes air from a container to

vacuum-pack the contents. Each stroke of
the pump removes 60% of the remaining air.
3 A photocopier is set to reduce lengths in What percentage of the air remains after
diagrams copied by 12.5%. A rectangular 10 strokes?
diagram measuring 196 mm by 145 mm is
reduced, and then the copy is reduced, and
so on. What are the measurements of the
rectangle on the fifth reduction?
 396 Sequences 2.7

7 A child is placed on a swing and then 8 At the end of an evening performance a

released, to swing through a distance of ventilator unit is operated to remove carbon
4.5 m before swinging back in reverse. Each dioxide from a theatre. At the end of each
time the distance swung through is 95% hour it has removed 24% of the carbon
of the previous time. Calculate the total dioxide present at the beginning of the hour.
distance swung after eight ‘swings’. What percentage of the initial amount of
carbon dioxide remains 12 hours after the
performance ended?

9 A sheet of coloured plastic filter reduces the

intensity of light from a light source by 15%.
To further reduce the intensity more sheets
of filter are added. How many sheets are
required to reduce the light intensity to less
than 30%?

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION

27 The four gifting schemes

George has a rich grandmother, who used to be an actuary. She wrote the following letter to
George. Set up a spreadsheet to show a comparison between the four gifting schemes.

Dear George
Now that I am approaching old age, I want to give you some of my money. I shall
give you a sum of money each year, starting from now. You can choose a scheme
from the following list.
(1) $1000 now, $900 next year, $800 the following year, and so on.
(2) $100 now, $200 next year, $300 the following year, and so on.
(3) $100 now, 1 1 times as much next year, 1 1 times as much again the
2 2
following year, and so on.
(4) $10 now, $20 next year, $40 the following year, $80 the year after that, and
so on.
However, these schemes can only operate while I am alive. I look forward to finding
out which scheme you choose. You must give me reasons.
Yours affectionately
Grandma
 27 Geometric sequences 397

The sum to infinity of a geometric sequence

STARTER
An architect is designing a pattern for a square stained-glass window. The
window has an area of 81 m2 altogether. The pattern is made up as follows.
The architect colours in 23 of the window to begin with.

54

Then another colour is chosen, and 2 of the remaining part is coloured in.
3

54 + 18

Then a third colour is chosen, and 23 of the remaining part is coloured in,
and so on. The sequence of parts coloured in is:
54, 18, 6, …
27
1 What is the next number in this sequence?
2 Explain why this sequence is geometric. What is the common ratio?
3 Can this process continue indefinitely? 54 + 18 + 6

Another sequence produced by this process is 54, 72, 78, …

4 Describe what the terms in this sequence represent.
5 Explain whether the terms in this sequence will ever reach 80. Will they
ever reach 81?

When a geometric sequence has a common ratio

between –1 and 1 (that is, –1 < r < 1 ), then the terms LECTURER This process is called
become smaller in size as we move along the sequence. ‘taking partial sums’.
Example <24, 12, 6, 3, …>
If we add terms in succession from this sequence we Although a geometric sequence has an
have 24, 36, 42, 45, 46.5, etc. infinite number of terms, if the value
The terms in this sequence of ‘partial sums’ get of r is between –1 and 1 we can give a
closer and closer to 48 without ever reaching 48 exactly. meaning to what happens when we
We describe 48 as being the ‘sum to infinity’ of the add them up term by term.
sequence <24, 12, 6, 3, …>.
 398 Sequences 2.7

The total of all the terms is called the sum to infinity.

The formula for the sum to infinity of a geometric sequence is:
S∞ = a (for − 1 < r < 1 only)
1−r

Example Find the sum to infinity for the Example A sequence is <96, 24, 6, …>.
−
sequence 12, − 3, 34 , 163 , … . a Explain why the sequence is a
geometric sequence.
= Answer
−
a = 12, r = 41 (found by b Show why the sum of these terms
dividing –3 by 12) cannot exceed 128.

S∞ = 12−
= Answer a The sequence is geometric
because each term is 14 of the
1− 1
4 previous term. This means
= 12 ÷ 5 that each term is obtained by
4 multiplying by a common ratio.
= 12 × 4 b S∞ = a
5 1−r
= 9.6 = 96
1− 1
4
LECTURER = 96 ÷ 3
4
The symbol for infinity = 96 × 4
is ∞, or a figure 8 on 3
its side, sometimes = 128
27 called a ‘lazy eight’.
It was first used by
John Wallis, an English
mathematician, in
1655. Infinity should
not be thought of as
a number. It is a symbol that represents a process of considering
numbers that become larger and larger, without bound.

exercise 27.05
1 Calculate the sum to infinity of these 3 A pendulum is swung to the extreme right,
geometric sequences. and then released. It takes 0.5 seconds to
a 4, 2, 1, 21 , … b 81, 27, 9, 3, … return to the centre, and then a further 0.48
seconds to swing to the left. The pendulum
c 9, 6, 4, 8 , … d 75, 30, 12, …
3 then takes 0.4608 seconds to return from
the left to the centre. How long will it take
2 Calculate the sum to infinity of these
altogether from the time of release until the
geometric sequences with negative common
pendulum has stopped moving?
ratios.
– –
a 6, –3, 23 , 43, … b 12, –3, 34 , 163, …
c –64, 48, –36, 27, … d –500, 100, –20, 4, …
 27 Geometric sequences 399

4 Find the first term of these geometric 6 a Find the sum to infinity of the geometric
sequences. sequence 107 , 7 , 7 , …
.
100 1000
a With common ratio 3 and sum to infinity
of 24.
4 b Write 0.7 + 0.07 + 0.007 + 0.0007 + … as a
− recurring decimal.
b With common ratio 1 and sum to
2
infinity of 10 7 .
6 c Hence write 0.7! as a fraction.

5 Find the common ratio of these geometric 7 a Write 0.45 + 0.0045 + 0.000 045 + … as a
sequences. recurring decimal.
a With first term 15 and sum to infinity of b Find the sum to infinity of the geometric
22 21 . sequence <0.45, 0.0045, 0.000 045, …>.
c Hence express 0.45! ! as a fraction.
b With first term 24 and sum to infinity of
64.
8 Use the method from questions 6 and 7 to
c With first term 84 and sum to infinity of write these recurring decimals as fractions in
112. their simplest form.
a 0.4! b 0.18!!
! !
c 0.415 d 0.43!

Applications of sums to infinity

exercise 27.06
1 A person who weighs 104 kg plans to lose 3 The production from a market garden is
8 kg during the first three months of a diet, declining as the soil fertility drops. The first
6 kg during the next three months, 4.5 kg crop of beans weighs 25 tonnes. Each year
during the following three months, and after that the total weight of beans produced 27
so on. This pattern of weight loss forms falls by 10% (that is, it is 90% of the previous
a geometric sequence. Find the person’s year’s weight).
weight after a large number of years, a What is the weight of beans produced in
assuming their diet is successful! the fifth year?
b Estimate the total weight of beans that
2 Kate rinses her hair a the market garden can produce over a
large number of times long time.
after washing it with a
shampoo. The first rinse 4 A 100-L container of toxic waste is buried
removes 5 g of shampoo. in a landfill. Each year some of the contents
Each successive rinse leak out into the surrounding water-table.
removes 20% of the The amount leaking each year follows a
amount removed by the geometric sequence:
previous rinse. How
First year: 15 L
much shampoo was
present in Kate’s hair Second year: 12 L
at the beginning of the Third year: 9.6 L
wash? a Calculate the total amount that leaks over
a very long period of time.
b How much toxic waste will remain in the
container regardless of how long it is left
buried?
 400 Sequences 2.7

5 The pendulum of a grandfather clock is 6 A super-ball is dropped from a height of

running down. It usually swings through an 5 m. With each bounce it rises 45 of the
angle of 10°, but now decreases by 1% of the height of the previous bounce. Calculate the
previous angle with each swing. total distance travelled by the ball before it
a Calculate the total angle that the comes to rest.
pendulum swings through before it
comes to rest. 7 A tennis ball is dropped from a height of
b If the length of the arm of x metres. Each time it bounces upwards by
2 of the distance through which it has just
the pendulum is 700 mm, 5
calculate the total distance fallen. Calculate the value of x, if the total
travelled by the end of the distance the tennis ball travels is 10 m.
pendulum. (Hint: use the
arc length formula s = r θ .) 8 A square has sides of 16 cm. The middle
points of its sides are joined to form a
second square. The middle points of the
sides of this square are joined to form a
third square, and so on to form an infinite
sequence of squares.
a Calculate the sum of the lengths of the
sides of all the squares.
b Calculate the sum of their perimeters.
c Calculate the sum of the areas of all the
squares.

27
 28
Growth and decay

Situations where quantities grow steadily or decrease steadily can often be modelled or
approximated by terms of a geometric sequence. This occurs when each term in the sequence is being
multiplied by the same number to go to the next term.
A mathematical model is a formula, graph, etc., that explains (approximately in most cases) the
relationship between quantities in a real-life situation.
Example Air is forced through a succession of
filters to remove pollen spores. Each
filter removes about 95% of the pollen
spores. In spring the number of spores
per m3 in the air might be about
500 000.

28

This table shows the estimated number of spores per m3 before the air is passed
through the filters.

1st filter 2nd filter 3rd filter 4th filter

Estimated number of spores 500 000 25 000 1250 ?
The number of spores at each stage can be modelled by a geometric sequence formula.
Here it would be 500 000 × (0.05)n − 1.

There are many real-life situations in which a Growth Decay

geometric sequence model can apply.
This table gives some examples. Population numbers Radioactivity
Compound interest Depreciation
Price inflation Filtering/rinsing

We will look at some special cases on the next

page.
 402 Sequences 2.7

Compound interest
Compound interest is paid on money invested when interest is added to the principal (original
amount invested) to form a new principal for the next term of a loan. In other words, interest is paid
on interest.
Example $2000 is deposited into a bank account that pays 12% compound interest. The interest
is added to the account once a year. Calculate the amount in the account after
two years.
= Answer Interest for the first year = 12% × $2000 = $240.
This is added to the principal at the end of the first year, to make a new principal
of $2240.
Interest for the second year = 12% × $2240 = $268.80.
This is added to the principal at the end of the second year, to make a new principal of
$2240 + $268.80 = $2508.80.
That is, there is $2508.80 after two years.
Problems such as the one above are best handled using the formula for the general term of a
geometric sequence. This is because the principal every year is being multiplied by the same fixed
number.

TIPSTER
( )
If the interest rate is r%, the common ratio is 1 + r . The explanation of this result is as follows.
100
New principal = old principal + r% of old principal
= 1 × old principal + r × old principal
28 100
( r
)
= 1 + 100 × old principal

Instead of using the general term formula tn = a × rn – 1, we use:

( )
n
A = P 1+ r
100
where P is the original amount invested (principal), r is the interest rate,
n is the number of years for the investment and A is the new principal,
including interest, at the end of the term.

Example $4500 is invested at 6% compound interest calculated yearly. Calculate the amount
invested after four years.

( ) to get:
n
r
= Answer Substitute into A = P 1 +
100

( )
4
A = 4500 × 1 + 6
100
= 4500 × (1.06)4
= $5681.15
 28 Growth and decay 403

Inflation
Inflation occurs when prices of items rise. If prices rise at a steady rate, we have what is called the
rate of inflation.
The approach is the same as for compound interest. Instead of the original amount invested
(the principal), we have the original price of an article; and instead of the interest rate, we have the
inflation rate. The inflation rate is usually calculated ‘per annum’, meaning yearly.

The formula for calculating increased prices is: TIPSTER

( )
n
Increased price = old price × 1 + r Note that this formula is
100 really the same as the one for
where r is inflation rate and n is number of years. calculating compound interest.

Example Find the price of a section of land originally worth $50 000 at the end of a period
of 10 years, assuming a constant rate of inflation of 7%.

( )
n
= Answer Increased price = old price × 1 + r
100

( )
10
= 50 000 × 1 + 7
100
= 50 000 × (1.07)10
= $98 000 (to the nearest thousand dollars)

Depreciation
Depreciation occurs when the value of an item decreases. If the value falls at a steady rate, we have
what is called the rate of depreciation. 28
The approach is the same as for inflation or compound interest. Instead of the original price or
amount invested, we have the original value of an item; and instead of the interest rate or inflation
rate, we have the depreciation rate. Like the inflation rate, the depreciation rate is usually calculated
per annum.
Because values decrease under depreciation, we subtract the percentage decrease from the original
value.

The formula for calculating decreased values is:

( )
n
Decreased value = original value × 1 − r
100
where r is the depreciation rate and n is the number of years.

Example Find the value (for tax purposes) of a computer originally

purchased for $3000 in 2000 at the end of a period of
15 years, assuming the IRD’s rate of 20% depreciation for
office equipment.
( )
n
= Answer Decreased value = original value × 1 − r
100

( )
15
= 3000 × 1 − 20
100
= 3000 × (0.80)15
= $105.55
 404 Sequences 2.7

exercise 28.01
The rates in this exercise are per annum. 3 Calculate the decreased value of these items
1 Calculate the value of these investments given the following rates of depreciation.
placed on the given terms on compound a An item worth $4600 depreciates at 10%
interest. over a period of six years.
a $5000 at 5% for eight years. b An item worth $21 000 depreciates at 7%
b $11 000 at 7.2% for three years. over a period of four years.
c $15 000 at 11% for seven years. c An item worth $150 000 depreciates at
d $12 000 at 8 34 % for five years. 30% over a period of five years.
d An item worth $85 000 depreciates at
e $20 000 at 3.5% for 18 months.
15 21 % over a period of 20 months.
2 Find the increase in value of these amounts
when placed on compound interest on the
given terms.
a $16 000 at 12.5% for five years.
b $4000 at 16% for four years.
c $2000 at 22 21 % for 10 years.
d $7000 at 18.3% for 15 years.
e $25 000 at 8% for 30 months.

Applications
exercise 28.02
28
1 The population of a town increases by 2 21 % 5 The height of a conifer increases at 12% per
per annum. If the population in 1998 year. Calculate the height of a conifer at
was 16 000, what will the population be in four years of age if it was 1 m high when
2006? planted.

2 A car bought for $26 000 depreciates by 5% 6 A school roll started at 700 and grew at a
per year. What is its value after three years? rate of 3% for the next 10 years. What was
the total roll at the end of this time?
3 The profits of an engineering firm increase
7 An entomologist believes that it is possible
by 6% per annum. If the profit in 1993 was
to reduce the number of wasps infesting
$1500, calculate the profit in 2012.
an area of native bush by releasing a large
number of sterile wasps. She estimates that
4 The population of a particular Pacific Island
this programme will reduce the number of
nation is predicted to decrease at a constant
wasps by 60% per year on an ongoing basis.
rate of 3% per year, due to emigration and
If there are initially
the death rate exceeding the birth rate. If the
14 000 000 wasps in the area,
population was 65 000 in 2000, estimate the
how many will remain at the
population to the nearest thousand 20 years
end of a four-year period,
later.
assuming that the
scientist’s calculations
are correct?
 28 Growth and decay 405

8 Rip-off Developers subdivide a block of 9 Calculate the total interest earned when:
sections to sell to the general public. When a $2000 is placed on deposit for four years
the sections are initially sold, the buyers are at 12% per annum compounded annually
unaware of an illegal waste-disposal site b $2000 is placed on deposit for four years
nearby. This subsequently causes the value at 3% per quarter (i.e. three months)
of sections in the subdivision to decrease at compounded quarterly.
a steady 15% per annum as public concern c Which investment, a or b, earns more?
increases. Find the loss in value (after a six-
year period) on a section initially sold for
$85 000.

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Business depreciation
There are two commonly-used methods of calculating depreciation in business.
• Straight-line depreciation, which involves subtracting a fixed amount from the original
value each year. For example, straight-line depreciation of 10% on $6000 gives:
<$6000, $5400, $4800, …>.
• Diminishing value depreciation, which involves multiplying the original value by a given
percentage each year, and subtracting this result from the original value. This gives a new
value, which is in turn multiplied by the same percentage to calculate the new reduced
value. For example, diminishing value depreciation of 10% on $6000 gives:
<$6000, $5400, $4860, …>.
Two computers are to be depreciated for tax purposes over an indefinite period. Computer 28
A is originally worth $30 000, and is depreciated at 10% using the straight-line method.
Computer B is originally worth $25 000, and is depreciated at 10% using the diminishing
value method.
1 Which method gives an arithmetic sequence?
2 Which method gives a geometric sequence?
3 Produce a spreadsheet showing what happens to the value of the computers over a
10-year period.
4 In which year does the value of computer B first exceed the value of computer A?

Rearrangements of the growth/decay formula

Variations on growth and decay problems involve rearrangements of the formula.
Note that in the compound interest formula:

( )
n
A = P 1+ r
100
there are four variables involved: A, P, r and n. In any compound interest problem, three of these
variables must be provided in order to find the fourth.
 406 Sequences 2.7

Example Variable to Given

number below be calculated variables Method
A P, r and n Straightforward substitution into the formula
1 P A, r and n Substitute and divide to calculate P
2 r A, P and n Substitute, rearrange and take nth root
3 n A, P and r Substitute, tidy up and take logs

1 Calculating P in the compound interest formula

( )
n
Example Use the compound interest formula A = P 1 + r to calculate P, given
100
A = $4259.20, r = 10% and n = 3.

( )
3
= Answer 4259.2 = P 1 + 10
100
= P × (1.1)3
= 1.331P
P = 4259.2 = $3200
1.331

2 Calculating r in the compound interest formula

( )
n
Example Use the compound interest formula A = P 1 + r to calculate r, given A = $20 000,
100
P = $5000 and n = 20.

( )
20
= Answer 20 000 = 5000 1 + r
100
20 000
28 = ( 1 + 0.01r )
20
5000
4 = ( 1 + 0.01r )
20

Now take the 20th root of each side (use a calculator):

4 = 1 + 0.01r
20

1.071 77 = 1 + 0.01r
0.071 77 = 0.01r
0.071 77
r = = 7.177%
0.01

3 Calculating n in the compound interest formula

( )
n
Example Use the compound interest formula A = P 1 + r to calculate n, given
100
A = $7276.25, P= $3500 and r = 5%.

( )
n
= Answer 7276.25 = 3500 1 + 5
100
= 3500 × (1.05)n
(1.05)n = 7276.25 = 2.078 9286
3500
Now take logs of both sides:
 28 Growth and decay 407

log(1.05)n = log(2.078 9286)

n log(1.05) = log(2.078 9286)
TIPSTER
log(2.078 9286) When working through problems similar to
n=
log(1.05) this, it is not necessary to write down all the
0.317 8396 calculator values. However, you should work to
= full-figure accuracy, and only round answers at
0.021 1893
the end of the problem.
= 15

exercise 28.03
1 Calculate (to the nearest cent) the original 5 A car bought for $32 000 depreciates in value
amount invested, given the compound to $18 500 after three years. Calculate the
interest terms below. annual rate of depreciation over the period.
a What principal amounts to $15 000 at
11% for six years? 6 A house purchased 16 years ago was sold for
b What principal amounts to $80 500 at $230 000 recently. The owner calculated that
8.5% for five years? the house had gained value at a steady rate
c What principal amounts to $150 000 at of 9% per year. What did the owner pay for
14% for 21 months? the house herself?

2 Find the rate of compound interest (to 7 An electric motor loses efficiency at a steady
2 dp) needed to produce these results on rate of 4% per year as its components
investments for the given number of years. deteriorate. How many years does it take for
it to decline from a rating of 2500 watts to
a $500 increases to $1500 after 10 years.
2160 watts?
b $1400 increases to $2150 after three years.
c $80 000 increases to $105 000 after six 8 Aristotle Holdings invested in a fleet of
28
years. yachts three years ago. Recently they
had to sell the yachts at $1 500 000 each,
3 Calculate the number of years needed to representing a loss of 4% per annum to the
produce these results on compound interest company. What was the original price of
investments at the given rates. Give answers each yacht?
to 2 dp.
a $8000 increases to $15 000 invested at 9 A microbiologist grows bacteria in a Petri
12% per annum. dish. The number of bacteria grows by 50%
b $250 increases to $1300 invested at 7 21 % each hour. Initially there are 20 bacteria in
per annum. the dish.
c $25 750 increases to $72 300 invested at
6.2% per annum.

4 Calculate the rate of inflation given the

information below.
a Goods bought for $175 in 1978 cost $625
in 1988.
b Goods bought for $36 in 1973 cost $86 in
1991.
 408 Sequences 2.7

a How many bacteria are present after 16 When a 10-acre block was sold for $100 000
6 hours? recently, the owners were delighted: after
b After how many hours will there be a period of five years their investment had
12 000 bacteria? returned an interest rate compounded at
14% per year. How much had the land cost
10 A farmer in the Mackenzie Country knows originally?
that without pest control, the number
of rabbits on his property increases at a 17 Assuming a constant rate of inflation over
constant rate of 2% per week. How many the period, calculate the price of goods in
weeks would it take for the number of 1998 given that they were worth $560 in
rabbits to increase from 450 to 1060? 1979 and $740 in 1985.

11 A property speculator bought a house for 18 A business has a laser printer which was
$150 000. When she tried to resell the house purchased for $6500. The business prints
three years later, she discovered that the about 400 000 pages per year, and the printer
housing market had declined, and the house decreases in value by 30% each year. It is
was only worth $98 000. What was the expected to print 1 500 000 pages of paper
yearly rate of decrease in value? before it is replaced. What will it be worth
then?
12 After a steady increase of 15% per year, the
share price of Theta Publishing Ltd is now 19 A granary in Canterbury stores wheat in a
$1.56 per unit. Calculate the price per unit large silo. They lose a constant percentage
eight years ago. per month due to rodent spoilage and
mildew. At the beginning of April one year
13 Air Atlantis bought a fleet of aircraft at there were 45 000 tonnes stored, but at the
$70 000 000 per craft. After 10 years beginning of September there were only
they were offered for sale at $25 000 000 36 700 tonnes stored. How much wheat was
28 each. What was the percentage rate of lost in the month of July?
depreciation per annum?
20 Each time a paint brush is rinsed in a
14 The price of a share in Delta Enterprises container of fresh water about 96% of the
has risen from $2.30 to $5.67 over a number paint is removed. How many times will the
of years since an investor first purchased brush need to be rinsed before the amount
shares in the company. The investor of paint remaining is less than 0.001% of the
calculates that this rise in value represents amount of paint originally in the brush?
an increase of 30% per annum. Find the
number of years that the investor has held
the shares.

15 Over the last 12 years, there has been a

constant decrease of 4% per year in the
numbers of visitors to a tourist attraction
in Rotorua. If there were 45 000 visitors this
year, how many were there six years ago?
 28 Growth and decay 409

INVESTIGATION

The sharebroker’s report

Mr and Mrs Cameron have just won $100 000 in Lotto. Their sharebroker has prepared them a
report with investment recommendations. This includes some optimistic five-year projections
of how the value of their portfolio (collection of financial assets) will increase if invested in a
recommended mixture of
shares. The sharebroker
Rate of return per Recommended
forecasts growth in the
Investment annum (after tax) amount to invest
share prices at a steady rate,
assumes that dividends are Telco shares 8.5% $45 000
reinvested and ignores the Matrix Energy shares 11.9% $29 000
effect of tax on the income Farmland bonds 6.75% $26 000
from investments.
1 Calculate the value of the Cameron’s portfolio in five years’ time if they invest according to
these recommendations, and the predictions are correct.
2 Mr Cameron sees the highest rate of return (for Matrix Energy) and wants to invest the full
amount in that company. Mrs Cameron is more cautious and would prefer to invest the full
amount in bonds. Calculate the difference between these two choices in the future value of
the total investment over the five year period.
3 Calculate the annual rate of return for a single investment of $100 000 that gives the same
projected result after five years (in question 1) as these recommendations.
4 For how long should the three investments continue if the Camerons want it to
be worth $5 000 000 eventually? (Tip: use a graphics calculator, spreadsheet or
other software for this question.)
28

Adding to the original investment

TIPSTER
Sometimes a person can make regular deposits into a savings
account that is earning compound interest. These deposits earn Notice that we use
interest as well. The calculations quickly become complicated a $ symbol in the
unless a spreadsheet or calculators with special financial formula for E1. That
formulae are used. is, E$1 will keep the
The spreadsheet below shows how to calculate the amount in the cell fixed as E1 when
account at the end of each year. copied downwards,
• The initial amount is in cell B1. rather than giving
• The regular yearly deposit is in cell E1. E2, E3, etc.
• The interest rate is in cell G1.
This extract shows the formulae needed in the first few rows. To continue the calculations over a
longer period, copy
the formulae in B5
and C5 downwards
a number of times.
 410 Sequences 2.7

This spreadsheet shows the result after four years when someone invests $2000 at 8% interest and
adds regular deposits of $150 each year.

Spreadsheet applications

exercise 28.04
Use a spreadsheet to answer these questions.
1 A student invested her earnings from a 4 Create a spreadsheet which calculates the
Saturday job at a rate of 8% per annum. If total value when:
she invested $800 at the beginning of the • an initial amount is invested in an
first year, and each year thereafter invested a account that pays interest compounded
further $800, how much did she have in her annually,
account at the end of five years? • the interest rate is fixed over the whole
period,
2 A father provided for his son when he was
28 born by investing $1000 in a savings account
• different amounts are added as deposits
to the account at the end of each year.
at a constant interest rate of 12% per annum.
Each year he added a further $500. How Use your spreadsheet to calculate the
much would there be in the account at the amount in this savings account on
end of 12 years, when his son was due to 1 January 2012. The savings account pays
start secondary school? 5% interest, and deposits are made as
follows.
3 A special form of endowment insurance
Date Deposit
requires an initial investment of $500 and
then further deposits of $200 each year. If 1 Jan 2006 (initial deposit) $4000
the interest is compounded annually at 6%, 1 Jan 2007 $2700
what is the total value of the investment
1 Jan 2008 $3100
after a period of 10 years?
1 Jan 2009 $650
1 Jan 2010 $5111
1 Jan 2011 $810
 NCEA 2.7 Revision exercises 411

NCEA 2.7 Revision exercises

▼

1 An engineering graduate’s starting salary was 5 A student realised that in Year 7 he needed to
$24 750 per year. If she received annual increases do one hour’s homework a night to keep up
of $5925, what would be: with his studies. Each year he found that he
a her salary after seven years? needed to increase his homework time by 20%.
b her total earnings in that time? ACH What time would he be spending on
homework each night in Year 13? MRT
2 The Waste Collection Company estimates that
the quantity of rubbish it collects in a city is 6 Belts-R-Us make men’s vinyl belts. They have
increasing by 9% each year. In Year 1 it collected 31.5 m of vinyl altogether and want to use all
46 000 tonnes of rubbish. of it to make 30 belts. The belts decrease in
length so that each belt is 2 cm shorter than the
previous belt. Calculate the length of the
shortest belt. MRT

a Calculate the amount of rubbish collected

in Year 6.
b Calculate the total amount of rubbish
collected for Years 1–12. ACH
7 Town planners know there has been a
constant increase of 5% per year in the number
3 A poplar tree sapling measures 1.2 m when
of commuters using public transport at least
first planted. After planting it grows 900 mm
once a week in a large city. This increase is
in the first year, and from then on each year’s
projected to continue at only 3% per year. If
increase in height is 2 of the previous year’s
3 there were 67 000 commuters using public
increase. Calculate the maximum height (in
transport six years ago, how many should
metres) that the tree can reach. ACH
be using it in seven years time? EXC
4 A ‘Dutch auction’ is one in which the price
drops by the same amount at each ‘bidding
opportunity’ until someone is prepared to bid
and pay the price.
A charity is given an air-ticket to Sydney
and decides to sell it at a fund-raising dinner
using a ‘Dutch auction’. The price starts at $680
and drops by $15 each minute until someone
buys it.
a If the successful buyer waited 18 minutes
to bid, calculate how much they paid. ACH
b Another buyer was prepared to pay $350.
How many minutes would they wait to
bid if they were the successful bidder? MRT
412

2.8 Trigonometry problems

Solve trigonometry problems requiring modelling of practical situations

Contents
29 Triangle trigonometry 413 32 Practical trigonometry 445
Right-angled triangles 413 Calculating heights by triangulation 445
Calculating the length of a side 413 Taking the measurements 445
Calculating an angle given two sides 414 Performing the calculations 446
Applications 416 Estimating the perimeter and area of
Angles of elevation and depression 418 irregular shapes 446
Angle of a triangle – two sides and the Taking the measurements 446
‘included’ angle 420 Performing the calculations 446
Maximising the apparent width 447
30 The sine rule 423 Taking the measurements 447
Calculating sides with the sine rule 423 Performing the calculations 447
Calculating angles with the sine rule 426 Making the conclusion 447
Applications 428 Mixed trigonometry problems 449
The ambiguous case 430
33 Circular measure 452
31 The cosine rule 433 The arc length formula 453
Calculating sides with the cosine rule 433 Conversion of degrees/radians 454
Labelling 434 Using the arc length formula 457
Calculating angles with the cosine rule 438 Applications of the arc length formula 459
Solving triangles 441 The area of a sector 462
Applications 442 Applications of the area of a sector 464
The area of a segment 465
Applications of the area of a segment 468
Practical trigonometry question 468

NCEA 2.8 Revision exercises 470

 29
Triangle trigonometry

Right-angled triangles
Trigonometry is first introduced by working with right-angled triangles, and looking at the
relationships between the lengths of sides and the sizes of angles.
If one particular angle is marked as angle A, then we can refer to the three sides as follows.
• The hypotenuse is the longest side of the right-angled triangle; it is
always opposite the right-angle.
• The adjacent side is adjacent to, or next to, the marked angle and A
joins the marked angle to the right-angle.
• The opposite side is opposite the marked angle. Adjacent Hypotenuse
We use these symbols for the names of the sides:
• h = hypotenuse,
• a = adjacent side,
• o = opposite side. Opposite

The three formulae that link any pair of sides with the marked angle are:
1 sin( A) = o or o = h × sin(A) 29
h
LECTURER
2 cos( A) = a or a = h × cos(A)
h
3 tan( A) = o or o = a × tan(A) sin, cos and tan are the three ‘trig’ formulae used
a with right-angled triangles. Their full names are
sine, cosine and tangent. Their values are usually
worked out on a calculator.
Calculating the length of a side
In any right-angle trigonometry question where
you have to calculate the length of a side, follow these steps.
1 Identify the two sides that are given or marked.
2 Choose between the sin, cos or tan formula, and write it down.
3 Substitute in the values from the diagram.
4 Calculate the required side.
Here are two examples – the first involves multiplication and the second involves dividing to
complete the calculation.
In the trig examples here we will give answers rounded to 4 sf (or 1 dp in the case of angles) and
will take the given measurements as being exact. Later, however, in application type examples, the
best approach is to round appropriately.
 414 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Example Calculate the Calculating an angle given two sides

side marked x.
x Trigonometry can also be used to calculate the
= Answer Use the tan sizes of angles in right-angled triangles when we
formula 28° know the lengths of two of the sides.
because x is the 72 cm 1 Identify the two sides that are given in
opposite side
relation to the marked angle, A.
and the 72 cm
side is the adjacent side. 2 Choose between the sin, cos or tan formula,
opp and write it down.
tan( A) = or o = a × tan(A)
adj 3 Substitute in the values from the diagram.
x = 72 × tan(28°) 4 Calculate the required angle. This involves
= 38.28 cm (4 sf) changing a fraction to a decimal and then
using one of the inverse trig keys (sin–1, cos–1
Example Calculate the 11.8 cm or tan–1) on a calculator.
side marked x. 37° Example Calculate A
= Answer Use the cos the angle
12 m
formula marked A.
x 17 m
because x is the
hypotenuse and
= Answer Use the sin
formula
the 11.8 cm side because the
is the adjacent side. 12 m side is the opposite side and
adj the 17 m side is the hypotenuse.
cos( A) = or a = h × cos(A)
hyp opp
11.8 = x × cos(37°) = sin( A)
hyp
x = 11.8 sin( A) = 12 = 0.7059
cos(37°) 17
= 14.78 cm (4 sf) A = 44.9° (1 dp)

29
exercise 29.01
1–10 Use trigonometry to calculate the length of the sides marked x. Give all answers rounded to 4 sf.
1 4 6 cm 7 x 9 44
cm
27° 56° 19°
x
41° x 43 cm
x
5 cm
2 5
10 cm 8 x
18 cm 10
308 m 33.5 m
58° 73°
x x 38°
3 8 cm 6 x
40° 67°
x
x 49°
cm
22.1
 29 Triangle trigonometry 415

11–16 Calculate the size of 17 The diagram shows an isosceles triangle with
each marked angle to 1 dp. a base of 14 cm and base angles of 66°.
11 a Calculate the ‘height’, h, of the triangle.
cm b Calculate the length, x, of each of the two
10 x h
equal sides. x
A
7 cm
66°
12
8m 14 cm
6m
A 18 One of the angles in this isosceles 38 cm
triangle is 144°, and the length
13 10 cm of the side opposite is 38 cm.
x 144° x
A Calculate the length of each of the
other sides.
13 cm
P
19 !PQR has the measurements given in this
diagram. S is a point on PR so that SQ is
at right-angles to PR. 10 m
14 a Use trigonometry to calculate the
27 m length of QS.
A Q
b Use trigonometry to calculate the S
32 m
length of RS.
c Use Pythagoras to calculate the length 63° 8m
of PS.
15 d Calculate the length of PR by adding R
10.6 m
A
PS and RS.

20 a Follow the method used in A C

18.6 m question 19 to calculate the 40° 29
length AC in this triangle. 35 m
50 m
b Calculate the size of ∠ABC.
16
B
13 cm 21 Calculate the sizes of the angles in
this isosceles triangle. 74 m 74 m
20 c A
m

100 m

22 Calculate the sizes of the angles marked

p and q in this rhombus to the nearest p
degree.
q 11 cm

8 cm
 416 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Applications
Right-angle trigonometry has many applications:
• navigation,
• building,
• surveying,
• civil engineering.
Example When roads go round bends engineers design them with a ‘camber’. This makes it
easier for cars to stay on the road when cornering.
At one place on a curve, a road has a camber of 4° and is 6.6 m across. Calculate the
difference in height between the sides of the road.
= Answer There is enough information in the diagram to
draw a right-angled triangle. The difference in
heights is marked x. Use the sin formula.
o = h × sin(A) 6.6 m
x
x = 6.6 × sin(4°) 4°
= 0.46 m (2 sf)

exercise 29.02
1 A cell-phone mast casts a 3 A ladder has been placed against a wall so
shadow which is 3.8 m that the angle between the ladder and the
long. The Sun is at an wall is 27°. The foot of the ladder is 1.3 m
angle of 75° to the from the wall. The length of the ladder is
ground. Estimate x metres.
the height of the a Draw a diagram that shows this
cell-phone mast information.
to the nearest b Calculate the value of x to 2 sf.
29 metre.
4 A football field is rectangular and measures
102 m by 49 m. After a game, a group of
spectators walk across the field from one
corner to the opposite corner. What angle
does their direction make with the longer
side of the field?
75°
3.8 m

2 A nail protrudes from a 49 m

wall at an angle of 68°. 68°
The head of the nail is
56 mm from the wall. 56 mm
Calculate the length of
the nail that protrudes 102 m
from the wall.
 29 Triangle trigonometry 417

5 A pair of coloured pick-up sticks cross at an 9 A yacht is tacking into the wind. After
angle of 15°. The green stick crosses the blue 5 minutes it has travelled 60 m south and
one exactly in the middle. The tip of the blue 110 m east in relation to its starting point.
stick is exactly 46 mm from the green stick. Calculate the bearing of the course the yacht
Calculate the length of the blue stick. is sailing on.
N
46 mm

=
O
=

6 A golfer is lining up a putt on a level green. N

The hole is 12 cm wide, and the ball is 60 cm
from the middle of the hole. Calculate the W E x
angle within which the ball can be hit into
the hole. S

7 Pieces of concrete kerbing 32 cm wide are

designed with a gutter so that they drain
water away from the side of a road. The 10 A helicopter flies from its base at Mechanics
cross-section of the gutter is an isosceles Bay in Auckland to rescue a shark-attack
triangle. Calculate the depth of water in victim at Tryphena on Great Barrier Island.
the gutter when it is full, to the nearest Tryphena is approximately 65 km north and
millimetre. 49 km east of Mechanics Bay.
Water
=

148°
=

Great
Concrete Barrier Is.

20 km
32 cm

8 A powerboat travels for 5 km on a bearing of

29
310°. Calculate how far a north, and b west,
Auckland
it has travelled in relation to the starting
point.
N

N
a Calculate the bearing of the course that
W E the helicopter flies on.
S b Calculate the bearing for the return
journey.

5 km

310°
 418 Trigonometry problems 2.8

11 A railway bridge crosses a river. The centre 13 A pendulum is 90 cm long. It swings so

span of the bridge is 14 m long, and is that the bob rises to 10 cm above the lowest
supported by two 4 m struts. Each strut is point. Calculate the angle that the pendulum
bolted to a concrete pad on the riverbank, swings through.
and makes an angle of 132° with the centre
span. Calculate the width of the river.

m
lu
u
nd
Pe
Bob
4m 14 m
132° 132° 4m

(a.k.a
Robert)

12 A yacht is at anchor. The length of the 14 A tall tower has a circular observation deck
anchor rope is 20 m, and 3 m of this is above near the top. It is enclosed by 20 identically
water level. The rope makes an angle of 62° sized safety-glass windows, and each
to the vertical. Calculate the depth of water. window ‘butts’ onto an adjoining window
so that the view is uninterrupted. If the
diameter of the deck is 11.8 m, calculate the
width of each window.

62°

29

Angles of elevation and depression

Surveying often involves calculations with angles measured in relation to the horizontal.

Angles of elevation Angles of depression are measured downwards from the

are measured horizontal.
upwards from the 29°
horizontal.

55°
The angle of
Horizontal depression of
this seagull from
the observer at
The angle of elevation of the top of a cliff
the top of this tower from the ground is 55°. is 29°.
 29 Triangle trigonometry 419

exercise 29.03
1 From a point which 3 A ramp that joins a footpath to the entrance
is 5 m from the base of a doctor’s surgery has an angle of
of a flag-pole, the elevation of 6°. The footpath is 1.5 m below
angle of elevation the entrance. Calculate the length of the
of the top is 78°. ramp.
Calculate the height
of the flag-pole.
Dr
78° Hyde’s
5m surgery
2 Kelly is sitting on
the top row of a grandstand, and Lee K
is sitting in one of the middle rows. 1.5 m
Martin is standing on the playing 6°
field below.
L 4 The angle of depression from the top of
an escalator on Level 2 of a building to
M the bottom on Level 1 is 23°. The length of
the sloping part of the escalator is 12 m.
Calculate the difference in height between
Level 1 and Level 2.
A simplified diagram showing these
three people labelled as K, L and M is 5 The operator of a crane on a building-site is
also shown, together with seven angles looking down at a truck below. The height of
numbered from 1 to 7. the crane is 35 m, and the truck is 20 m from
K
6 the foot of the crane. Calculate the angle of
7 5 depression of the truck from the top of the
crane.
29
L

2
M 3 4
1

a Write down the numbers that refer to

these angles.
i The angle of elevation of Kelly from 6 Two buildings at a university are joined by
Martin. a walkway. The two buildings are 15.6 m
ii The angle of depression of Lee from apart, and the angle of depression of the
Kelly. walkway is 4°. Calculate the length of the
iii The angle of elevation of Kelly from walkway.
the bottom of the grandstand.
iv The angle of depression of Martin 7 A hotel is situated 30 m across a road from a
from Kelly. warehouse. From the roof of the warehouse,
b The angle of depression of Martin from which is 12 m above street level, the angle
Lee is not shown. Which numbered angle of elevation of the top of the hotel is 22°.
would be the same size as this angle? Calculate the height of the hotel.
 420 Trigonometry problems 2.8

8 An observer sitting in a grandstand at a 9 A person on top of a 33 m high building

stadium has an unobstructed view across to looks across the road to a church on the
one of the lighting towers, which is other side. The angle of depression of the
80 m away at its closest point. The angle of bottom of the church is 25°, and the angle of
depression of the foot of the tower from the elevation of the top of the church is 18°.
observer is 9°, and the angle of elevation of a Draw a diagram to display this
the top of the tower is 20°. information.
b Calculate the height of the church.

10 An observer standing 50 m away from a

vertical cliff is looking at a tree at the top.
The angle of elevation of the top of the tree
is 40°, and the angle of elevation of the
bottom of the tree is 31°. Calculate the height
of the tree to the nearest metre.

a Copy the diagram, and write in the

measurements 80 m, 9° and 20° in the
correct places.
b Calculate the height of the tower.

40°
50 m 31°

29
Area of a triangle – two sides and the ‘included’ angle
We can use trigonometry to calculate the area of a triangle if we
know the lengths of two sides and the size of the angle between
a
the two sides. This angle is often referred to as the included
angle. Included
angle
C
b

LECTURER
The area of the triangle is given by:
This ‘proof’ shows how we develop a 1
Area = base × height
formula for this. 2
1
a and b are the two given sides. We use C = ×b ×h
2
as the label for the included angle. a
h 1
We add a line to the triangle to show the = × b × a × sin(C )
2
‘height’, and label this h. 1
C = ab sin(C )
From trigonometry, h = a × sin(C). 2
b
 29 Triangle trigonometry 421

This formula is often useful because the measurements given do not have to be perpendicular. This is
unlike the triangle formula learned earlier, which only applies if b and h are at right-angles.

Example Calculate the area of this triangle.

= Answer Area = 1 ab sin(C)

2 15 cm
= 1 × 8 × 15 × sin(112°) 8 cm 112°
2
= 60 × sin(112°)
= 55.63 cm 2 (4 sf) (from calculator)

exercise 29.04
1–4 Calculate the areas of these triangles. 7 Calculate the area 100°
1 of this parallelogram.
5m

8m
3 cm
7m
8 This metal badge has
2 rotational symmetry
72°
of order 3. Calculate
140°
2 cm 8m its area if the distance 5 cm
from the centre to 5 cm
each corner is 5 cm.
5 cm

9 Calculate the area of

3
a regular hexagon 8 cm
with sides of length
99°
11 cm
8 cm. 29
4
10 cm

26 cm 10 An isosceles triangle
has two sides of length 11 cm
64° 11 cm, and its area is
17 cm
40 cm2. Calculate the 40 cm2
sizes of the interior
angles.
5 Calculate the 11 cm
3 cm 3 cm
area of this
isosceles triangle. 42° 42°
11 An equilateral
triangle has an area of
100 cm2. Calculate the
6 Calculate the area of 130° length of each side.
6
cm

this rhombus.
100 cm2
 422 Trigonometry problems 2.8

12 Penta Communications have constructed 13 The covering of an umbrella is constructed

a regular five-sided building with an inner from 1.5 m2 of fabric. It has eight spokes
courtyard, as shown in the diagram. From altogether. Calculate the maximum distance
the centre of the courtyard it is 20 m to across the umbrella.
an inside corner and 30 m to an outside
corner. Calculate the floor area for one level
of this building. Give your answer to the
nearest m2.

10 m
20 m

PUZZLE
Circumscribed triangle
The three vertices of an isosceles triangle with a base of 10 cm lie on
the circumference of a circle with a radius of 10 cm. What is the area
of the triangle?

29
 30
The sine rule

Trigonometry is usually introduced with triangles that are right-angled. Most triangles are not right-
angled however, and we use two special rules that apply to any shape of triangle: the sine rule and the
cosine rule.

Naming parts of a triangle

When it is obvious what is intended and no confusion is possible, we can use single letters to
name sides and angles in a triangle. This diagram shows triangle ABC. a
B C
• The three angles can be named A, B and C (capital letters). B C
• To name sides it is logical to use the same letter as the angle opposite it. c b
We use a lower-case letter to name a side in a triangle. In this triangle, the A
names or labels of the sides are a, b and c.
A

The sine rule in any triangle ABC is:

a b c
= =
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C)
30
Calculating sides with the sine rule
D
Example Write down the sine rule for TIPSTER
this triangle, and use it to 9 cm
44° In most sine rule problems, one
calculate the length marked x.
E of the three fractions in the
= Answer Each side and opposite angle rule is not needed to solve the
are matched in the sine rule problem. It can be ignored.
equation: x d e f
d e f 37° = =
= = sin(D ) sin(E ) sin(F )
sin(D) sin(E) sin( F )
F
Substitute the known lengths/angles from the diagram:
x 9 Note: use a calculator
=
sin( 44°) sin(37°) for this kind of question,
9 × sin( 44°) but do not round any
x = (m
multiplying both sides by sin(44°))
sin(37°) values until the end of
= 10.39 cm (4 sf) the calculation.
 424 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Proof of the sine rule

This result can be proved using the formula for the area of a triangle. We use the formula that
involves two sides and the included angle. (This was introduced in Chapter 29, p. 420.)
In any triangle ABC, the area is 1 ab sin(C).
2
If the included angle was B, the formula would become 1 ac sin(B).
2
If the included angle was A, the formula would be 1 bc sin( A).
2
Each of these expressions for the area of a triangle must be equal to each other:
1 ac sin(B) = 1 bc sin( A)
2 2
ac sin(B) = bc sin( A)
a sin(B) = b sin( A)
a = b (dividing both sides by sin(B) sin( A))
sin( A) sin(B)
In a similar way, we can prove a = c .
sin( A) sin(C)
Therefore: a = b = c
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C)

exercise 30.01
This exercise gives practice on solving sine rule type equations.
20 x
1–2 Write down the sine rule using letters from 6 =
sin(63°) sin(62°)
these triangles.
30 1 2 I 7
x
=
39.1
P G sin( 46.7°) sin(101.4°)

8–12 All these equations are the result of

R substituting into the sine rule. Calculate the
H value of x in each one, giving your answer
Q correct to 4 sf.
x 5
3–7 Make x the subject of these equations. 8 sin(20°) = sin(75°)
Do not calculate the value of the resulting
expression. Question 3 has been done as an x 10
9 sin(35°) = sin(98°)
example.
x 6 6 × sin( 40°) 12 x
3 sin( 40°) = sin(72°) gives x = 10
sin(94°)
=
sin(27°)
sin(72°)
x 2 2.1 x
4 = 11 =
sin(65°) sin(13°) sin(77°) sin( 48°)
12 x x 402
5 = 12 =
sin( 47°) sin(30°) sin(103.6°) sin(37.2°)
 30 The sine rule 425

exercise 30.02
1–5 Use the sine rule: 7 The triangle ABC A
x
a b c has two sides each C
= = 20°
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C) labelled x.
a What name 4 m
to calculate the length marked x in each triangle. x
Give answers correct to 4 sf. do we give to
1 B this kind of B
triangle?
43° b Use the sine
5 cm rule to calculate the length marked x.
8–12 Write down a sine rule equation for each
triangle, and use it to calculate the side
58° marked x.
A x C
8 A
2 A 21° 53° x
x 4 cm
9 5 cm
C 68° 41°
3 D 130° 72°
12 cm C
E 7 cm B x
50° B

x 10
80°
x 56° 20 cm
F 4 P 77° 11
8 cm
x
98° 135° 23°
R
5 G 46° 22° x 30
17 cm
Q 12
82°
19.8 cm 28° x

41°
H 31 cm
x I 52°

6 a Write down the sine P

rule for this triangle
in terms of p, q, r and 13 Make two y
73°
angles P, Q and R. 15 cm x
separate 70°
b Use geometry calculations
using the sine 25 cm
(∠ sum of !) to
work out the size Q 39° rule to work
R out the lengths 60° x
of angle Q.
marked x and
c Use the sine rule to calculate the length
y.
marked x.
 426 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Calculating angles with the sine rule

The sine rule can be used to work out angle sizes in triangles if sufficient information is given.

LECTURER
We use the symbol θ to represent an angle whose value is to be worked out from given information, in
the same way that we use x as a symbol for the length of a side whose length is to be worked out.
θ (theta) is one of the letters of the Greek alphabet (just like α, β, γ, etc.).

The most convenient way of working with the sine rule when
calculating angles is to write the fractions upside-down:
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C)
= =
a b c

The first example shows how to make sin(θ ) the subject of a sine rule type equation.
Example Make sin(θ ) the subject of the equation
sin( 56°) sin(θ ) .
=
4 9
= Answer Multiply both sides of the equation by 9:
9 × sin( 56°)
sin(θ ) =
4
The next example shows how to calculate the size of an angle using the sine rule.
Example Calculate the size of angle θ . B

= Answer Write down the sine rule, and

A
65°
substitute the given values from
30 the diagram: 8
6
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C)
= =
a b c
sin(θ ) sin(65°)
=
6 8 C
6 × sin(65°)
sin(θ ) =
8
= 0.6797
g the sin –1 key on a calculator)
θ = 42.8° (1 dp) (using

TIPSTER
Note: the last parts of the working are done on a calculator. Although
you can write down rounded values as part of the working, it is best not
to actually do any rounding of calculator values until the end.
 30 The sine rule 427

exercise 30.03
1–3 Write these equations with sin(θ ) as 4–8 All these equations are the result of substituting
the subject. Do not calculate the value of into the sine rule. Calculate the value of θ for each one.
the resulting expression. sin(θ ) sin(60°) sin(27°) sin(θ )
4 = 7 =
sin(θ ) sin(75°) 2 3 18 11
1 =
4 5 sin(θ ) sin(100°) sin(81°) sin(θ )
5 = 8 =
sin(θ ) sin(98°) 10 18 12.6 7
2 =
10 17 sin(θ ) sin(36.9°)
6 =
sin( 42°) sin(θ ) 14.7 25.1
3 =
13 8

exercise 30.04
1–5 Use the sine rule: 7 a Write down the sine rule for this triangle
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C) in terms of d, e, f and angles D, E and F.
= =
a b c F
20 cm
to calculate the angle marked θ in each triangle.
1 D
B

A 13 cm
72° 2
62°
11 cm 49°
10 cm E
4 cm
b Use the sine rule to calculate ∠F to 1 dp.
c Use geometry (∠ sum of !) to work out
C
3 θ.
5 cm
10 cm
8–11 Use the sine rule and the (∠ sum of !)
property to calculate the angles marked α and β
30
8 cm in these triangles.
4 11 cm
82° 103° 8 10 cm

19 cm 51° 4 cm
12 cm 9
5 14.3 cm 48°
13.5 cm 5 cm

64°
10
24 cm
6 a Write down the
sine rule for this 12 cm 11
triangle, and calculate
the value of θ .
b What is another 32 cm
23 cm
way of calculating 37°
62° 21°
the answer in 12 cm
part a? Explain. 27 cm
 428 Trigonometry problems 2.8

12
120° 20 cm

16 cm
a Use the sine rule to write down an expression for sin(θ ) using the given measurements from
this triangle. Your answer should be in the form sin(θ ) = ______.
b Express sin(θ ) as a decimal.
c Describe what happens when you try to work out θ on a calculator using the sin–1 key.
d Try drawing this triangle to scale. Explain what happens.

Applications
exercise 30.05
In each question, round your answer c What is the angle of depression of the top
appropriately. of the shorter building from the top of
1 Transit NZ operates a road-works depot the higher building?
where shingle is stored in conical piles. d Calculate the distance between the two
Trucks back up a straight ramp that slopes at buildings at ground level.
22° to the ground. The shingle is then tipped
downwards. The side of the pile of shingle 3 The diagram shows a yacht, a ship and a
is 12 m long, and it makes an angle of 45° to lighthouse. The bearing of the ship from
the ground. Use the sine rule to calculate the the yacht is 070°, and the lighthouse is due
length of the ramp. north of the yacht.

12 m
30 6 km
22° 45°

2 Two buildings are situated on a level road,

and one is considerably higher than the
070°
other. The diagram gives information about
some of the distances and one of the angles 5 km
of elevation involved.

60 m
a Use the sine rule to calculate the size of
50 m angle θ to the nearest degree.
20° b What is the bearing of the ship from the
lighthouse?
a Write down the size of angle α. c Use the sine rule again to calculate the
b Use the sine rule to calculate the size of distance between the yacht and the
angle β. lighthouse.
 30 The sine rule 429

4 Two swimmers (A and B) are swimming in 6 At a big rugby game, a small motorised toy
the same direction towards the safety of a truck is used to deliver a kicking tee out
lighthouse. The distance from B to the top onto the field of play when needed. The toy
of the lighthouse is 240 m. The angles of truck starts from one corner of the ground,
elevation of the top of the lighthouse from A delivers the tee, and then continues to the
and B respectively are 50° and 40°. far corner on the same side of the ground.
The diagram shows its journey.
L
100 m
30° 50°

50° 40°
A B
a Give a geometrical reason to explain why
∠BAL is 130°.
b Use the sine rule to calculate the distance Use the sine rule (twice) to calculate the
between A and B. Give your answer to distance that the toy truck travels.
the nearest metre.

5 Emma is standing at the edge of the top of

a tall building, looking down at two cars C
and D driving towards the building along a
straight, level road. The angle of depression
of C is 20°, and the angle of depression of D
is 15°. The cars are 35 m apart.
E
15°

30
7 The diagram shows plans for a new bridge
across a wide river. It is designed to shorten
a journey that currently goes across an old
bridge and then along a straight road for
C 35 m D
380 m. Calculate the saving in distance by
a Give a geometrical reason to explain why using the new bridge instead of the old
∠CDE is 15°. bridge to travel from P to R.
b What is the size of ∠CED?
c Use the sine rule to calculate the distance
from Emma to car C. R
rid ge
d Calculate the distance from car C to the wb
Ne
foot of the building.
22° 380 m
P 117°
Old
brid
ge Q
 430 Trigonometry problems 2.8

8 Twins Colin and Donna are standing on opposite sides T

of a tall tree, so that the tree blocks the view of
each from the other. The ground between them
is level, and they are 140 m apart. As Colin
looks at the tree the angle of elevation of
the top is 17°, and for Donna it is 20°.
a Explain whether Colin or 17° 20° D
Donna is closer to the tree. C
b Calculate the distance from 1.5 m 1.5 m
Colin to the top of the tree.
140 m
c Calculate the distance from
Donna to the top of the tree.
d Both Colin and Donna are 1.5 m in height. Calculate the height of the tree.

9 A plane is descending towards a runway of

length 3620 m. The angle of elevation of the
plane from the far end of the runway is 11°, and
the angle of elevation of the plane from the near end
is 14°. Calculate the distance from the plane to the near Runway
end of the runway. 3620 m

10 Railway engineers need to add a new track next to an existing track. They plan to widen the
railway by cutting into a bank. At present the bank slopes 28 m in a straight line from top to
bottom, and the angle of elevation of the top from the bottom is 23°. The top of the new bank
will be left at its current position, but the angle of elevation of the slope from the bottom will
increase to 29°. How much extra width will be gained by cutting into the bank?

The ambiguous case

30 Sometimes it is possible to draw two different triangles that have the same three measurements in
common. For example, both of these triangles have the measurements A = 38°, a = 4 cm and
b = 5 cm.
C C

5 cm 4 cm 5 cm
4 cm
38° 38°
A B A B

The word ambiguous means ‘capable of two meanings’. If we work out C

angle B, there are two possible answers – angle B can either be acute or
obtuse.
What is the relationship between the two possible angles at B? In 5 cm
this diagram they are at positions B1 and B2. 4 cm 4 cm

∠AB2C + ∠CB2B1 = 180° (∠’s on line)

38°
∠CB2B1 = ∠CB1B2 (base ∠’s, isos !) A B2 B1
Therefore the two marked angles • and × (∠AB2C and ∠CB1B2)
are supplementary (add to 180°).
 30 The sine rule 431

We can see how the sine rule can give two answers for angle B in this example by looking at the
working.
Example Calculate the two values of angle B for these C
triangle measurements.
A = 38°, a = 4 cm and b = 5 cm.
5 cm
= Answer Use the sine rule: 4 cm 4 cm

sin( A) sin(B)
=
a b 38°
A
sin(38°) sin(B) B2 B1
=
4 5
5 × sin(38°)
sin(B) =
4 LECTURER
= 0.7696
B = 50.3° or 129.7° The ambiguous case occurs when
the shorter of the two given sides
Note: 129.7° is the supplement of 50.3°. is opposite the given angle.

exercise 30.06
1 Copy these tables, and then use your 7–10 These triangles are not drawn to scale. For
calculator to complete them. The first parts each triangle, calculate the two possible values
have been done as an example. of θ for the given measurements. Lengths are in
centimetres.
Angle sine sine Angle 7
75° 0.9659 0.51 30.7° 11 10 8 15
115° 0.9659 149.3°
41° 0.7 41°
139° 30
30° 0.19
18
150° 9
28 51°
169° 0.84
62°
11°
25
2–6 What are the two possible triangle angles 10
that have these sin values? Give answers correct 11.8
to 1 dp for values that do not give exact angles.
2 0.61
3 0.5 55°
12.3
4 0.4166
5 0.0366
11 A triangle, DEF, has measurements E = 30°,
6 0.8181 e = 8 cm and f = 10 cm. Make an accurate
scale drawing of both possible triangles.
 432 Trigonometry problems 2.8

12 The seating in a grandstand slopes at an 13 This triangle is not drawn to scale.

angle of 20° to the ground, and extends
upwards for 6 m. The top row is to be 15 cm 11 cm
supported by a strut, and the only strut
available is 2.2 m in length. 32°

a Use the sine rule to calculate the value of

2.2 m sin(α).
b Hence calculate both possible values of
20° α.
Ground c Complete this statement:
In this triangle α = ______ and β =
a Calculate the two possible angles that ______; or α = ______ and β = ______.
the strut could make with the top of the d Are both possible triangles obtuse?
grandstand.
b Hence draw the two possible positions for 14 Are triangles where the ambiguous case
the strut. applies always obtuse?
c Label the positions in part b as ‘safe’ and
‘unsafe’. 15 A triple-hinged mechanism, with hinges at
A, B and C, is designed to move backwards
and forwards in a vertical plane. Point C
is fixed, and the rod labelled AD is free to
move right towards C and then back again,
over and over again, in a horizontal line. The
minimum value of angle θ is 35°. Calculate
the distance between the extreme left and
extreme right positions of point A.
B
11.9 cm 18.6 cm
30
D A
C
Direction
of
movement
 31
The cosine rule

The cosine rule gives the relationship between three side lengths and one angle in any triangle.

The cosine rule states that for any triangle labelled ABC: B

a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A) c
a
A b
C

Calculating sides with the cosine rule

The cosine rule is used to calculate the third side of a triangle when we are given measurements for
two sides and the included angle (the angle in between). If the cosine rule is expressed as
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A) then the given sides would be b and c, and the given (included) angle
would be A. The side to be calculated, if expressed in this form, would be a.
Example Use the cosine rule to calculate the length of the side B
31
marked x in this triangle.
= Answer a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A) (cosine rule) 4 cm x
x2 = 52 + 42 – 2 × 5 × 4 × cos(25°)
25°
= 25 + 16 – 40 cos(25°) A C
5 cm
= 41 – 40 cos(25°)
= 4.748
x = 4.748 = 2.179 cm (4 sf)

TIPSTER
1 Remember to multiply the cos value by the number in front
before doing the subtraction.
2 Make sure you calculate the square root at the final stage.
 434 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Proof of the cosine rule

A generation ago, New Zealand mathematics students at this level were expected to know how
to prove the cosine rule. Today it is usually supplied to students, so you do not have to even
remember the formula, let alone prove it!
A proof is presented here, because some students, and all mathematicians, prefer to know the
basis for a mathematical result rather than applying it without understanding.
The diagram shows a triangle ABC, with a line through B, B
representing the ‘height’ of the triangle, cutting AC at D.
Using trigonometry in triangle ABD gives x = c cos(A).
From Pythagoras: c a
h
In triangle ABD: c2 = h2 + x2 (1)
A x C
In triangle BDC: a2 = h2 + (b – x)2 D b–x
b
= h2 + b2 – 2bx + x2 (2)
Subtract (1) from (2) to eliminate h2:
a2 – c2 = h2 + b2 – 2bx + x2 – (h2 + x2)
= h2 + b2 – 2bx + x2 – h2 – x2
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bx
= b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A)
The proof gives a form of the cosine rule that would be used to calculate the length of the side
marked a.
• If calculating the side marked b, the cosine rule would be written in the form
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos(B).
• If calculating the side marked c, the cosine rule would be written in the form
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos(C).
31

Labelling
When the triangle is not already labelled with letters, you can either:
• add your own labels and then follow the cosine rule, or
• substitute directly, using the fact that the side you are required to calculate is opposite the given
angle.
Example Use the cosine rule to calculate x. 11 m

= Answer x 2 = 92 + 112 − 2 × 9 × 11 × cos( 115°) 115°

= 81 + 121 − 198 cos(115°) 9m
x
= 202 − 198 cos(115°)
= 285.7
x = 285.7 = 16.9 m (3
3 sf)
 31 The cosine rule 435

TIPSTER
This example shows two important points.
1 Check that you can get this answer on your calculator. When the given angle is obtuse, it has a
negative cosine value. In the working, what happens is this:
202 – 198 × cos(115°) = 202 – 198 × –0.4226
= 202 – –83.7
= 202 + 83.7
= 285.7
2 The two given sides (b and c) are interchangeable in the cosine rule formula. This is because the
expression b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A) has the same value as c2 + b2 – 2cb cos(A). So in this example
another way of substituting the given sides would be 112 + 92 – 2 × 11 × 9 × cos(115°). This
would give the same final answer.

INVESTIGATION

Pythagoras and the cosine rule

If the angle between the two given sides b and c is a right-angle, substitute A = 90°
into the cosine rule formula a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A) and simplify the result. Comment.

exercise 31.01
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A)
1 Write down the cosine rule for this triangle 3 Write down the cosine Y
in the form p2 = _____. rule for this triangle in 31
the form z2 = _____.
P

Z
r q X

4–7 Each of these equations is the result of

Q R substituting measurements from a triangle into
p the cosine rule. Evaluate x.
4 x2 = 62 + 72 – 2 × 6 × 7 × cos(45°)
2 Write down the cosine rule for this triangle
in the form f 2 = _____. 5 x2 = 32 + 22 – 2 × 3 × 2 × cos(133°)
6 x2 = 222 + 352 – 2 × 22 × 35 × cos(71.3°)
f
D E 7 x2 = 1.852 + 4.722 – 2 × 1.85 × 4.72 ×
cos(98.3°)
e d

F
 436 Trigonometry problems 2.8

exercise 31.02
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A)
1–2 Use the cosine rule to calculate x in these 8 x
triangles.
34 cm
1 B x
9
x 62°
2 B C
31 cm 5.6 m
5 cm x 98° 4.9 m
9 cm 10 500 m
64°
C 11 cm 99°
A 3 cm 479 m
24° x

A
11–13 These questions show mistakes in cosine
3 a Write down the Q rule calculations. The mistakes are major ones,
25 cm
cosine rule for not the effects of rounding. In each case explain
this triangle in the 36° x what the mistake is, and also work out the
P
form p2 = _____. correct answer.
b Calculate the side 24 cm 11
marked x. 8 cm
R 10°

4 a Write down the cosine rule for this

9 cm
triangle in the form e2 = _____.
x
D
x2 = 82 + 92 − 2 × 8 × 9 × cos(10°)
x
= 64 + 81 − 144 cos(10°)
12 cm
31 140° = 145 − 144 cos(10°)
F
E 10 cm = 1 × cos(10°)
b Calculate the side marked x. = 0.9848
5–10 In each diagram use the cosine rule to x = 0.9848 = 0.9924 cm (4 sf)
calculate the length of the side marked x.
12
5

9 cm x
x 6 3 cm
49° 37° 110°
13 m
8 cm 15 m 3 cm

x 2 = 32 + 32 − 2 × 3 × 3 × cos(110°)
7 4 km = 9 + 9 − 18 × 0.3420
x
130° = 18 − 6.156
3 km
x = 11.84
x = 11.84 = 3.441 cm (4 sf)
 31 The cosine rule 437

13
70° 1.9 cm
1.8 cm

x = 1.82 + 1.92 − 2 × 1.8 × 1.9 × cos(70°)

= 3.24 + 3.61 − 6.884 cos(70°)
= 6.85 − 2.339
= 4.51 cm (3 sf)

INVESTIGATION

The octagon chop

A B
The diagram shows a regular octagon.
1 How many different diagonals does the octagon have? (Hint: use H C
the labels A to H and make a list, starting from AC.)
2 The octagon has three different sizes of diagonals – let’s call
these short, medium and long diagonals. How many of each G D
type are there? Copy and complete this table.
F E
Type of
diagonal Example Number of these
Short AC
Medium 31
Long

3 Write down some working and an explanation to show that the interior angle of a regular
octagon is 135°.
4 Suppose each side of the octagon is 1 cm. Use the cosine rule (possibly more than once) to
calculate the length of each of the different types of diagonal.
5 Calculate the area of the octagon. Show how you divided it up to do this.
6 The diagram shows an octagon split into two isosceles triangles
and two isosceles trapeziums. Show how to rearrange pieces 1, 2, 3
and 4 to form a rectangle.
7 Use your answer to questions 4 and 6 to help suggest an alternative 1 2 3 4
method for finding the area of a regular octagon.
 438 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Calculating angles with the cosine rule

If the lengths of all three sides of a triangle are given, we can use the cosine rule to calculate the size
of any angle in the triangle. This involves rearranging the cosine rule formula to make cos(A) the
subject:
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2 bc cos( A)
2 bc cos( A) = b 2 + c 2 − a 2
b2 + c 2 − a2
cos( A) =
2 bc
In this formula the side opposite the angle being calculated is the one that is subtracted. For example,
in the triangle DEF the cosine rule for calculating ∠F would be:
d2 + e2 − f 2 .
cos( F ) =
2 de
Example Use the cosine rule to calculate the size of ∠A in this triangle.

= Answer cos( A) = b + c − a
2 2 2
B
2bc
2 + 62 − 32 6 cm
= 5
2×5×6 3 cm

= 25 + 36 − 9
A
60 5 cm
5 2 C
= = 0.86!
60
A = 29.9° (1 dp)

1 In any triangle, the shortest side is opposite the smallest angle, and the longest side is opposite
the largest angle.
2 If the largest angle is obtuse (greater than 90°), then it will have a negative cosine.
31
These two points are demonstrated in the following example.
Example Calculate the size of the largest angle in this triangle. P

= Answer The largest angle in this triangle is ∠PQR 26 cm

(that is, ∠Q) because it is opposite the longest side
(PR = 26 cm). 15 cm
R
We write the cosine rule for this triangle with cos(Q)
Q 18 cm
as the subject:
p2 + r 2 − q2
cos(Q) =
2 pr
182 + 152 − 262
=
2 × 18 × 15
324 + 2225 − 676
=
540
−
127
= = − 0.2352
540
Q = 103.6° (1 dp)
 31 The cosine rule 439

exercise 31.03
b2 + c 2 − a2
cos( A) =
2 bc

1 Write down the cosine rule for this triangle 3 Write down the Y
in the form cos(P) = _____. cosine rule for this
triangle in the form X
P
cos(Y) = _____.
q Z
r 4–7 Each of these expressions is the result of
substituting the lengths of sides from a triangle
Q
R into the cosine rule. In each case calculate the
p value of θ , rounding the answer correct to 1 dp.
2 Write down the D 7 2 + 82 − 2 2
4 cos(θ ) =
cosine rule for this 2×7×8
triangle in the form 4 + 32 − 62
2
cos(E) = _____. f 5 cos(θ ) =
e 2×4×3
252 + 292 − 342
E 6 cos(θ ) =
2 × 25 × 29
d
F 11.52 + 10.32 − 20.42
7 cos(θ ) =
2 × 11.5 × 10.3

exercise 31.04
b2 + c 2 − a2
cos( A) =
2 bc
31
1–2 Use the cosine rule to calculate the angle 4–9 Use the cosine rule for each diagram to
marked θ correct to 1 dp. calculate the angle marked θ . Give your answer
1 correct to 1 dp.
B
2 4 8 cm
2 cm A 12 cm
3 cm C 3 cm
11 cm
A 5
C 19 cm 9 cm
4 cm
B
7 cm 7 cm
3 a Write down the 6 16 m
E
cosine rule for 15 m
this triangle
in the form 12 cm 15 cm 4 cm
cos(E) = _____.
24 m 7
b Calculate θ . 15 m
D F 8m
16 cm
8m
 440 Trigonometry problems 2.8

8 11 The diagram shows

9.3 m 11 cm 11 cm
a kite with sides of
6.1 m
9 326 m 11 cm, 11 cm,
x
15 cm and
7.4 m 15 cm, and smallest
angle of 40°. Use
294 m 442 m both versions of 15 cm 15 cm
the cosine rule to
calculate:
40°
a the length of the
diagonal marked x
10 a In each of these diagrams, write down b the size of angle θ .
the value that the cosine rule gives for
cos(θ ). 12 A triangle has sides measuring 21 m, 22 m
(A) (B) and 23 m. Use the cosine rule to calculate the
24
size of the largest angle in this triangle.
7 9 7
25 13 A triangle has sides measuring 79 cm, 68 cm
and 71 cm. Calculate the size of the smallest
16 angle in this triangle.

(C) (D) 14 The diagram shows a

48
triangle with three
12 12 marked angles: 11 m
17 8m
α, β and γ.
29
12

b For each of (A)–(D), calculate the value of 6m

θ if possible. a Use the cosine rule to calculate α.
31 c Explain how you could have worked b Use the sine rule to calculate β.
out the value of θ (if possible) from each c Work out the size of γ, giving a
diagram without using the cosine rule. geometrical reason to support your
answer.

INVESTIGATION

The Golden Ratio and the cosine rule

The Golden Ratio appears in many different areas of mathematics – some of them seeming
quite unrelated on first appearances! It has been included earlier in this book:
• in quadratic equations, as one of the solutions to the equation x2 – x – 1 = 0 (see Chapter 6,
p. 56),
• in sequences, as a limit of the ratio of terms in the Fibonacci sequence
1 2 3 5 8 13 21
, , , , , , ,… .
1 1 2 3 5 8 13
 31 The cosine rule 441

The Golden Ratio can also be seen in regular pentagons, and can be 2
calculated using the cosine rule.
2
The Golden Ratio is length of diagonal of pentagon .
length of sidee of pentagon

1 What is the size of the interior angle of a regular pentagon?

2 Use the cosine rule to calculate the length of a diagonal of a pentagon
with sides of 2 units.
length of diagonal
3 What is the value of for the pentagon?
length of side

Solving triangles

STARTER
John and Keith are at a night rugby game. Their L
maths teacher has told them that they can work out
the height of a flood-lighting tower from the other
side of the ground. The teacher tells them to make
these measurements:
• stand in line with one of the flood-lighting
towers and measure the distance between them
(JK),
• measure the angle of elevation of the top of the
tower from John (α),
• measure the angle of elevation of the top of the
tower from Keith (β). 31
B J K
20 m
Your job is to show them how to work out the height of the tower when they go home and get
out their calculators. Explain how it could be done, outlining what has to be worked out, and
how, at each step.

In general, three measurements, including at

least one side, are needed to determine the other TIPSTER
measurements in a triangle.
Any triangle, obviously, has three sides and To ‘solve’ a triangle, use both the sine and
three angles. Given three suitable measurements, cosine rules in a suitable order, as well as
the process of working out all the other the (∠ sum of ") property.
measurements is called solving the triangle.
 442 Trigonometry problems 2.8

exercise 31.05
1 4 5 cm
x 120°
4 cm 6 cm
51° 66° x
5
y 32°
a Use the sine rule to calculate x.
x 13 cm
b Use the (∠ sum of ") property to
calculate θ .
c Use the cosine rule to calculate y.
d Show that the sine rule can also be used 7 cm
to calculate y.
6 Use the formula for the area of a triangle
2–5 In each triangle, work out the marked  1 
lengths and angles.  Area = ab sin(C)  and the cosine rule
 2 
2 to calculate the values of θ and x in this
triangle.
10 cm 3 9 cm
x
7 cm x 6m
Area = 10 m2
47° 8 cm
11 cm
5m

PUZZLE Double triangles

31 A right-angled isosceles triangle with an area of 8 m2
A
is cut from another right-angled isosceles triangle of
area 72 m2. Calculate the distance between A and B. B

Applications
exercise 31.06
1 When fully 2 a Wedges of cheese have a triangular
extended, the inside cross-section, measuring 8 cm by
of the blades of a 8 cm by 5 cm. Calculate the angle
pair of scissors each between the longer sides. 8 cm 8 cm
measure 93 mm, and b The wedges of cheese can be
cross at an angle of arranged in a layer side by
164°. Calculate the side in a circular fan-like pattern. 5 cm
distance between What is the maximum number of
the ends of the wedges in one of these patterns?
blades.
93 mmm
m
93
 31 The cosine rule 443

3 Last century, before digital TV was introduced, some homes used 120 cm
‘rabbits-ears’ aerials to improve their analogue TV reception. One set
of these has aerial lengths of 84 cm and 90 cm when fully extended.
Calculate the angle between the aerials when their tips are 120 cm 84 cm 90 cm
apart.

4 A plane applies full power to its engines and

accelerates for 1500 m along a runway, taking
off at an angle of 20° and climbing in a straight line
for 2500 m.
a Calculate its distance in a straight line
from the point where it applied full power. 2500 m
b Calculate the apparent angle of elevation 20°
from this point.
1500 m

N
5 Two life-rafts escape successfully from a sinking
ship at point S. After 10 minutes one life-raft has
drifted for 800 m on a course of 070°. The other
life-raft has a working engine, and is able to D
travel for 1900 m on a course of 170°.
a Calculate the angle between the courses of 800 m
the two life-rafts.
b Calculate the distance between the two rafts 070°
after the 10 minutes.
S 31

1900 m

R
6 A regular hexagonal nut has sides of 19.4 mm. An adjustable
spanner is used to tighten the nut. Calculate the distance between
the jaws of the spanner.

19.4 mm
 444 Trigonometry problems 2.8

7 The only access to a castle is over a 5-m drawbridge

that crosses a moat. The moat has a triangular
cross-section. Its deepest point is 3 m below the
hinge of the drawbridge, and 5.5 m from the point
where the bridge touches the ground.
a Calculate the angle that the bridge turns

pe
through from a vertical position to being fully

Ro
extended.
b Calculate the length of the rope needed to hold
the bridge from the top when the bridge is fully e
Bridg
extended. 3m
5.5 m

8 In order to avoid cutting through a reserve, a road has been built in two straight
sections, one of 485 m and the other of 630 m, with an angle of 165° between the
sections where they meet. Calculate the extra length of road required to build it
in two sections instead of one.

31
 32
Practical trigonometry

The emphasis in this chapter is on taking measurements and making calculations in the context
of non-right-angled triangles. This chapter assumes students have access to the some or all of the
following equipment.

For measuring distances For measuring angles

Trundle wheel Clinometer
Extended measuring tape Large-scale protractor
Builders’ tape-measure Plane table

Problems involve making a selection from the following formulae to calculate the required length,
angle or area after taking appropriate measurements.

1 a b c
Area of triangle = ab sin(C) = =
2 sin( A) sin(B) sin(C)
b2 + c 2 − a2
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A) cos( A) =
2 bc
32
Calculating heights by triangulation
By taking suitable measurements and using trigonometry, it is possible to estimate the height (h) of
an object above the surrounding ground level. The object could be a building, a flag-pole, a ceiling in
a room, etc.

Taking the measurements

P
• Mark two points A and B on the ground, that are in the
same plane as the top of the object you have to measure.
• Take measurements to obtain the sizes of angles
θ 1 and θ 2.
h
• Measure the distance between A and B.

1 2
Performing the calculations A x B X

• Use an appropriate formula and measurements from !ABP to calculate the distance from B to P.
• Use measurements from !BPX and an appropriate formula from right-angled trigonometry to
determine h, the height of the object.
 446 Trigonometry problems 2.8

exercise 32.01
The internally assessed Achievement Standard 2.8 requires students to take measurements
themselves. The following measurements are provided for students to practise the mathematical
calculations.
1 A student obtained these measurements to 2 A student obtained these measurements to
determine the height of a factory chimney: determine the height of a hill: θ 1 = 9°,
θ 1 = 25°, θ 2 = 32° and AB = 18 m. Estimate θ 2 = 12° and AB = 120 m. Estimate the height
the height of the chimney. of the hill.

Estimating the perimeter and area of irregular shapes

It is possible to estimate the area and perimeter of an irregular polygon by dividing it up into
triangles. The area could be a residential section with clear lines of sight to all corners, a playground,
a field on a farm, an open park, etc.

Taking the measurements Sheet of

A paper
• Go to a suitable point (P) in the middle of the
Irregular
space to be measured. shaped area
• Place a piece of paper on a flat surface and B
P
draw lines (spokes) pointing towards the
corners of the shape. Use a protractor to E
measure the angles between the lines.
• Take measurements to obtain the actual
D C
distances from the point (P) to each corner of
the shape (A, B, C, …).

32 Performing the calculations

• Use an appropriate formula and measurements from !ABP, !BCP, etc. to calculate the area of
each triangle, and hence determine the area of the entire shape.
• Use an appropriate formula and measurements from !ABP, !BCP, etc. to calculate the length of
the external side of each triangle, and hence the perimeter of the entire shape.

exercise 32.02
The internally assessed Achievement Standard 2.8 requires students to take measurements
themselves. The following measurements are provided for students to practise the mathematical
calculations.
1 Here is a plan obtained by a student who took measurements at
10

and from the centre of a children’s playground. Determine the area

m

and perimeter of the shape using the student’s measurements. 105° m

85° 14.5
m 70°
7.5 100°
11
m
 32 Practical trigonometry 447

2 A student obtained these measurements to determine the area and perimeter of a residential
section, in the shape of an irregular quadrilateral, ABCD. The distances from a centre point, P, to
the vertices were PA = 19.3 m, PB = 14.1 m, PC = 25.6 m and PD = 18.0 m. The angles at P were
∠APB = 102°, ∠BPC = 75°, ∠CPD = 84° and ∠DPA = 99°. Determine the area and perimeter of
the shape using the student’s measurements.

3 The spokes of this accurately drawn plan show

measurements from a centre point to the five corners of a 41 m
park in the shape of an irregular pentagon. Measure the 47 m
angles and then use appropriate formulae to determine the 64 m
area and perimeter of the park.
58 m
43 m

Maximising the apparent width

Trigonometry can be used to locate the best position to hit an object Hoop
between two points by making the apparent width between the two
points as large as possible. Applications include converting a try in C
rugby, and hitting a croquet ball through a hoop. A B
The problem is to find the position of P somewhere on a line CD P0
E
at right-angles to AB that gives the maximum value of AE. Note that P1
triangle PEA is isosceles. P2
First determine the positions of the lines AB and CD. They could P3
be the try-line and side-line on a rugby pitch for example. P4
P5
Taking the measurements D
32
• Measure the distance from A to the line CD, and the distance AB
between the posts or hoop, etc.
• At various locations for P (they are marked P0, P1, P2, etc. in the diagram) measure the length of
PA and PB.

Performing the calculations

• Use an appropriate formula and measurements from !ABP to calculate the size of ∠APB.

Making the conclusion

• Compare the different values of ∠APB and determine the maximum value and therefore the
position of P that gives that value.
 448 Trigonometry problems 2.8

exercise 32.03
The internally assessed Achievement Standard 2.8 requires students to take measurements
themselves. The following measurements are provided for students to practise the mathematical
calculations.
1 A student decides to investigate the croquet example (shown in the diagram on the
previous page) where the problem is to locate the best position for hitting a croquet
ball through a hoop. Measurements were AB = 12 cm and AC = 30 cm. Possible positions
for P occur at 10 cm intervals. The measurements have been entered into a spreadsheet.

Determine the best position for placing the ball. Express this as the distance along line CD
from P0.

2 In football, the width (AD) of the goal from post to post is 7.32 m
7.32 m. The penalty spot is 11 m from the goal line (AD) on the
perpendicular bisector (PG) of the goal line.
Suppose a player wants to investigate whether the penalty
32 spot is the easiest point to score from on this line. We will
assume that the power of the shot and the goalkeeper’s
reactions are irrelevant (unlikely in practice!) and that the A B G C D
player will aim between A and B or C and D in the diagram,
where B and C are each half-way between the centre of the
goal-mouth and the posts.
Possible
Take measurements, and make calculations, to determine penalty spots
the best position to place the ball on PG (so that the apparent
width between A and B or C and D is as large as possible).
Comment on how the position of this point compares
with the actual position of the penalty spot in football.
P

3 A drive-in cinema has a screen that is 6 m high and that is

mounted 5 m above eye-level.
6m
a How far from the screen should people seated in a car
be parked to get the largest view of the screen?
b What feature of ordinary cinemas would make it more 5m
difficult to use the method described in this section?
 32 Practical trigonometry 449

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
The kidney-shaped pool
A student decides to use the techniques learned from
Mathematics AS 2.8 to estimate the volume of a kidney-
shaped swimming pool. The depth is 1.4 m everywhere.
Measurements are taken at 45° intervals from a point
near the centre of the pool to the sides.
This process gives these eight measurements (all in
metres): 3.84, 3.41, 2.45, 4.87, 3.76, 2.66, 2.80, 3.55.
The student decides to model the area by dividing it
into eight triangles and calculating the area of each.
1 Enter these measurements into a spreadsheet and calculate the area of each triangle using
an appropriate formula. Note: for sin(45°) use 0.7071. The extract from the incomplete
spreadsheet here shows how you could set it
out.
2 Use the estimates in part 1 to determine the
volume of the pool.
3 What feature of the pool makes it inappropriate
to add up the area of triangles to estimate the
area?
4 Is this method likely to give an under-estimate
or an over-estimate of the volume? Explain.
5 How could this method be made more
accurate?

32
Mixed trigonometry problems
Here you have to decide which trig formula or rule to use!

a b c
= = a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2 bc cos( A)
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C)
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C) b2 + c 2 − a2
= = cos( A) =
a b c 2 bc

exercise 32.04
1–5 Calculate the angles marked θ or the sides marked x in these triangles.
1 2 3 4
65° 64°
12 m 51° x
8m 17 m
7m 11 m
72°
x 8m 5 cm 12 m
 450 Trigonometry problems 2.8

5 9m 9
132°

102 cm
34° 14 m

x2 y=x
1×1
6 Two surveyors are planning a route for a
road tunnel underneath a hill. They stand on
opposite sides of the hill in line with a flag
at the top. Calculate the distance between
them.
160°
The Maths family have hung their family
2400 m portrait on the wall of their living room. A
1900 m
loop of cord runs through rings attached
to the two top corners of the portrait and
passes through a hook on the wall. The
angle made by the cord at the hook is 132°
and the distance between the two rings is
102 cm. Calculate the length of the loop of
7 The goal in ice-hockey is 2 m wide. A player cord, to the nearest centimetre.
shoots for goal along the ice from a point
6 m from one post and 5 m from the other. 10 A hillside slopes upwards at an angle of
Calculate the angle that the player must 20° to the horizontal. A straight seam of
shoot within to score. coal, sloping downwards at an angle of 10°,
2m emerges on the hillside. The length of coal
exposed is 5.5 m, and 245 m further up the
32 hillside is a vertical mine shaft, that extends
down to the bottom of the seam of coal.
Calculate the length of the mine shaft and
the width of the seam of coal.
2m

5m
24
Coal seam
m Shaft
5.5 length

8 A golfer lines up a shot on the tee and Coal seam width

aims for the hole, which is 220 m distant. 20° 10°
Unfortunately the shot is 9° off-line, and
the ball only travels 135 m. Calculate the
distance from where the ball stops to the
hole.
 32 Practical trigonometry 451

11 A ski-lift runs up a mountain in two 13 Carol looks across a road at a fire hydrant on
sections, from A to B (1500 m at an angle of the opposite footpath. This is at an angle of
20° to the horizontal) then from B to C 20° to the direction in which she is walking.
(1200 m at an angle of 45° to the horizontal). She walks 50 m further along the footpath
C and looks back at the fire hydrant, which is
now at an angle of 30° to the direction from
which she has come. Calculate the width of
the road.

1200 m
30°

B 45°

50 m
1500 m
A 20°

a Calculate the size of ∠ABC.

20°
b Calculate the distance in a straight line
from A to C.

12 A block of land can be represented by the

quadrilateral PQRS with the measurements 14 A flag-pole, CF, is 5 m high. It is anchored
as given in the diagram. ∠QPS = ∠QSR. from F by straight wires measuring 9 m and
Calculate the perimeter of the block and the 11 m to two points A and B on the ground.
area. ∠ACB = 130°. Calculate the distance from A
R to B.

Q
F

30 m 36 m
32
11 m
24 m 9m
5m

C
P
20 m S 130°

A B

PUZZLE 4.9 m
The mobile crane
The diagram shows a mobile crane mounted 1.4 m 102°
above the road on the level tray of a truck. The crane
5.6 m
has two straight sections (5.6 m and 4.9 m) and a
chain dangling from the end of the crane down to
the surface of the road. The first straight section 68°
makes an angle of 68° with the tray, and the two
sections meet at an angle of 102°. Calculate the 1.4 m
length of the chain.
 33
Circular measure

Up to now we have measured angles in degrees. This is a rather artificial unit to use. For historical
reasons, the convention is that there are 90° in a right-angle and therefore 360° in a full turn or
complete revolution.
Another convention that could have been used is a metric one, with 100 ‘units’ making up a full
turn. These units called grads, used in engineering, have the property that 100 grads make up a right-
angle.

90° 100 grads

A more natural method is to define a new unit, called a radian.

1 radian = the angle formed in a sector

with the arc length the same as the radius.
33 = =

1 radian
=

This definition does not depend on the size of the sector. If a sector
is drawn with twice the radius and twice the arc length, the angle
at the centre is still 1 radian.
A radian, then, is the angle formed when an object has made a
circular turn through the same distance as its distance from the
1 1
centre of the circle.

TIPSTER
Radian measure is
sometimes called
circular measure.
 33 Circular measure 453

STARTER
Intuitively, what does an angle value in radians tell us? 1 radian is defined as
an angle where the arc length is the same as the length of the radius.
6 the size of an angle of
Therefore, an angle of 0.6 radians is 0.6 or 60% or 10
1 radian. The arc length is 60% of the radius.
Discuss the following questions.
1 Which of these angles is about 0.5 radians?
0.6

A B C D

2 Choose a value from the list {1, 2, 3, 4} for the size in radians
of this angle.

The arc length formula

The length of an arc is proportional to both:
• the angle at the centre of the arc, and
• the radius of the arc.
Consider the diagrams.
1 Two sectors have the same radius. = 2s
Sector B has an angle twice the size of sector A. s
A B
33
=

This means the arc length of sector B is twice the arc 2

=

=
length of sector A.

2 Two sectors have the same centre angle. 3s

Sector B has a radius three times the length of sector A.
B
This means the arc length of sector B is three times the A s
arc length of sector A. r 3r

Because arc length is proportional to both the angle at the centre of a sector and the radius, we
have the arc length formula:
s
s = rθ
where s is the arc length, r is the length of the radius r
and θ is the angle at the centre of the sector, measured in radians.
r
 454 Trigonometry problems 2.8

TIPSTER
One consequence of this formula is that radians do not have ‘units’. They are ordinary numbers. From
science you may know that one property of units is that they are derived in the same way as formulae.
For example:
distance
Velocity =
time
If we take the units for distance (i.e. metres) and divide these by the units for time (i.e. seconds), we
obtain the units for velocity (i.e. metres per second, or m/s).
Rearranging the arc length formula, we have:
arc length
Angle =
radius or θ = s
r
It follows that if both lengths are measured in, say, centimetres, then the units ‘cancel out’. This means
that θ has no units. Radians, therefore, are just ordinary numbers.

How do we calculate these numbers? The answer lies in using the equation for the circumference of a
circle.

Conversion of degrees/radians
Rearranging the arc length formula (s = r θ ), we get:
θ = s
r
If we take a full turn (360°), the arc length is just the circumference:
360° = 2 πr = 2 π
r
Thus 360° = 2π (about 2 × 3.142 = 6.284 radians) and, in particular, 180° = π radians.

33 1° = π and π radians = 180°

180

To convert degrees to radians, multiply by π .

180
Often it is best to leave your answer in terms of π.

Example Convert 45° to radians. Leave your answer in terms of π.

= Answer 45° = 45 × π = 45 × π = 1 × π = π
180 180 4 4

To convert radians to degrees, multiply by 180 .

π
Example Convert 2 π radians to degrees.
3
2 π = 2 × 180° = 360° = 120°
= Answer 3 3 3
 33 Circular measure 455

What is 1 radian in degrees?

We know that 1 radian is the angle at the centre of a sector with an arc length
equal to its radius.
The angle of 1 radian looks as though it could be close to 60°. We can now
check this more precisely.
1 radian
1 radian = 180° = 180° = 57.3°
π 3.142

exercise 33.01
1 Convert these angle measurements to 4 Convert these radian measurements to
radians in terms of π. degrees. Give your answers to 1 dp.
a 60° b 90° a 0.613 b 1.29
c 30° d 45° c 0.178 d 0.2172
e 150° f 135° e 0.8136 f 2
g 72° h 80° g 5.36 h 2
i 315° j 720°
5 33
i 0.413 j 3.12
2 Convert these angle measurements to
radians. Give answers correct to 4 sf. 5 How many radians make up a full turn?
a 120° b 31°
c 28.4° d 316° 6 A Ferris wheel is rotating at one revolution
e 529° f 143° every 10 seconds.
g 210° h 86° a How many radians does it turn through
in 1 second?
i 129° j 198°
b How many seconds does it take to turn
3 Convert these angle measurements to through 90°?
degrees.
π π 7 A lathe is rotating at 50 revolutions per
a 2 b 3
second.
c π d 2π a How long does the lathe take to complete
4
f 3π
one revolution?
e 2π
3 2 b How long does the lathe take to turn
4 π 5π through 1 radian?
g h
5 2
7 π 4 π c What angle has the lathe turned through
i j in 1 minute?
3 9
 456 Trigonometry problems 2.8

8 (Multichoice) The time taken for a wheel, turning at 1000

revolutions per minute, to turn through an angle of 1 radian is:

(A) 33 31 π s (B) 3 s
100π
(C) 3 s (D) 0.006 s
50π
(E) 0.012π s

PUZZLE
Straight hands
At 12 noon the hour and minute hand of a clock
coincide. What is the first time in the afternoon
that the angle between the two hands is 180°?

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
The Polygon Society and the round tablecloth
The Polygon Society meets once a month, sitting at a
round table. The table is covered by a round
tablecloth, which has a radius of 1 m (100 cm).
One night there are five members present:
Dr Apirana, Mrs Brown, Ms Chang, Professor Duffy
33 and Mr Edgar. They discuss how they would cut up
the cloth into various regular polygons, and what
the area of each polygon would be.
• Dr Apirana favours an equilateral triangle.
• Mrs Brown wants to cut the cloth into a square.
• Ms Chang thinks a regular pentagon would be best.
• Professor Duffy believes a regular hexagon would be a good shape to use.
• Mr Edgar talks about what
would happen to the area as
more and more cuts are made.
He thinks a spreadsheet program
would help with the calculations.

Hint: each polygon can be split up into isosceles triangles with their base x
as one of the cuts, and the opposite vertex at the centre of the circle. Then
use the trigonometry formula for the area of a triangle when you know A
the lengths of two sides and the angle between:
Area = 1 ab sin(C) x
2
 33 Circular measure 457

Using the arc length formula

Example Calculate the length of the arc ABC. A B
= Answer Use the arc length formula s = r θ .
4π
ABC = rθ 8 cm 5

= 8 × 4π
C
8 cm
5
= 32 π cm (or, in decimal form, 20.1 cm)
5

Example Calculate the size of the angle labelled θ in degrees.

= Answer From the arc length formula: 6
θ = s = 6 = 1.2 radians 5
r 5
1.2 radians = 1.2 × 180
π
= 68.8° 5

1 How can we write this formula when the two equal sides are x (the radius of the circle) and the
angle is A?
2 Calculate the area of the equilateral triangle.
3 Calculate the area of the square.
4 Calculate the area of the regular pentagon.
5 Calculate the area of the regular hexagon. 33
6 Work out the percentage of the round tablecloth used for each shape.
7 Use a spreadsheet to continue this investigation. This should show the areas of all regular
polygons from three sides to 20 sides that can be drawn inside this circle.
The headings and result for the 3-sided polygon are shown in the spreadsheet example
here. Note that a column is included for the centre angle in radians – because this is how
spreadsheets handle trigonometry.

8 Explain what is happening to the area of the polygons as the number of sides increases.
 458 Trigonometry problems 2.8

exercise 33.02
1 Calculate the length of the arcs for the d arc length 68 mm; centre angle π
sectors with these measurements. 2
e θ = 3.2; s = 1.6 m
a radius 3 cm; centre angle 2 radians f centre angle 2 π ; arc length 8π cm
b radius 7 mm; centre angle 1.2 radians 3
g s = 7 m; θ = 30°
c radius 2.8 cm; centre angle 0.6 radians
h s = 45 cm; θ = 128.7°
d radius 12 mm; centre angle 0.5 radians
i arc length 48 mm; centre angle 58°
2 Calculate the length of the arcs for the j θ = 226°; s = 71 cm
sectors with these measurements. Leave
your answer in terms of π. 6 Calculate the length of the radius for each of
π these sectors.
a radius 4 mm; centre angle
2 a b
b radius 6 mm; centre angle π 3
2π
117°
4 5
c radius 1.8 cm; centre angle π
6 48 mm
d radius 2.7 cm; centre angle π 5
3
10.2 cm
3 Calculate the length of the arcs for the
sectors with these measurements. 36.4 cm
c
a r = 6 cm; θ = 60°
b r = 5 mm; θ = 135°
c r = 2.6 m; θ = 143°
d r = 3.7 cm; θ = 229°
0.6
4 Calculate the length of the arc for each of
these sectors. 7 Calculate the centre angle in radians for the
a b sectors with these measurements.
33
a s = 12 cm; r = 3 cm
2 cm
49 m b s = 3.6 m; r = 5.4 m
130° c arc length 78 cm; radius 2 m
1.1
49 m d radius 0.81 m; arc length 0.45 m
2 cm e s = 6π cm; r = 4 cm
c f radius 8 m; arc length 2π m
8 mm
8 Calculate the centre angle in degrees for
15π the sectors with these measurements. Give
11 answers accurate to 1 dp if they are not
exact.
5 Calculate the length of the radius for each of a s = 3π cm; r = 6 cm
the sectors with these measurements. Give b s = 7 mm; r = 5 mm
answers to 4 sf if necessary. c arc length 5 cm; radius 12 mm
a arc length 5 mm; centre angle d r = 8.1 cm; s = 4.9 cm
2.5 radians e radius 0.81 m; arc length 0.45 m
b s = 6.4 m; θ = 2 f s = 8π cm; r = 15 cm
c s = 4.9 cm; θ = π
4
 33 Circular measure 459

9 Calculate the perimeter for each of the 14 The area enclosed by a 4 cm

sectors drawn below. chord and an arc of a
a b 28 cm circle is called a segment.
The segment drawn 70°
below is part of a sector
135°
with radius 4 cm and 4 cm
0.9 centre angle 70°.
4.5 mm a Calculate the arc
length of the sector.
10 The sector drawn here b Use the cosine rule
has a perimeter of a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A) to calculate the
60 cm, and a centre length of the chord.
angle of 70°. Calculate r r c Calculate the perimeter of the segment.
the radius. 70°
15 A segment in a circle is made up of a chord
and an arc. Both the chord and arc subtend
11 The two arcs drawn below both have the an angle of 120° at the centre of the circle.
same point, O, for a centre. AD = BC = 1 cm. If the chord is 15 cm in length, calculate the
The length of arc AB is 6 cm. Both arcs length of the arc.
subtend an angle of 1.5 radians at the centre.
Calculate the length of arc CD. 16 (Multichoice) A regular
Arc
hexagon, of side l, is
6 l
inscribed in a circle.
What is the ratio of the
A B length of an arc between
1 1
two vertices to the
D C
length of a side of the
12 A and B are two points on the circumference hexagon?
of a circle with radius 12 cm. If the length of (A) 2 πl
chord AB is 8 cm, calculate the length of the 3 33
minor arc AB. (B) π
3
(C) 60
13 A chord PQ is 10 cm long and its midpoint is l
4 cm from the centre of the circle. Calculate
(D) 60l
the length of the minor arc PQ.
(E) π
6

Applications of the arc length formula

exercise 33.03
1 Cotton thread is wound b What angle, in radians, does 1 cm of
around a reel that has a radius 1 cm thread subtend at the centre of the reel?
of 1 cm. c The machine that winds thread onto
a Calculate, to the nearest the reels takes 1850 full turns to place a
millimetre, the length complete length of thread onto one reel.
of thread in exactly one Estimate the length of a complete length
revolution around the reel. of thread.
 460 Trigonometry problems 2.8

d Explain whether the actual length of the b Use the arc length formula to estimate
thread is likely to be shorter or longer the greatest distance at which a person
than your estimate in part c. with normal eyesight can distinguish a
horse that is 2 m high. Give your answer
2 The Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) in to the nearest 100 m.
Australia is one of the few stadiums used
for cricket which is almost perfectly circular. 5 A length of garden hose measuring 30 m is
Most others are ellipses, the most famous wound around a hose reel with diameter
example being (appropriately named) ‘The 60 cm.
Oval’ in South London. a Calculate the total angle in radians
The fence in front of the Olympic stand needed to turn the handle.
at the MCG measures 151 m, and subtends b How many full turns are needed to turn
an angle of 110° at the middle of the ground. the handle, to the nearest whole number?
Calculate the diameter of the MCG.
6 Rebecca goes on a merry-go-round ride. The
3 The obverse side of a New Zealand $2 coin radius of the merry-go-round is 4 m, and
is decorated with a kotuku or white heron. it moves through 23 radians. Calculate the
distance that Rebecca travelled during her
ride.

7 The right-spool of a VCR rotated through an

angle of 1050° while it played part of a tape.
For this part of the tape the distance from
the tape to the centre of the spool is 35 mm.
Calculate the length of tape that was played.
One of these coins is placed on a straight
edge with the kotuku pointing upwards. 8 Five crayfish pots are placed in a straight
This is represented by the arrow in the circle line at sea, at 100 m intervals. Lee wants to
on the right. check the first and last pots only. To avoid
a The coin is turned through 7 π radians in disturbing any crayfish nearby, Lee will stay
8
33 an anti-clockwise direction. This moves it 100 m away from the other three pots.
36 mm along the straight edge. a Draw a diagram to show the shortest
i Has the coin moved to the left or the path from the first to last pot.
right? b Calculate the length of this path.
ii Draw a diagram (circle and arrow) to
show its new position. 9 A circular saw is rotating at 550 rad/s. The
b Calculate the diameter of the $2 coin. radius of the saw is 85 mm. What is the
velocity of a point on the edge of the saw?
4 A person with ‘normal’ eyesight can make
out an object that has an angular magnitude of 10 a What is the maximum number of sector-

( )
1 °.
60
shaped slices that can be cut from a cake
if each slice has an arc length equal to its
a Change ( 601 )° to radians. radius?
b Calculate the centre angle, in radians, of
1 ° A ‘normal’ the remaining sector of cake.
60 eye c Find an expression, in terms of r, for the
2m sum of the perimeters of all the pieces of
cake.
x
 33 Circular measure 461

11 The distance between the rails on a railway line is called the ‘gauge’ and in New Zealand is
1.067 m. Somewhere in Canterbury a railway track turns through a circular arc that has a central
angle of 33°. How much shorter is the inner rail than the outer rail?

12 A pulley is a machine that has two wheels linked

by a belt, so that rotating one wheel makes the 11 cm
other wheel go round. Calculate the length of the 4 cm
25 cm
belt needed for a pulley with wheels 11 cm and
4 cm in diameter, with centres 25 cm apart.

13 One of the longest routes able to be flown

non-stop by an aircraft is from Singapore to North Pole
Washington and vice-versa. Currently the
only aircraft capable of flying this length Washington DC
route are the Boeing 777-200-LR with a range 39° N, 77° W
of up to 17 400 km, and the Airbus 340-500
with a range of 15 750 km. 39°
• The route between Singapore and 0°
Singapore
Washington lies directly over the North
0° N, 103° E
Pole.
• The radius of the Earth is 6370 km.
• Singapore is on the Equator and has a latitude of 0°.
• Washington is at a latitude of 39°N.
Use this information to calculate the distance flown on this route.

INVESTIGATION
Trans-Tasman Tunnel
The Auckland–Sydney road tunnel Filed by our correspondent, Y. B. Leavitt, April 1 33
Some useful facts and figures. Geologists have announced plans for a four-lane motorway
tunnel connecting Sydney to Auckland under the Tasman
• The distance by air from Auckland Sea. Construction will take several years, but the project
to Sydney is 2150 km. should be completed in time for the Olympic Games in
• The radius of the Earth is 6370 km. Auckland in 2020. The engineers plan to bore the tunnel
• The cosine rule is in a straight line. The rock material that is excavated from
the tunnel will be transported down the
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos ( A).
Auckland–Wellington Motorway and used to fill in the
• The cross-section of a four-lane Manukau Harbour south of Auckland. Qantas and Air
road tunnel could be modelled by a New Zealand are expected to file complaints about unfair
semi-circle with a diameter of about competition with the Commerce Commission
20 m. Headless chicken found wandering in Debating
• The formula for the volume of a Chamber at Parliament
cylinder is V = πr2h. Security staff at Parliament have discovered another
• Assume that the average depth of incident involving genetically modified animals that have
Manukau Harbour is about 3 m. escaped from the quarantine station on Somes Island in
• Manukau Harbour measures about Wellington Harbour. After last week’s scare involving a
group of flying pigs released by a group of animal rights
25 km by 25 km.
 462 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Investigate to estimate the answers to the following

questions. Show all your calculations, and explain what
you are working out at each step. Include diagrams
where needed.
1 How long will the tunnel be? Give your answer to
the nearest kilometre.
Manukau
2 How far below the Earth’s surface will the tunnel Harbour
be at its deepest point? Give your answer to the
nearest kilometre.
3 How much rock will be removed to construct the
tunnel? Give your answer in m3.
4 Will this amount of rock be enough to fill Manukau
Harbour?

The area of a sector

The area of a sector is given by the formula: r

1
Area = r 2θ
2
(Note: θ is in radians.)
r

33 Remember that the area of a full circle is given by πr2. The fraction θ gives the proportion of the
2π
sector to the circle. Hence the area of the sector is given by:
Area = θ × πr 2
2π
= θ r or 1 r 2θ
2
2 2
Example A sector with a centre angle of
π radians has been removed π
3 2 cm 3 2 cm
from a circle. The radius is 2 cm. Calculate the area of the
remaining (shaded) region.
= Answer The angle at the centre of the shaded sector is:
2 π − π = 5π
3 3
Area of sector = 1 r 2θ
2
= 1 × 2 2 × 5π
2 3
= 10π cm 2 or 10.47 cm 2 (4 sf)
3
 33 Circular measure 463

TIPSTER
The sector area formula can be rearranged
to make either θ or r the subject:
1 2
A = r θ
2
2A = r 2θ

θ = 2A and r =
2A
r2 θ

Example Calculate the angle at the centre of this sector. Give the answer in 5 cm
a radians and b degrees.
A = 18 cm2
= Answer a θ = 2A
r2
= 2 ×218 5 cm
5
= 36
25
= 1.44 radians

b To change from radians to degrees, multiply by 180 .

π
1.44 radians = 1.44 × 180 °
π
= 82.5°

exercise 33.04 33
1 Calculate the area for each of these sectors. 3 Calculate the radius for each of these sectors.
Give answers to 4 sf where appropriate. Give answers to 4 sf where appropriate.
a b 6.3 m a r b
A Area = 6.2 m2
125° 1.9
1.8 250°
A Area =
5 cm 42 cm2
r
2 Calculate the centre angle, in radians, for
each of these sectors. Give answers to 4 sf 4 Calculate the area for each of these sectors.
where appropriate. Give answers to 4 sf where appropriate.
a b a r = 4 m; θ = 2
2.4 m 35 cm 2π
b radius = 6.2 cm; centre angle =
5
c centre angle = 45°; radius = 25 mm
d radius = 2.3 m; centre angle = 5
Area = 2 m2 Area =
2250 cm2
 464 Trigonometry problems 2.8

5 Calculate the centre angle, in radians, for 10 a Four circles, each

each of these sectors. with a radius of
a A = 18 cm2; r = 4 cm 1 cm, are placed so
b r = 9.7 m; A = 62 m2 that their centres
c radius of 113 mm; area of 82 cm2 form a square.
Calculate the area
6 Calculate the centre angle, in degrees, for enclosed by the four
each of these sectors. circles (shaded in the
diagram).
a A = 34 cm2; r = 8 cm
b Three circles, each
b radius of 1.2 m; area of 0.98 m2
with a radius of
c r = 68 cm; A = 1.04 m2
1 cm, are placed so
that their centres
7 Calculate the radius for each of these sectors.
form an equilateral
a A = 20 cm2; θ = 4 triangle. Calculate the
b area of 42.8 cm2; centre angle of 45° area enclosed by the
c centre angle of 7 π ; area of 16π cm2 three circles (shaded in the diagram).
12
d centre angle of 248°, area of 55.9 m2 c Suppose the circles above represent the
cross-sections of logs being transported
8 A sector has centre angle θ , radius r, arc from a forest to a timber mill. Explain
length s and area A. Copy the table and which method of stacking the logs saves
complete the missing entries. more space between them. Calculate the
percentage saving.
θ r s A
a 1.5 6 11 Calculate the area
π of the shape with
b 5
12 8.77 m
the measurements
c 75° 20 shown in the
3.62 m
d 2.9 4.8 diagram. Both
e 45 635 curved boundaries
33 f 60 1000 are arcs of circles
7.09 m
with the same
9 A sector has an arc length of 6 cm and an centre.
area of 9 cm2. Calculate the radius and the
centre angle.

Applications of the area of a sector

exercise 33.05
1 A spotlight illuminates a parking 2 A World War II army truck has a rectangular
area as shown. Calculate the area windscreen measuring 186 cm by 63 cm. It is fitted
that is illuminated. Give your with one
answer correct wiper, hinged
to the nearest m2. at the top,
m

which moves
55 c

63 cm
backwards
130° and forwards
through an
18 m angle of 160°. 186 cm
 33 Circular measure 465

a Calculate the area covered by the 5 An amphitheatre has been designed so that
wiper as it cleans the windscreen. the seating and stage are part of an imaginary
b Calculate the area that is not covered circle. The outside of the amphitheatre is 40 m
by the wiper. from the centre of this circle, and the first row
of seating is 15 m from the centre. The seating
c What percentage of the windscreen
takes up an arc of 150°. Each row of seats is
does the wiper clean?
1 m apart, and the designers have assumed a
person needs 50 cm of space on each seat.
3 In the game of darts, players
are often required to aim Seating
for a ‘double’. There are
20 of these spaces spread
around the outer ring of
a dartboard. One of these
spaces is drawn here (not
Stage
to scale). The diameter of
the dartboard, from the ENTRANCE EXIT
outer ring to the opposite
outer ring, is 350 mm. The 12 mm 80 m
distance across a ‘double’
space is 12 mm. Calculate a Calculate the area allocated to seating.
the area of one of these ‘double’ spaces. b Estimate the maximum number of seats in
the amphitheatre if this design is followed.
4 A symbol painted on walls to indicate a c Explain why the actual number of seats
radiation hazard is drawn here. Each of should be less than the number in part b.
the three shapes drawn subtends an angle
of 50° at the centre of the circle. Each of 6 The sector here is
the inner arcs is 12 cm from the centre, made up of a triangle
1.2
and each of the outer arcs is 20 cm from (unshaded) and a 18 cm 18 cm
the centre. Calculate the total area of the segment (shaded). The
symbol. radius of the sector is
18 cm, and the centre 33
angle is 1.2 radians.
a Calculate the area
of the whole sector.
b Calculate the area of the triangle. (Hint: use
the formula A = 1 ab sin(C).)
2
c Calculate the area of the shaded segment.

The area of a segment

A segment of a circle is the region between a chord
and the circumference. We can define a segment by
giving the radius, r, of the circle it is a part of, and
also the centre angle, θ .
To calculate the area of a segment we start with
r r
the area of a sector with radius r and centre angle
θ , and subtract the area of a triangle from it. The
triangle is isosceles, because two sides are a radius of
Minor Major
the circle, and the angle between the two sides is θ . segment segment
 466 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Area of sector = 1 r 2θ
2
1 1 1
Area of triangle = 2 ab sin(C) = 2 × r × r × sin(θ ) = 2 r 2 sin(θ )

Sector – Triangle = Segment

The area of the segment is given by:

1 r 2θ − 1 r 2 sin(θ ) = 1 r 2 θ − sin(θ )
2 2 2
( )

Example Use the formula A = 1 r 2 (θ − sin(θ ) ) to calculate the

2
area of the given segment. 42 cm
= Answer r = 42 cm, θ = 2.7
2.7

Area = 1 r 2 (θ − sin(θ ) )
2
= 1 × 42 2 × ( 2.7 − 0.4274 )
2
= 882 × 2.2726 TIPSTER
= 2004 cm 2 (4 sf)
1 The absence of units for the
Example Calculate the area of the shaded segment. centre angle indicates radians are
being used.
6m 2 When evaluating on a calculator
33 make sure it is set to radians,
245° usually indicated by ‘RAD’ on the
6m display.

= Answer First note the angle at the centre is given in degrees. Change it to radians as follows:
245° = 245 × π = 4.276 radians
180
1
Area = r (θ − sin(θ ) )
2
2
= 1 × 62 × ( 4.276 − − 0.9063 )
2
= 18 × 5.1824 TIPSTER
= 93.28 m 2 (4 sf)
Note: the formula works correctly when
the centre angle is reflex. You could
check that this answer is the same as
approaching the problem by subtracting
the area of the minor segment with centre
angle 115° from the area of the whole circle.
 33 Circular measure 467

exercise 33.06
Use the formula A = 1 r 2 (θ − sin(θ ) ) to answer these questions. Note: θ must be in radians in this
2
formula.
1 Calculate the area of each segment. The 4 Calculate the area
centre angles are given in radians. Give the coloured blue. The
answers correct to 4 sf. hexagon is regular,
a b and the circle has a
radius of 8 cm.
3 cm
6.5 m
2
4.4
5 A segment of a circle has a centre angle of
1.8 radians and an area of 100 m2. Calculate
the perimeter of the segment.
c
100 m2
π 120 cm
4
1.8

6 A circle with diameter 8 cm passes through

two vertices (corners) of a square with sides
2 Calculate the area of each segment. The of 5 cm.
centre angles are given in degrees. Give the
answers correct to 4 sf. 5 cm
a b

4 cm 8 cm
12.6 cm
33
110°
125°

a If the two vertices of the square are

adjacent (shown in the diagram),
calculate the area of the region where the
3 Calculate the radius 2 circle and square overlap.
m
of the circle that has a 39 c
b Calculate the area of the region where
segment subtending r
2.1 the circle and square overlap if the circle
an angle of 2.1 radians r passes through opposite vertices of the
at the centre and an
square.
area of 39 cm2.

TIPSTER
In the author’s opinion, this is
the hardest problem in this book.
 468 Trigonometry problems 2.8

Applications of the area of a segment

exercise 33.07
1 A stage at a theatre has the shape of a 4 A convex lens is designed so that its cross-
segment with a centre angle of 3 radians and section is represented by the intersecting
a radius of 10 m. Calculate the area of the part of two circles, each with a radius of
stage. 110 mm. The arcs on the edge of the lens
subtend angles of 49° at the centre of each
2 The diagram here shows the cross-section of circle. Calculate the area of the cross-section,
a lens. The lens has been cut from a sphere to the nearest mm2.
with a radius of 400 mm and the angle at the
Convex lens
centre of the sphere subtending the arc is
0.21 radians. Calculate the area of the cross-
section.

49° 49°
110 mm

5 Two circles overlap as shown below. The

radius of one circle is 50 cm, and the radius
of the other circle is 70 cm. The length of the
3 An equilateral triangle has sides of 10 cm. chord common to both is 30 cm. Calculate
A circle (circumcircle) passes through all (to 2 sf) the area that lies in both circles.
three vertices of the triangle.
a Calculate the radius of the circumcircle.
b Calculate the total area of all three
segments formed by the triangle and 30 cm
circumcircle.
33

Practical trigonometry question

exercise 33.08
1 A water-trough has a length of 3 m. The a Use trigonometry and circular measure
cross-section is a segment of a circle with a formulae to determine the following
radius of 1 m and a centre angle of information.
2.7 radians. i The width of the water trough at the
w top (w).
ii The maximum depth of the water
trough (d).
1m
2.7 iii The area of the cross-section.
3m iv The volume, or maximum capacity, of
d the water trough.
 33 Circular measure 469

b Construct a vertical scale with at least four readings at

equally spaced intervals to show the volume of water
in the trough. The scale is to appear on one of the ends 0 litres
of the trough. (You could use a spreadsheet to make the
calculations.)

INVESTIGATION

The Reuleaux triangle

The area formed by the intersection of three congruent
circles, where each centre is a vertex of an equilateral
triangle, is called a Reuleaux triangle.
It has a number of interesting properties, including giving
the smallest area for any curve of constant width, where the
width of a curve is defined as the distance between parallel
borders that enclose the curve.
A Reuleaux triangle forms the basis for a special kind of
drill used to form square holes.
You also see a Reuleaux triangle in a simple ‘colour
addition’ Venn diagram. The three primary colours of red,
blue and yellow can be combined so that when all three
overlap the result is a white Reuleaux triangle. The screen on a
colour TV set uses this colour-mixing principle.
1 Suppose the radius of each congruent circle is r. Express
the perimeter of the Reuleaux triangle in terms of r.
33
2 Obtain a formula in terms of r for the area of a Reuleaux
triangle. Note that cos(30°) = sin(60°) = 3 .
2
470 Trigonometry problems 2.8

NCEA 2.8 Revision exercises

▼

1 Calculate the values of x and θ . 4 One event in a secondary

school’s athletic sports is the
a b
shot-put. The senior record-
70° x 33 cm
23 cm holder is Kaitoa Umuroa, with a
83° distance of 27.89 m. Mr Taylor,
68°
5m ACH the teacher in charge, lays out the
throwing area as follows. It is a
2 All three sections of a rather contrived triathlon course are laid sector with a centre angle of 60°.
out in straight lines. Mr Taylor places arcs of string at
every 5 m to make the measuring
B of shots easier. There is only one
arc beyond the school-record
distance. He runs string along
both radii as far as the final arc.
Calculate the total length of
string Mr Taylor will need
to use. MRT
C

A
Start/
End
a Identify three measurements you would need to take in 5 The diagram shows a triangular block
order to calculate the length of the swimming section of land measuring 100 m by 70 m by
(which is not able to be measured). 80 m. The block is subdivided by a
b Assuming that the diagram is drawn to scale, and that fence running from the midpoint of
1 cm represents 1 km, take the measurements in part a the 80 m side to the opposite
and hence use the cosine rule to calculate the length of vertex.
the full course. ACH

3 A goat is tethered by a 30 m chain to a post. The post stands at

one vertex of an equilateral triangle of fencing, with sides of 70 m
20 m.
x
20

20
40 m
100 m
30 m

20 a Calculate the
a Copy the diagram, and shade
the locus of the points at which length of the fence.
the goat can graze. b Calculate the area of 40 m
b Calculate the area in part a. MRT the whole block.
c Explain why the fence
divides the area of the
whole block in half. EXC
 471

2.9 Trigonometric equations

Solve straightforward trigonometric equations

Contents
34 Trig graphs and equations 472 35 Further trig graphs and equations 486
Introducing trig graphs 472 Properties of trig graphs 486
Extended definition of sin, cos and tan 476 Applications of trig graphs 487
Graph of y = sin(x ) 476 Transformations of the sin and cos graphs 489
Graph of y = cos(x ) 477 a sin(x ) and a cos(x ) 489
Graph of y = tan(x ) 477 sin(bx ) and cos(bx ) 489
The periodic property of trig graphs 477 sin(x ± c) and cos(x ± c ) 490
Solving simple trig equations 479 sin(x ) + d and cos(x ) + d 490
Quadrants 482 More trigonometric equations 495
Rearranging simple trig equations 484 Equations resulting from translations of
trig graphs: sin(x ± a ) = b and
cos(x ± a ) = b 496
Degrees 496
Radians – multiples of π 497
Radians in decimal form 497
Changing the frequency: sin(ax ) = b and
cos(ax ) = b 498
Applications of trig equations 500

NCEA 2.9 Revision exercises 502

 34
Trig graphs and equations

Introducing trig graphs

STARTER
Copy this table, and use your calculator to complete the entries. The angles, x, go from 0° to
360°. In the column alongside write down the cos of each angle.

x cos(x) x cos(x) x cos(x) x cos(x)

0° 1 100° 190° 280°
10° 110° 200° 290°
20° 120° 210° 300°
30° 130° 220° 310°
40° 140° 230° 320°
50° 150° 240° 330°
60° 0.5 160° 250° 340°
70° 170° –0.98 260° 350°
80° 180° 270° 360° 1
90°
34 Now plot the points for the table on a graph, and join them with a smooth curve. This is the cos
graph.
Instead of using a calculator to work out trig values for angles, we can get a
spreadsheet to do the calculations and also draw the graph.
1 In a spreadsheet program head up column A with Angle, and column B with sin.
2 In column A begin with an angle of 0° in cell A2, and then go down in steps of 15°. The
easiest way to do this is to place a formula in cell A3 which adds 15 to A2, and then copy
the formula downwards.
3 In column B we want the sin of each angle in column A. Because of the way in which
spreadsheets handle trigonometry, we need to use radians (see Chapter 33). Enter the
formula =sin(radians(A2)) in cell B2 and then copy it downwards.
 34 Trig graphs and equations 473

4 To draw the graph of y = sin(x), block cells A2:B26 and then use the graph-drawing tools.
In Excel™ these are:
a Chart Wizard.
b Choose XY (Scatter) graph.
c Choose the curve option (without plotted points).
d Give the graph a title and place it in a suitable position.
The spreadsheet, and resulting graph, should look like this:

34

Further spreadsheet work

5 Draw the graph of y = cos(x).
6 Draw the graph of y = tan(x).
 474 Trigonometric equations 2.9

The three main trig graphs are those of y = sin(x), y = cos(x) and y = tan(x).

y y
1 y = sin(x) 1 y = cos(x)

x 90° 180° 270° 360° x

90° 180° 270° 360°
–1 –1

Asymptote

Asymptote
y = tan(x)
1

x
90° 180° 270° 360°
–1

Note:
• The y-values for the sin and cos graphs always lie between 1 and –1.
• tan(x) is undefined for the values 90° and 270°. The dashed lines on the diagram are called
asymptotes. Here they are lines that the graph is very close to, but never actually touches.

exercise 34.01
1 Draw the graphs of y = cos(x) and y = sin(x) 3 This is the graph of y = cos(x).
on the same axes. One of the x-values where
y Q
they cross is 225°. What is the other x-value ×
P×
where they cross? y = cos(x)
S
×
2 Here is the graph of y = sin(x). x

34 y
A
×
R
× y = sin(x)
Complete these co-ordinates: P = (0°, ___ ),
D Q = ( ___°, 1), R = ( ___°, –1), S = ( ___°, 0).
× ×
C x
× 4 Which two trig graphs pass through
B (180°, 0)?
Complete these co-ordinates: A = (90°, ___),
B = (___°, –1), C = (180°, __), D = (___°, 0). 5 Which trig graphs pass through (270°, –1)?

6 Is there any point that all three trig graphs

pass through?

7 Give the co-ordinates of the three points

from 0° to 360° where sin(x) = tan(x).
 34 Trig graphs and equations 475

8 Draw the image when the graph of y = sin(x) 13 a What vertical line is an axis of symmetry
is reflected in the x-axis. for y = cos(x) for angles between 0° and
360°?
9 Angles between 90° and 270° have negative b The graph shows that cos(320°) = 0.766.
cos values. Explain how the graph of What is the other angle between 0° and
y = cos(x) shows this. 360° that has a cos value equal to 0.766?

10 Complete these sentences, for angles y

between 0° and 360°. 1
0.766
a Any angle that has a positive sin and y = cos(x)
negative tan must lie between ___° and 90° 270° 320° x
___°.
–1
b Any angle that has a negative sin and
negative cos must lie between ___° and
___°. 14 The graph shows a horizontal line crossing
c Any angle that has a positive tan and the graph of y = tan(x) at k on the y-axis.
negative cos must lie between ___° and Calculate the values of k and p.
___°. y
k
11 The tan graph can be translated 180°
sideways onto itself. The graph shows 1
tan(45°) = 1. What is the other angle between
0° and 360° that has a tan value equal to 1? x
60° p 360°
y
–1
y = tan(x) y = tan(x)
1

x
15 y
45° 180° ?
1
–1 y = cos(x)
0.3
p q x

–1
34
12 a What vertical line is an axis of symmetry
for y = sin(x) for angles between 0° and
a Use your calculator to work out angle p
180°?
to the nearest degree.
b The graph shows that sin(30°) = 0.5.
b Use the symmetry of the cos graph to
What is the other angle between 0° and
work out angle q to the nearest degree.
180° that has a sin value equal to 0.5?
16 The graph shows that sin(210°) = –0.5. What
y
is the other angle between 0° and 360° that
1 y = sin(x) has a sin value equal to –0.5?
0.5 y

30° ? x 1 y = sin(x)
–1 210°
–0.5 x
–1
 476 Trigonometric equations 2.9

17 The line y = 2.5 cuts the graph of y = tan(x) a Use your calculator to work out the x-co-
at points A and B, as shown on the diagram. ordinate of point A to the nearest degree.
b What is the x-co-ordinate of point B to
y the nearest degree?
y = tan(x) B
A ×
2.5 × 18 cos(107°) = –0.2924 (4 sf). Use the properties
of the cos graph to work out the other angle
x between 0° and 360° that has the same cos
value.

Extended definition of sin, cos and tan

When we first look at trigonometry, we restrict the angles to those between 0° and 90°. Later, we
extend this to angles between 0° and 180°, or between 0° and 360°.
In fact, we can use radians as well as degrees for the three main trig functions (sin, cos and tan).
We can also evaluate sin, cos and tan for angles less than 0° or greater than 360°.
• The functions y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) can be calculated for any value of x, but can only take
y-values between –1 and 1 inclusive.
• Trig graphs repeatedly take on the same y-values, and this is described by a number called the
period.
• Trig graphs can be drawn using either degrees or radians for their x-values.

TIPSTER
If we use radians, the usual convention is to label the x-axis in multiples of π. For example, at
the point equivalent to 180° we use π rather than the approximate decimal value of 3.142.

34 Graph of y = sin(x)
y y
1.0 1.0
y = sin(x) y = sin(x)
0.5 (degrees) 0.5 (radians)

90° 180° 270° 360° 450° x π π 3π 2π 5π x

–0.5 –0.5 2 2 2
–1.0 –1.0

Period = 360° or 2π.

 34 Trig graphs and equations 477

Graph of y = cos(x)
y y
1.0 1.0
y = cos(x) y = cos(x)
0.5 (degrees) 0.5 (radians)
90° 180° 270° 360° 450° x π π 3π 2π 5π x
–0.5 –0.5 2 2 2
–1.0 –1.0

Period = 360° or 2π.

Graph of y = tan(x)
y y
6 6
4 y = tan(x) 4
y = tan(x)
(degrees) 2
2 (radians)

90° 180° 270° 360° 450° x π π 3π 2π 5π x

–2 –2 2 2 2

–4 –4

–6 –6

Period = 180° or π.
TIPSTER
The vertical lines at π , 3π , etc. are called asymptotes.
2 2
The tangent graph gets very close to these lines but never The vertical lines are drawn
actually touches them. This means that tan( π ), tan( 3π ), etc. or
dashed because they are not
2 2 part of the tangent function
tan(90°), tan(270°), etc. are undefined. They have no value. itself.
34
The periodic property of trig graphs
Each of the three main trig graphs (sin, cos and tan) repeat themselves at regular intervals. This is
known as their periodic property.
The period is the minimum positive sideways movement needed to map the graph on to itself.
• The sin and cos graphs repeat themselves every 2π units (or 360°). Thus their period is 2π.
• The tangent graph repeats itself every π units. For the tan graph the period is π.

One advantage of using radians instead of degrees y

on the x-axis for a trig graph is that both axes have 1
the same units and scale. This lets the true shape
of a trig graph show through. Remembering that
π is approximately 3.1, and using numbers on 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
both axes, the graph of y = sin(x) can be drawn as
–1
shown here.
 478 Trigonometric equations 2.9

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Producing trig graphs using radians
We can see what happens to trig values for angles outside the interval 0° to 360° (or 0 to
2π radians) by using a spreadsheet.
The extract below from an ExcelTM spreadsheet shows values of y = sin(x) for angles
from 0° to 1440°. The angles are increasing in multiples of 90°.

The spreadsheet uses radians to calculate trig functions – therefore, column B shows the result
of converting the degrees in column A alongside.
34 • In cell B5 the formula is =A5*PI()/180.
• In cell C5 the formula is =sin(B5).
To produce the graph, highlight the block of cells (B5:C21), then click on the Chart Wizard,
choose the XY(Scatter) option, and then the graph sub-type that joins the points with a smooth
curve.
1 Produce this spreadsheet yourself, and print it out.
2 Explain what the value 1E-16 represents in cell C7.
3 Make changes to the spreadsheet to produce another graph for y = sin(x), this time using
angles between –720° and 360°.
4 Produce a spreadsheet that shows the graph of y = cos(x).
5 Try to produce a graph for y = tan(x) for angles between 0° and 720° increasing in steps of
30°. Describe the problems that result – is the graph what you expected?
 34 Trig graphs and equations 479

Solving simple trig equations

There are several types of trig equation.

Trig equations of the form below usually have two solutions between 0° and 360°:
sin(x) = k or cos(x) = k or tan(x) = k
for –1 ≤ k ≤ 1 for –1 ≤ k ≤ 1 for k ∈ R

The simplest method to solve these is to draw a graph, then use the symmetry properties of the
graph to find the solutions.
Example Solve the equation sin(x) = 0.5, in degrees, for values of x between 0° and 360°.
= Answer First draw the graph of y = sin(x). y
On the same diagram, draw the
horizontal line y = 0.5. y = 0.5
This line intersects the sin graph at two
90° 180° x
places. The x-values of these points are
the two solutions we need.
To find the solution between 0° and 90°,
use a calculator to find sin–1(0.5), which gives 30°.
Now note that the sin graph is symmetrical about the line x = 90°. So, the other
solution will be the same distance on the other side of this line, i.e. at 150°.
The two solutions are {30°, 150°}.

TIPSTER It is a good idea to check each solution on a

calculator. In this example you would check by
evaluating sin(30°) and sin(150°) – each give 0.5.

The previous example used symmetry in a vertical line. It is also possible to use the periodic property
of trig graphs.
Example Solve the equation tan(x) = 1.2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. 34
TIPSTER
= Answer First draw the graph of y = tan(x), and on
The 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π part after the
the same diagram draw the horizontal
equation indicates that the
line y = 1.2.
solution is to be given in radians.
This line intersects the tan graph at
two places. The x-values of these points
are the two solutions we need. y
π
To find the solution between 0 and , use a
2
calculator to find tan–1(1.2), which gives
0.876 radians. y = 1.2
Now note that the tan graph repeats itself
π π 3π x
every π units (i.e. 3.142, the value of π). The 2 2
other solution must be 0.876 + 3.142
= 4.018 radians.
The two solutions are {0.876, 4.018} (in radians).
 480 Trigonometric equations 2.9

A further type of problem uses rotational symmetry.

Example Solve the equation cos(x) = –0.62 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
= Answer Draw the cos graph and the line y = –0.62 on the same diagram.
y

y = 0.62

0.902 π π 3π x
y = –0.62 2 2

Note that there are two solutions: one is between π and π, and the other is between π
2
and 3π .
2
The cos graph has rotational symmetry about ( π , 0).
2
Thus, first find cos–1(0.62) which gives 0.902 radians. By rotational symmetry, the angle
which gives –0.62 must be the same distance from π as 0.902 is from 0. That is, the
answer is π – 0.902 or 3.142 – 0.902 = 2.24 radians.
The other answer is the same distance on the other side of π, i.e. 3.142 + 0.902 = 4.04.
The solutions are {2.24, 4.04} (in radians).

exercise 34.02
1 In each diagram below, a horizontal line d y
intersects a trig graph. One of the solutions y = cos(x)
(in degrees) is given. Use symmetry
properties to find the other solution. 160° p
x
a
y
y = sin(x)
e y
y = tan(x)
p x
34 20°

b y p x
62°
y = sin(x)

200° p
x
f y
y = tan(x)
c
y
y = cos(x)

143° p
70° p x x
 34 Trig graphs and equations 481

2 In each diagram below, two horizontal lines intersect a trig graph. One of the solutions (in
degrees) is given. Use symmetry properties to find the values of a and b.
a y b y
y = sin(x) y = sin(x)
0.77
0.31
a b a b
50° x –0.31 18° x
–0.77

c y d y
y = cos(x) y = cos(x)
0.66 0.42
a b a b
48.7° x –0.42 65.2° x
–0.66

e y f y
y = tan(x) y = tan(x)

2.5

a b 0.7 a b
68.2° x –0.7 35° x
–2.5

exercise 34.03
Solve these trig equations by drawing diagrams and using properties of symmetry to find both
solutions.
1 Give all answers in degrees accurate to 1 dp. In all equations 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
a sin(x) = 0.4 b cos(x) = 0.65
c tan(x) = 0.34 d sin(x) = –0.83 34
–
e cos(x) = 0.136 f tan(x) = –2.56

2 Give all answers in radians accurate to 4 sf. In all equations 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.

a cos(x) = 0.3 b sin(x) = –0.16
c tan(x) = 5 d tan(x) = –0.41
e cos(x) = –0.88 f sin(x) = 0.72
 482 Trigonometric equations 2.9

Quadrants
There are ways of solving trig equations without having to draw diagrams. Let’s investigate this.

STARTER 90°
Consider a radar screen. The red beam sweeps around 1 (x, y)
in a circle in an anti-clockwise direction, starting at 2
r
the right (when the angle θ would be 0°), and moving y
through the top of the screen (θ = 90°) then to the left 180° 0° = 360°
(θ = 180°) and down (so far it has moved through 270°). x
It completes the 360° turn by moving around to the
starting position (θ = 0° = 360°). 3 4
The beam passes through four quadrants, which we
label 1, 2, 3 and 4. As the beam moves around the circle, 270°
the co-ordinates (x, y) of the end of the beam change.
Look at the triangle formed by the beam.
y y
1 Match each of these fractions with sin(θ ), cos(θ ) and tan(θ ): x , , .
r x r
r y 2 When the beam is in quadrant 2, which co-ordinate is negative? x or
y or both?
3 When the beam is in quadrant 3, which co-ordinate is negative? x or y or
x both?
4 When the beam is in quadrant 4, which co-ordinate is negative? x or y or both?
y
5 tan(θ ) = . If x and y are both negative (as happens in quadrant 3) explain whether tan(θ )
x
will be positive or negative.
6 Copy and complete this table.
Angle y
sin(θ ) =
y cos(θ ) = x tan(θ ) =
Quadrant range x y r r r x
1 0°–90° + + +
34 2 + – –
3 +
4 – +

The concept of trigonometric quadrants is a very old one. 90°

With some practice, their use makes it easier to solve trig
equations without drawing diagrams.
A quadrant is a quarter of a circle. Q2 Q1
• The first quadrant, Q1, includes angles from 0° to 90°
π 180° 0° (= 360°)
(or 0 to ).
2
• The second quadrant, Q2, includes angles from 90° to 180° Q3 Q4
(or π to π).
2
270°
 34 Trig graphs and equations 483

• The third quadrant, Q3, includes angles from 180° to 270° (or π to 3π ).
2
• The fourth quadrant, Q4, includes angles from 270° to 360° (or 3π to 2π).
2
Now consider the diagram below. All three trig graphs (sin, cos and tan) are drawn together.

y Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

tan

cos
sin

90° 180° 270° 360° x

Notice that:
• in Q1 all three graphs take positive values,
• in Q2 sin takes positive values while cos and tan take negative values,
• in Q3 tan takes positive values while sin and cos take negative values,
• in Q4 cos takes positive values while sin and tan take negative values.
These properties are summarised in the table.

Quadrant Angle range Positive Negative

1 0°– 90° sin, cos, tan –
2 90°– 180° sin cos, tan
3 180°– 270° tan sin, cos
4 270°– 360° cos sin, tan

Using quadrants to solve trig equations 34

Follow the steps below to solve simple trig equation like these:
sin(x) = k cos(x) = k tan(x) = k
Step 1 k will either be positive or negative. This tells you which two quadrants the solutions are
in (either from learning the table above, or by recalling the sin, cos or tan graphs).
Step 2 Use your calculator: take the decimal k (if it is negative make it positive), and calculate
inverse sin, cos, or tan – depending on which of the three equations it is. This always
gives you a Q1 angle.
Step 3 To find:
• a Q1 angle – keep the angle from above,
• a Q2 angle – subtract it from 180°,
• a Q3 angle – add it to 180°,
• a Q4 angle – subtract it from 360°.
 484 Trigonometric equations 2.9

Example Solve the equation tan(x) = –0.3116 (for 0° ≤ x < 360°).

= Answer Step 1 The two answers are in Q2 and Q4 (tan is negative in these two quadrants).
Step 2 tan–1(0.3116) = 17.3°.
Step 3 Q2 answer is 180° – 17.3° = 162.7°. TIPSTER
Q4 answer is 360° – 17.3° = 342.7°.
Solution set is {162.7°, 342.7°}. These can be checked by using
the tan key on your calculator.

Example Solve the equation cos(x) = 0.74 (in radians for 0 ≤ x < 2π).
= Answer Step 1 The two answers are in Q1 and Q4 (cos is positive in these two quadrants).
Step 2 cos–1(0.74) = 0.7377.
Step 3 Q4 answer is 2π – 0.7377 = 6.2832 – 0.7377 = 5.5455.
Solution set is {0.7377, 5.5455}.

exercise 34.04
Solve these trig equations, either in degrees or radians as indicated.
1 cos(x) = 0.12 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°} 9 sin(x) = 0.31 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°}
2 sin(x) = 0.46 {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π} 10 tan(x) = 3.69 {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π}
3 tan(x) = –1.92 {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π} 11 cos(x) = –0.44 {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π}
4 sin(x) = –0.09 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°} 12 tan(x) = –0.48 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°}
5 tan(x) = 0.55 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°} 13 cos(x) = –1 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°}
6 cos(x) = –0.86 {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π} 14 sin(x) = 1 {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π}
7 cos(x) = 0.66 {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π} 15 sin(x) = 1.5 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°}
8 sin(x) = –0.72 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°} 16 cos(x) = –2 {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π}

34 Rearranging simple trig equations

The same rules we use in algebra for rearranging linear equations also work for trig equations.
Example Solve the equation 12 cos(x) = 7 {x: 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°}.
= Answer Rearrange to obtain cos(x) = 7
12
= 0.5833.
There are two solutions:
1 in Q1 (between 0° and 90°),
2 in Q4 (between 270° and 360°).
–
cos 1(0.5833) = 54.3°
The Q1 solution is 54.3°.
The Q4 solution is 360° – 54.3° = 305.7°.
The solution set is {54.3°, 305.7°}.
 34 Trig graphs and equations 485

Example Solve 2 sin(θ ) − 3 = 0 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

= Answer Rearrange to get 2 sin(θ ) = 3 :
3
sin(θ ) = = 0.8660
2
π
sin–1 on calculator gives θ = 60° or radians.
3
The other solution is in Q2, i.e. 180° – 60° = 120° = 120 × π = 2 π .
180 3
Example Solve tan2(x) = 16 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
= Answer tan2(x) = 16, therefore tan(x) = 4 or tan(x) = –4.
Solve each equation separately:
tan(x) = 4 has solutions in Q1 and Q3.
tan–1(4) = 1.326 gives the Q1 solution.
Q3 solution is π + 1.326 = 3.142 + 1.326 = 4.467.
(Note in this solution the full calculator values have been used.)
tan(x) = –4 has solutions in Q2 and Q4.
Q2 solution is π – 1.326 = 1.816.
Q4 solution is 2π – 1.326 = 4.957.
The full solution set is {1.326, 1.816, 4.467, 4.957}.

Trig equations in degrees

exercise 34.05
Solve these equations for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
1
1 cos(x) =
2 1 11 cos2(x) = 1
6 cos(x) = 4
3 2 1
2 sin(x) = 7 4 sin(x) – 1 = 0 12 tan2(x) =
2 2
3 3 sin(x) = 2 8 2 cos(x) + 3 = 0 13 2
sin (x) = 1
4 5 cos(x) = 4 9 2 tan(x) – 5 = 1 14 cos2(x) = 2 34
5 3 tan(x) = –2 10 sin2(x) = 0.81 15 tan2(x) = –6

Trig equations in radians

exercise 34.06
Solve these equations for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Give answers correct to 2 dp.
1 tan(x) = 3 5 4 cos(x) = 3 10 –3 cos(x) = 0.93
–
3 6 2 cos(x) = –1 11 6 cos(x) + 7 = 12
2 cos(x) = −3
2 7 4 tan(x) + 1 = 0 12 5 sin(x) =
−1
1 4
3 sin(x) = 8 3 cos(x) = 13 8 sin(x) – 7.63 = 0
2 2
4 2 sin(x) = 1 9 3 tan(x) = 1 14 cos2(x) = 0.36
15 sin2(x) = –4
 35
Further trig graphs and equations

Properties of trig graphs

The shape of sin and cos curves can be described Period
using two pieces of information – the period and
the amplitude. Amplitude

• Each of the sin, cos and tan functions is periodic – that is, they repeat their values every so often
as we move along the x-axis. For example, sin(30°) = sin(390°) = sin(750°), etc. The period of a
trig function tells us how often the graph repeats. The period is the minimum positive sideways
movement needed to map the graph on to itself. For both sin and cos the period = 2π = 360°.
• The amplitude is half the difference between the largest y-value and the smallest y-value. For a
trig graph where the x-axis goes ‘through the middle’, the amplitude is the height of the graph
above the x-axis. The graphs of sin and cos have an amplitude of 1.
y y
1 y = sin(x) 1 y = cos(x)

35
π 2π x π 2π x
–1 –1

y
One application of both sin and cos functions is that they
mathematically model wave motion. This is useful in y = tan(x)
electricity (alternating current), physics (e.g. radio waves)
and oceanography. The period describes the distance
between successive waves, and the amplitude describes
the height of each wave. π 2π x
Note that the tan graph has asymptotes at odd
multiples of 90°.
 35 Further trig graphs and equations 487

STARTER
Look at this graphic from The Flagstaff showing
tide movement and height for Auckland.
1 What is the period? What does it represent?
2 Suggest an appropriate vertical scale. Use
this to describe the amplitude.

Applications of trig graphs

exercise 35.01
1 This sin graph represents the height above a What is the period of this trig graph?
the ground of a seat on a Ferris wheel as the b What does the period represent in this
Ferris wheel rotates about its hub. situation?
c What is the height above the ground of
Height (metres)

20 the hub of the Ferris wheel?

d What is the amplitude of this trig graph?
e A ‘ride’ on this Ferris wheel is 5
revolutions. How long does a ‘ride’ last? 35
f The first time when the seat is 10 m
20 40 60 80 above the ground is at 10 seconds. When
Time (seconds)
is the second time?
g When is the seat 15 m above the ground
for the first time? Give your answer to
the nearest second.

2 Tuning forks produce sounds that can be

modelled by trig graphs.
• The intensity of loudness of the sound is
measured in decibels.
• The apparent pitch (high or low) is
related to the frequency of the vibrations.
This is measured in hertz. Hertz is the
number of cycles per second.
 488 Trigonometric equations 2.9

This graph shows two complete cycles of the c Make a copy of the graph, and add
sound produced by a tuning fork. another graph to show what would
happen if the chandelier swung to the
Intensity (decibels)

y left first.
40 d What is the period and the amplitude
for this graph?
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 t e If the movement continued in a
Time similar way, what position would you
–40
(seconds) expect the chandelier to be in:
i after 4 seconds?
a What is the time for one complete cycle?
ii after 6 seconds?
b What is the period of this trig graph?
c What is the amplitude of this trig graph? 4 This graph gives an approximation of the
d What is the frequency (in hertz) of the apparent height (in degrees) of the Sun
sound produced? above the horizon at Wellington on and
e The equation for this tuning fork is around the spring equinox (21 September).
y = 40 sin(50πt). What would you expect
the equation to be if the tuning fork was
Height
49°
twice as loud, with the same frequency?
0°
3 An earthquake causes a chandelier to swing 0700 1900 0700 1900
backwards and forwards from a central 21 Sept 22 Sept
position. This diagram shows one cycle of its Time of day
movement from the centre to the right and
then to the left. a What do the dashed portions of the
graph represent?
b What is the period of this graph?
c What is the amplitude, and what does it
represent in this situation?
d At what time of the day is the Sun at its
Left Right highest in the sky?
e At what two times during the day would
you expect the Sun to be at an apparent
35 height of 25° above the horizon?

5 a Draw two graphs to show the

Right approximate height above the horizon of
central position (cm)

the Sun for these two times of the year:

10 i longest day of the year (summer
Distance from

solstice = 21 December); maximum

0.8 1.6 apparent height = 73°
Time ii shortest day of the year (winter
10 (seconds) solstice = 21 June); maximum
Left
apparent height = 26°.
a How far is it between its extreme left and b What simple change could you make to
right positions? the graph in part i to get the graph in
b How long does it take for a complete part ii?
swing (from left to right and back to left)?
 35 Further trig graphs and equations 489

Transformations of the sin and cos graphs

In functions such as a sin(x), sin(bx), sin(x + c) and sin(x) + d, the constants a, b, c and d transform the
graph in certain ways.

a sin(x ) and a cos(x )

Multiplying sin or cos by a number alters the amplitude of the graph.
Example Sketch the graphs of:
a y = 2 sin(x) b y = 1 cos(x).
2
= Answer a y b y
1 1
2 y= 2 cos(x)
y = 2 sin(x)
π 2π x
–1
π 2π x

–2

sin(bx ) and cos(bx )

If the angle is multiplied by a constant before the sin or cos is taken, then the frequency changes
accordingly. For example, sin(2x) repeats itself twice between 0° and 360° instead of only once, and
therefore the period is halved.
Example Sketch the graphs of:
a y = cos(2x) b y = sin(3x).

= Answer a y
y = cos(2x)
b y y = sin(3x) 35
1 1

π 2π x π 2π x
–1 –1
 490 Trigonometric equations 2.9

sin(x ± c) and cos(x ± c)

Adding (or subtracting) a constant to the angle before the sin or cos is taken moves the graph
sideways. If the constant is positive, then:
• adding a constant moves the graph to the left,
• subtracting a constant moves the graph to the right.

Example Sketch the graphs of:

a y = cos(x + 30°) b y = sin(x – 45°).
y
= Answer a y y = cos(x + 30°) b
1 1 y = sin(x – 45°)

60° 180° 360° x 45° 180° 360° x

–1 –1

sin(x ) + d and cos(x ) + d

Adding a constant to the result of a sin or cos function moves the graph up or down.

Example Sketch the graphs of:

a y = sin(x) + 3 b y = cos(x) – 1.

= Answer a y b y
y = cos(x) – 1
4 y = sin(x) + 3 π 2π x

–1
3
–2
2

1
35
π 2π x
 35 Further trig graphs and equations 491

Several of the above transformations can be combined in the one graph.

Example Sketch the graph of y = 4 – sin(2x).

= Answer It is often best to sketch this kind of example in stages. Note that 4 – sin(2x) is the same
as –sin(2x) + 4.
sin(2x) repeats itself twice in between 0° and 360°. Multiplying by –1 changes the sign
of every y-value, i.e. reflects the graph in the x-axis.
y
y y = sin(2x) y = –sin(2x)
1 1

π 2π x π 2π x
–1 –1

Finally, adding 4 moves the graph y

up 4 units: 5

3
y = 4 – sin(2x)
2 (or –sin(2x) + 4)

π 2π x

exercise 35.02
Sketch these trig graphs. Use a scale in radians for each one.

1 y = 2 cos(x)
2 y = –3 sin(x)
12 y = sin x − π (4 ) 35
13 y = cos(x – 2)
3 y = –cos(x)
14 y = 1 – sin(x)
1
4 y = sin(x) 15 y = 2 sin(x) + 4
2
5 y = sin(x) + 2 16 y = 3 sin(2x)
6 y = cos(x) – 1
7 y = cos(2x)
17 y = 2 cos 1 x
2 ( )
8 y = sin(3x) 18 y = − 2 cos ( x − π )

( )
2
9 y = sin 1 x 19 y = 1 – cos(2x)
2
10 y = cos(x + π) 20 y = 3 + 2 cos x + π
2 ( )
11 (
y = sin x + π
2 )
 492 Trigonometric equations 2.9

TECHNOLOGY INVESTIGATION
Modelling monthly temperatures in Clyde, Central Otago
Open the spreadsheet ‘Clyde average daily temperatures.xls’. You can run it from
the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or you can download it from the
website www.mathematics.co.nz.

35

1 What is the period of the graph of the daily temperature (coloured blue)? Explain what it
represents.
2 What is the amplitude of the graph of the daily temperature? Explain what it represents.
The temperature can be ‘modelled’ with a trig graph. This involves experimenting to try and

( )
represent the temperature with a trig formula of the form T = p cos πt + q , where T is the
180
temperature in °C and t is the number of days into a year. In the spreadsheet the aim is to fit
the pink curve as closely as possible to the blue curve.
3 p and q stand for numbers – try to find out their most suitable values. To start with they
are set at p = 2 and q = 4, but experiment by changing them.
4 What part of the year is the model not such a good fit?
 35 Further trig graphs and equations 493

exercise 35.03
1 y 3 y
2 2
1
π 2π x
45° 90° 135° 180° x
–1 –2

–2
(Multichoice) Which function has the graph
shown?
(Multichoice) The equation of the curve
(A) y = 2 sin(3x)
()
sketched is:
(A) y = sin(x) (B) y = 2 sin x
3
(B) y = 2 sin(x) (C) y = 2 sin(2x)
(C) y = sin(2x) (D ) y = 3 sin(2x)
(D) y = 2 sin(2x) (E) y = 3 sin x
2 ()
2 (Multichoice) Which is the graph of 4 y
y = –2 cos(x)? 1
(A) y –180° 180° 540°
2 x
1 360° 720°
–1
–1 π 2π x
–2
(Multichoice) The graph shows which
(B) y function?
2 (A) y = sin(x)
1
(B) y = –sin(x)
–1 π 2π x
(C) y = –sin(x + 90°)
–2
(D) y = sin(x – 90°)
(C) y (E) y = sin(90° – x)
2
1 5 (Multichoice) The curve sketched is 35
–1 π 2π x y = 3 cos(2x) where x is in degrees. What are
–2 the co-ordinates of P?
y
y (A) (180, 3) P
(D)
2 (B) (120, 2)
1 (C) (720, 3) x
–1 π 2π x (D) (90, 3)

( )
–2
6 The curve sketched is y = 2 cos 1 x
y 2
(E)
2 where x is in degrees. What are the
1 co-ordinates of P? y
–1 π 2π x
–2
x

P
 494 Trigonometric equations 2.9

7 The graph shows the function c(θ ) = cos(θ ) 11 Match each of the six equations ( f1(x) to
and a function f(θ ). f6 (x)) with a graph labelled (A) to (G).
y Equations
f1(x) = sin2(x)
c
f2(x) = –2 cos(x)

( )
f
2π x f3(x) = sin 1 x
2
× f (x) = sin ( x + π )
4
T 4
f5(x) = cos(x) – 1
a Write down the co-ordinates of the point
T. f6(x) = sin(2x)
b Write down the rule for f in the form
f (θ ) = _____. Graphs
(A) y
8 The graph y 2
sketched is of 1
the equation
0
y = 4 sin(3x), π 2π x
–1
where x is
in radians. –2
What are the x
co-ordinates (B) y
of A? 2
1
A 0
π 2π x
y P –1
9 The equation
of the curve partly –2
drawn here is
y = 2 sin(2θ ), where (C) y
θ is in degrees. 2
Write down the
35 co-ordinates of P.
1
0
π 2π x
–1
10 Sketched below is a portion of the curve –2
y = 1 sin(2 x), where x is in degrees. Write
2
down the missing co-ordinates of the points (D) y
A, B, C and D. 2
y
1
D
0
π 2π x
–1
0
A B C x –2

A = (___ 0), B = (___, 0), C = (___, 0),

D = (0, ___).
 35 Further trig graphs and equations 495

(E) y 12 The graph shows the function s(x) = sin(x). On

2 the same graph, using the same scales for both
1 axes, is another function f(x).
0 f(x)
π 2π x s(x) f
–1
s
–2

2π x
(F) y
2
P
1
0
a Write down the equation of f(x).
π 2π x b What is the period of f(x)?
–1
c Write down the co-ordinates of P, a turning
–2
point of f(x), marked on the graph.
(G) y
2 13 The diagram shows the graphs of two trig
functions, g and h.
1
0 g(x)
π 2π x h(x)
–1 1
g
–2

π 3π
2 π 2π
2 h
–1

a Write down the equation of g and the

equation of h.
b What is the period of h?
c Using the graphs, or otherwise, find the
value(s) of x for which g(x) = h(x) in the
interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
35
More trigonometric equations
Here we extend the work in Chapter 34 (pp. 479 and 484–485) on solving trig equations. There we
investigated solutions of:
1 sin(x) = k; cos(x) = k; tan(x) = k
2 a sin(x) = b; a cos(x) = b; a tan(x) = b
Now that we have studied the effects of translations on trig graphs and the period, we move on to:
3 sin(x + a) = b; cos(x + a) = b, etc.
4 sin(ax) = b; cos(ax) = b, etc. (multiple solutions).
 496 Trigonometric equations 2.9

When solving trig equations it helps to use technology – this could include
equation-solving software, a graphics calculator, or a spreadsheet. Use one of these
aids to produce a ‘picture’ of the solution.
The example here is the same as the first example that is solved using more traditional
methods in the following section.
Example Use a spreadsheet to picture the solution of the equation sin(x – 37°) = –0.87,
for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. Estimate the solution(s).
= Answer

The sin graph takes a y-value of –0.87 for values of x near 280° and 340°.
Reasonable estimates for the solution of the equation are 280° and 340°.

35 Equations resulting from translations of trig graphs:

sin(x ± a) = b and cos(x ± a) = b
Degrees
Example Solve sin(x – 37°) = –0.87 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
= Answer (x – 37°) has two possible values – in quadrants 3 and 4. Note that sin–1 (0.87) gives
60.5°.
The quadrant 3 angle is 180° + 60.5° = 240.5°.
The quadrant 4 angle is 360° – 60.5° = 299.5°.
Therefore:
x – 37° = 240.5° or x – 37° = 299.5°
x = 240.5° + 37° x = 299.5° + 37°
= 277.5° = 336.5°
 35 Further trig graphs and equations 497

Radians – multiples of π
Example ( 3)
Solve cos x − π = 1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π.
2
1 = 0.7071
= Answer Note that
2
and cos–1(0.7071) gives 45° exactly when full calculator values
are used. Another possible angle is 315° or –45° (quadrant 4).
Converting to radians, these angles are π and π .
−

4 4
x− = π π or x − =π −π

3 4 3 4 TIPSTER
x = +π π x =
−π
+ π
4 3 4 3 Alternatively, the problem could be
= 7 π = π performed in degrees, converting to
12 12 radians at the final stage.

Radians in decimal form

Some problems will require angles to be used from outside the usual 0° to 360° or 0 to 2π range. Here
is an example.
Example Solve the equation sin(x – 1.9) = –0.88 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
= Answer An angle with a sin value of –0.88 has two solutions, in quadrants 3 and 4:
sin–1(0.88) = 1.08.
The quadrant 3 angle is π + 1.08 = 4.22.
The quadrant 4 angle is 2π – 1.08 = 5.21.
x – 1.9 = 4.22 or x – 1.9 = 5.21
x = 6.12 x = 7.11
Now x = 7.11 is outside the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
Subtracting 2π gives us exactly the same angle, but within this range:
i.e. x = 7.11 – 2π = 0.82.
The two solutions are 0.82 and 6.12.
35
exercise 35.04
1 Solve these trig equations for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. Give answers accurate to 0.1° where necessary.
a cos(x – 20°) = 0.3762 b sin(x + 30°) = 2
5
1
c cos(x + 90°) = d cos(x – 60°) = 0.6
2 –
e sin(x + 60°) = 0.819 f cos(x + 40°) = 3
2
2 Rearrange and then solve these trig equations for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. Give answers accurate to 0.1°
where necessary.
a 3 cos(x – 20°) = 1 b 2 sin(x + 50°) = –1
c 2 cos(x + 42°) = 1 d 4 sin(x – 73°) = –3
e 2 sin(x – 10°) = 1.84 f 3 cos(x + 70°) = 2.61
 498 Trigonometric equations 2.9

3 Solve these trig equations for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Give answers accurate to 2 dp.
a sin(x + 0.2) = 0.8 b cos(x – 1.6) = 0.32
c sin(x + 3.1) = 0.27 d sin(x + π) = –0.3

( )
e cos x − π = 0.74
2

Changing the frequency: sin(ax ) = b and cos(ax ) = b

The number a in this kind of equation controls the frequency of the graph. This means
there could be more than just two solutions between 0 and 2π.
If a = 3, say, there will be six solutions. This is because the graph repeats itself three
times in between 0 and 2π, instead of just once – so there will be three times as many solutions.
Example Solve cos(3x) = 0.75 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
= Answer The equation cos(x) = 0.75 has two solutions (in degrees), in quadrants 1 and 4.
These are 41.4° and 318.6°.
Add 360° to each of these, and further solutions would be 401.4° and 678.6°.
Add another 360° to obtain more solutions: 761.4° and 1038.6°.
(Note: the reason for this is that we will be dividing by 3, which will bring these angles
back to ones less than 360°.)
3x = 41.4° or 318.6° or 401.4° or 678.6° or 761.4° or 1038.6°
x = 13.8° or 106.2° or 133.8° or 226.2° or 253.8° or 346.2°.

We can use graph-drawing software to picture the solution to a trig equation.

The example here is the same as the example that is solved using more traditional
methods below.
–1
Example Produce a picture of the solution to the equation sin(2 x) = for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
2
Estimate the solution(s).
= Answer
35

This graph was drawn using TI InterActiveTM.

Note:
1 The values are calculated using radians, because radians are implied by the restriction
‘for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π’.
2 The sin graph repeats itself twice between 0 and 2π. This means there are four solutions.
−
3 The sin graph takes a y-value of 1 for values of x near 1.8, 2.8, 5 and 6. These four values
2
are reasonable estimates for the solution of the equation.
 35 Further trig graphs and equations 499

−1
Example Solve sin(2 x) = for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
2
−
= Answer The equation sin(2 x) = 1 has two solutions (in degrees), in quadrants 3 and 4.
2
These are 210° and 330°.
Add 360° to each of these, and further solutions would be 570° and 690°.
(Later we will be dividing by 2, which will bring these angles back to ones less than
360°.)
2x = 210° or 330° or 570° or 690°
x = 105° or 165° or 285° or 345°.
In radians:
105π or 165π or 285π or 345π
180 180 180 180
gives
7π or 11π or 19π or 23π .
12 12 12 12
Note: these solutions in radians can either be given as multiples of π (see above) or changed to
ordinary numbers. As ordinary numbers, the four solutions are: 1.833, 2.880, 4.974 and 6.021. These
correspond closely to the estimates 1.8, 2.8, 5 and 6 given by the graph-drawing software.

exercise 35.05
1 Solve these trig equations. Give all the 3 Solve these trig equations. Give all the
solutions in the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. Give solutions in the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. Give
answers accurate to 0.1° where necessary. answers accurate to 0.1° where necessary.
a cos(2x) = 0.84 1
a sin(2 x) = b cos(4x) + 1 = 0
b sin(4x) = 0.31 2
c sin(3x) = –0.482 c 2 cos(2 x) = 1 d 4 sin(3x) + 5 = 4
2
()
d cos x = 0.85
2 4 Rearrange first and then solve these trig
e sin ()
x
3
= 0.36 equations. Give all the solutions between
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Give answers accurate to 2 dp.
35
f cos(3x) = 0.814 a 2 sin(3x) = 1.28 b 3 cos(2x) = –2.16

2 Solve these trig equations. Give all the

solutions in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Give
( )
c sin 1 x = 0.21
4 2 ( )
d cos 1 x = − 0.74
e 2 cos(3x) = 1.8 f 4 sin(2x) = 3.74
answers accurate to 2 dp.
a sin(2x) = 0.6 5 Solve the following equations for x between 0°
b sin(2x) = –0.46 and 360°.
c cos(2x) = 0.45 a sin2(x) = 0.5 b tan2(2x) = 1
d cos(3x) = –0.62
e sin(4x) = –0.63
f –cos(2x) = –0.58
 500 Trigonometric equations 2.9

exercise 35.06
Solve each of these trig equations for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Give all answers as multiples or fractions of π.

1 sin ( 2 x ) = 1
2 (
3 sin x +
2 )
π = −1 5 2 sin ( 2 x ) =
−
3

2 cos ( ) 1
4 x = 4 cos(x − π) = 1 6 2 cos(x + π) + 1 = 0
2 2
7 2 sin2(2x) = 1

Applications of trig equations

exercise 35.07
1 Formulae that use sin and cos give good c When does the seat reach its maximum
predictions for the heights of tides and when height above the ground?
they occur. The depth of water at a wharf in d What is the maximum height above the
Lyttelton harbour is given by the formula ground?
d = 2 + cos(30t°), where d is the depth in e Explain how the graph shows that the
metres and t is the number of hours after seat takes the same time to go up as it
midnight. takes to come down.
a Calculate the depth of water at midnight. f In the first 5 seconds the seat rises more
b Calculate the depth of water at 4 am. quickly than in the next 5 seconds. How
c The value of cos always lies between does the graph show this?
1 and –1. What is the greatest depth of
water at the wharf? 3 The water level rises and falls as an ocean
d Draw a graph that shows the depth swell surges against the piles of a wharf.
of water for the first 12 hours after As the level varies, the height above the sea
midnight. floor can be read off a metre gauge attached
e What is the least depth of water at the to one of the piles.
Bollard
wharf?
f At what two times before noon is the
depth of water exactly 2 m?
35 10

2 As a Ferris wheel turns, the height of each 9

passenger seat changes, rising to the top and 8
then falling down. One Ferris wheel takes
20 seconds to rotate. The height of a seat 7
above the ground is given by the formula 6
h = 20 sin(9t), where h is the height in metres
and t is the time in seconds (0 ≤ t ≤ 20). The
values of t in the equation are taken to be in The height (h), in metres, of the water
degrees when calculated. above the sea floor at time t seconds after
a What is the height 5 seconds after observations start is modelled by the
starting? function h = 2 sin(t) + 7. (Note: in this
b Draw a graph to show height against function t is calculated in radians.) What is
time. The vertical axis should show the first time after observations start that the
height, and have a scale of 0–20, and height above the sea floor is 5 m?
place time on the horizontal axis (0–20).
 35 Further trig graphs and equations 501

4 The diagram shows a water-wheel that is 5 A child is playing with a yoyo. The yoyo
used to lift water from a river to a canal. moves up and down, and its height in
centimetres above the ground t seconds after
the child starts playing can be modelled by
the equation h = 45 + 35 cos(2t) . The values
of t in the equation are taken to be in radians
Canal when calculated. How many seconds does it
take the yoyo to become closer to the ground
than 25 cm?
River

6 An artificial lung works by using a pump

The height (h), in metres, of one to inhale and exhale air. The resulting rate
particular bucket above the river after of change (r) of air pressure is measured in
t seconds is given by the formula mL/s and can be modelled by the
h = 3 – 3 cos(t). The values of t in the
equation are taken to be in radians when
trigonometric function r = 2000 sin πt ,
where t is measured in seconds,
4 ( )
calculated. After passing through the top and represents the time elapsed after the
point on the wheel, the bucket will empty machine is turned on. The pump starts by
when it is 5 m above the river. How many inhaling for a certain time, and then exhales
seconds after leaving the river does the for the same length of time, and then inhales
bucket empty? again, and so on.
a For how long does the pump inhale each
time?
b When does the rate of change of air
pressure first exceed 1500 mL/s:
i inhaling?
ii exhaling?

7 The temperature in an electric kiln varies

each day and can be modelled by the trig
( )
function T = 480 − 450 sin πt , where T is
12
the temperature, measured in °C, and t is the
time in hours that has passed since midnight 35
each day.
a A potter can put clay pots into the kiln
when the temperature exceeds 600 °C. At
what time of the day is this first possible?
b The kiln can only safely be cleaned when
the temperature is under 50 °C. For how
long is it possible to clean the kiln?
502 Trigonometric equations 2.9

NCEA 2.9 Revision exercises

▼

1 Solve these trigonometric equations, for

0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
a 4 cos(x) = 3
b sin(x) + 1 = 0.45 ACH

2 Solve these trigonometric equations, for

0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
a 2 sin(x) = –1
b cos(x) + 1.8 = 2.25 ACH

3 Solve these trigonometric equations, for

0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
a 5 tan(x) + 3 = 1
b cos(2x) = 0.4
6 A boat ramp slopes in a straight line into a river
c sin(x – 45°) = 0.7 MRT
estuary. As the tide rises and falls the length in
metres (L) of exposed concrete varies from
4 Solve these trigonometric equations, for
12 m to 50 m. This length can be modelled by
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
 
a 3 tan(x) + 1 = 4 the equation L = 19 cos  t  + 31, where t is the
2
b sin(2x) = –0.68 time in hours since low-tide. The values of t in
c 3 cos(x – 1) + 2 = 1 MRT the equation are taken to be in radians when
calculated.
5 A grandmother is slowly and steadily pushing Length of exposed
her grand-daughter on a bicycle along a footpath. concrete varies
The height above the ground of a pedal can be
modelled by the equation h = 6 cos(t) + 20, where
h is measured in centimetres, and t is the time in 12 m
seconds from when the pushing starts. When High-tide mark
38 m
will be the first time that the pedal is 15 cm
above the ground? Round your answer to
the nearest tenth of a second. MRT Low-tide mark

a How many hours after low-tide does it take

for the length of exposed concrete to be less
than 20 m?
b For how many hours altogether in a tidal
cycle (from low tide to high tide and back
to low tide) is the length of exposed
concrete less than 20 m? EXC
Answers
2.1 Algebra
1 Basic algebra

Exercise 1.01 (page 2) Exercise 1.04 (page 4)

1
1 4x – 12 13 4xy + 20x 1 x2 – 16 8 49x2 – 25y2
2 –2y – 18 14 21x – 28 2 x2 – 49 9 x4 – 4
3 15x – 30 15 –6 – 10x 3 1 – x2 10 9x4 – 49
4 6x + 15 16 –9x + 20 4 25 – x2 11 36x4 – 25y4
5 21x – 42y 17 3x2 + 2x 5 121 – x2 12 x8 – 9
6 –a –b 18 7x2 + x 6 4x2 – 9 13 16x6 – 4y4
7 –b +c 19 x – 20 7 1 – 36x2
8 x2 + 2x 20 –2 – 6x
9 x2 – 3x 21 –x2 – 13x Exercise 1.05 (page 4)
10 ab + 2ac 22 22x2 – 11x 1 –8x –6 7 8x2 + 14x – 8
11 2x2 + 14x 23 –6x2 – 13x 2 3x2 + 7x 8 7x2 + 7x – 14
12 –3y2 + 3y 24 9x2 + 5x – 46 3 x2 + 13x + 18 9 8x2 + 3x – 3
25 –10
4 7x2 – 48 10 7x2 + 15x + 21
Exercise 1.02 (page 3) 5 7x2 – 8x – 11 11 8x2 + 6x – 20
6 5x2 – 3x + 25 12 –68x + 81
1 x2 + 10x + 16 14 –x2 + 5x + 36
2 x2 + 9x + 20 15 x2 – 6x + 5
Exercise 1.06 (page 5)
3 x2 – 10x + 21 16 x2 + 2x – 3
4 x2 – 9x + 8 17 2x2 + 11x + 5 1 x3 + 11x2 + 38x + 40 11 18x3 – 27x2 – 11x + 10

5 x2 + 2x – 15 18 3x2 + 11x + 10 2 x3 – 7x2 – 10x + 16 12 4x3 – 16x2 + 5x + 25

6 x2 – 6x – 7 19 2x2 – 19x + 24 3 x3 + 2x2 – 15x 13 x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1

7 x2 – x – 72 20 5x2 – 37x + 14 4 x3 + 3x2 – 16x + 12 14 x3 + 12x2 + 48x + 64

8 x2 – 14x – 32 21 2x2 + x – 21 5 x3 + 5x2 – 8x – 48 15 x3 – 18x2 + 108x – 216

9 x2 – 7x – 44 22 3x2 – 35x – 12 6 2x3 – x2 – 5x – 2 16 27 – 27x + 9x2 – x3

10 x2 – 8x – 65 23 6x2 – 17x + 12 7 2x3 – 11x2 – 21x 17 8x3 + 12x2 + 6x + 1

8 –x3 – 2x2 + x + 2 18 27x3 – 135x2 + 225x – 125
11 x2 – 3x + 2 24 10x2 + 37x + 7
9 –x3 + 3x2 + 10x – 24 19 9x2 + 9x + 9
12 x2 + 10x + 24 25 6x2 + x – 35
13 –x2 + 2x + 8 26 35x2 + 37x – 52 10 2x3 – 3x2 – 39x + 20 20 21x2 + 63x + 133

Investigation
Exercise 1.03 (page 4)
Chequered flags (page 6)
1 x2 + 10x + 25 11 64x2 – 16xy + y2
1 128
2 x2 – 14x + 49 12 16x2 + 24xy + 9y2
2 64
3 x2 – 6x + 9 13 x4 – 8x2 + 16
3 64
4 x2 – 200x + 10 000 14 x4 + 10x2 + 25
4
5 x2 – 40x + 400 15 9x4 – 6x2 + 1
6 16x2 + 8x + 1 16 16x4 + 40x2y2 + 25y4
7 25x2 + 30x + 9 17 a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ac 5 p×q
8 9x2 – 6x + 1 18 4x2 + y2 + 9z2 – 4xy – 6yz + 12xz 6 p and q both odd
9 4x2 + 12x + 9 19 (C) pq pq + 1 pq − 1
7 a b c
2 2 2
10 10 000x2 – 200x + 1 20 a = 3, b = –13, c=5
 504 Answers

Exercise 1.07 (page 8) Exercise 1.10 (page 9) Exercise 1.12 (page 11)
−3
1 2 13 0 1 8 12 1 2n + 2 = 78; n = 38 seedlings
7 8
2 =2 1 14 { } (no 2 6 − 26 2 2n + 1 = 25; n = 12 seedlings
3 3 13
solution) 40 9
3 –6 3 3 3 a 12 cm
15
4
=11 14 1
4 –6 3 3 27 −3 b 6 + 0.4t = 20; t = 35 days
−4 4 8 15
5 6 16 = −1 1 − 15
2 c 0.4 cm or 4 mm per day
3 3
1 6 0 −7
= −3 1
5 2
16 –3 d The height when it is first
planted.
17 6 0 17 { } (no
7 0 2 2
e h=t+7
solution)
7
8 { } (no 18 =2 1 7 26 −9
3 3 −2 18 4 x + x + 40 + x + 80 = 204;
solution) −1 13
8 3 28 g, 68 g, 108 g
9 { } (no 19 3
3 19 54
solution) –3 9 2
−7 5 $15
20 20
1 6
10 21 { } (no 10
17
−4
6 $2.85
12 10
solution) 21 5
11 5 11 7 7 a 0.4t + 50 = 500 – 0.5t;
5 22 –7 25 t = 500 seconds
12 =11 22 19
4 4 b 250 m

Exercise 1.08 (page 8) Exercise 1.11 (page 10) 8 a C = 30 + 0.5k

b 0.5k + 30 < 90
1 4 10 R x< 9
−1
1 2 12 x≥0 c 0 km to 120 km
2 3 11 2 x≤2
− 13 12 13 x<6 9 75x + 15(x – 31) = 10 425; x = 121
3 3 12 9 3 x>2 x < 75
14 11 10 a Inter-call, because the
−7
4 –1 4 x ≤ 20 −8 connection fee is lower, and
13
3
3
5 x < 21 15 x≤
5 1 19 making a very few calls will
7 14 16 x ≤ –11 not matter too much.
2 6 x≤9
6 { } (no solution) − − b A user who spends a lot of
15 –5 7 x> 5 17 x < 53
1 19 3 time on the phone.
7 5 16 { } (no −
8 x≤ 1 18 { } (no c Inter-call: C = 20 + 1.2t
8 2 solution) 2
solution) Cell-talk: C = 45 + 0.85t
7 9 x≥8
9 1 17 19 x < 17 d 71.4 minutes (1 dp)
5
10 x < 15 22
2 −
Puzzle 20 x ≥ 98 11 a T = 376 b 94 kg
11 x≤3 23
c 675 kg
The third highest number (page 8)
Puzzle 12 a 0.37k + 79
59
The four friends (page 10) b 209 km (to nearest km)
c $156.36
Exercise 1.09 (page 8) Their ages are 30, 16, 14 and 15,
respectively. x
− 25 13 a or 1.6 x
1 –30 9 0.625
4
x
12 63 b − 10
2 35 10 13 0.615
77 c 1.6x = 240; x = 150
3 42 11 4 x
4 d − 10 = 640.41; $400
4 13 101 0.615
12 x
40 1.6 x = − 10 ;
5 50 e
1 0.615
37 13 8 $384.38 ($385 to nearest
6 5 4 dollar)
14 5
19
7 9 1
14 a 3m b 80 minutes
39
15 6 c 1.67 m (3 sf)
8 23 11
16 15 20 + 2(x – 3) = 12 + 3(x – 2);
70
x = 8 hours
16 d
− d = 1 ; 36 km
80 90 20
 Answers 505

Puzzle Exercise 1.14 (page 15) Exercise 1.15 (page 15)

Stuffing envelopes (page 14) x2
1 x9 13 96x16 1 x6 14
2
2 hours 13 minutes 2 x15 14 24x6 2 x6 3
15 = 3 x−2
3 y6 15 –6y11
3 y3 x2
3
4 x9 16 x3y7 4 x5 16
Exercise 1.13 (page 14) 5 15x6 17 120x9y11
4x2
5 x 17 ya – b
1 a 36 b r7 6 –84x11 18 a5bc2 xy −1
x
c (–1)4 d c3 7 2x7 19 210 = 1024
6 4x 18 3y
=
3 2
7 3x2
2 a 4×4 8 –3x8 20 319 = 1 162 261 467 19 2a
8 –2x6
9 3x6 21 211 × 36 = 1 492 992 9y2
b –7 × –7 × –7 × –7 × –7 20
3y 11x 3
10 2x13 22 a3.5 9 5
c f×f×f 1
11 12y3 23 x5q 10 5x3 21 2
3 a 8 b 9 12 y6 24 x2 x5
11 22 3
c 625 d 343 6
23 p2q – 2r
4
e 121 f 256 12 = 4 x−2 24 x3a
x2
3
4 a 24.76 b 2515.46 13 = 3 x−1
x
c 2.10
5 a 81 b –125 Exercise 1.16 (page 16)
c –32 768 d 1 1 x12 7 64x6 13 256x8y24z32
e 16 384 f –1
2 x14 8 –243x30 14 216
6 a –25 400 b 17.7 3 16x2 9 25x4y6 15 29
c 4.28 × 1015 d –2.19 × 10–11 4 9x8 10 64a9b6c3 16 210 Puzzle
5 32x10 11 64x6y12z6 17 28
Xavier and Yvonne
6 16x4y4 12 –512x12y6 18 36 (page 16)
Xavier is 16.

2 Algebraic fractions
Exercise 2.01 (page 17) Exercise 2.02 (page 18) Exercise 2.03 (page 18)
8ac
1 x 13 1 1 2 11 a2 q2
y d 1 11
6p 2 p2 21ac b2 10
2 3 14 2 12 a 2p
5r 3 4
a 2 4
12
15 a2b2 x2 3 pq 5
3 3b 3 13
6 2 2 10 f
1 16 12x2y2 3 13
4 c 14 xy 3 d
2y 4 10
17 4 b 4d 2 e 4 14 2
3y 5 2 15 3
5 7 4y
2w 18 9 6 3 15
6 16 b2 5 3x2
6 2c ab 2 c 2
19 18 8a2
3 3b 17 8c 15 x 2
7 9b 6 15d 16
5 20 6a 10c 4y
7 6p 4 a
8x2 18 7 c2
21 10x 8 x b 17
1 15 y 2 2e 2
8 2x 22 9y x3 21ad
9 y 19 y 8 3 p2 q2
4x2 23 abc
10bc 18
9 8 b3 e 2r 2
9y2 10 20 9
24 9x2 5b 2 ac g 6
(does not 19
3z 5x2 y
simplify) 25 12qr 10 10 y 8
10 x 26 10y3 20 15yz
3 xz
11 27 4ab2cx
4
1 28 16mn3p2q3
12
2ac
 506 Answers

Exercise 2.04 (page 18) Exercise 2.05 (page 20) Exercise 2.06 (page 21)
3y 1 ay + bx 2x + 5
1 9 6 22 1 12 + 6 x − x 2
2 y 10 1 x2 + 5x + 6
11
p x2 y x2 + x − 6
7c 9 4
2 10 2 15 + 2 xy 5 x + 13
10d 5 x6 q 23 2 14 − 2 x − x 2
5 xy x2 + 4x − 5 12
12 x 4 x6 3x + 3
3 11 5c y − 3x2
y y2 3 24 12 x + 7
7 xy 3 9x2 + 4x
4 a2b2c2 4 c 6x2 + 7 x − 3 13
12 4x2 9 + 4y 3x2 + 5x − 2
3 5
b
2 13
3 5 x 25 6x
4
− 3x + 4
14
x3 + 2 x + 4
4y9 4x + 8 bx 2 + ay 2 − a 2 x x2 + 2 x 2 x2 − 4x
b10 6 26
6 4x 4 y 6 5
a2 c 8 14 abxy x+2 10 x 2 + 13 x − 15
9 7
5x 5 15
40 − 33 x x2 − x x 3 + 2 x 2 − 3x
7 9x8y10 15 1 6 27 30 xy
16 26 = 64 x 4 x 2 + 5 x + 10 4 x 2 + 15 x − 31
8 72x27 8 2 xy + 3 x + 4 y 6 16
14 28 x2 + 2 x x3 − 2 x2 − 5x + 6
2 x + 15 x2 y 2
9 2 x2 + 5x 4x 3 + 2 x 2 − 5x + 2
5 x 2 z + xy 2 + yz 2 7 17
29 x2 + 5x + 4 x3 + x2 − 2 x
Puzzle 4x2 + 50 xyz
10 ax + bx
5 3x − 2 y 2 8 5x − 3
30 18
The shoemaker’s will 11
3x 6y x 2 + 2 ax − 2 bx − 4 ab x2 − 1
2
(page 19) 5x2 + 6a
9
6 x + 15 x2 − 4x − 3
2x 31 19
The executor shared the shoes in 12 15 ax 2 x2 + 9x + 9 x 2 − 16
3
1 1 1 20 ayz − 24 az + 75 a
the ratio : : = 9 : 6 : 2 , which − 3x
32 10 x 2 + 2 x + 12 7x + 8
2 3 9 13 30 xyz 20
is probably what the shoemaker 5 x 2 + x − 20 x2 + 5x + 6
7x + 3
6x2 − 5x 33
intended. The problem with 14 12
10
the will is that the three given 5x 2x − 6
15 34 15
fractions do not add to 1. In fact 2
5x + 1
1 1 1 17
+ + = , so if there were a x 2 + 6 x + 20 35 6
2 3 9 18
16 10
large number of shoes 1 would 6 x + 49 36
5x − 3
18 17 6
be unallocated. 21
x+ y 7 x − 63
37
18 xy
30
3x2 + 4 y 2
2y − x 38
19 xy
18 xy
x2 + 6x + 1
2 y + 3x 39
20 x2
xy
3 x − 5 x 2 − 12
2 − 4x 40
21 2 x2
xy

3 Factorising and quadratic expressions

Exercise 3.01 (page 22) Exercise 3.02 (page 23)
1 2(x + 3y) 11 2x(x – 2) 21 8y(3x2y – 4) 1 (b + c)(a + d) 8 (3f + 4h)(2g – 7e)
2 3(a – 3b) 12 x(4x + 1) 22 2x(2y2 –x+ 3x2) 2 (y + z)(x + w) 9 (2 – a)(y – 2x) or
3 x(4 – x) 13 3a(bc + 2b – 3c) 23 3(4ab + 3a – 5b) 3 (t – u)(s + r) (2x – y)(a – 2)
4 a(x + 1) 14 ab(a – b + c) 24 x(3 + y – 1) = x(2 + y) 4 (e + d)(f + h) 10 (a + b)(1 – c)
5 6(2x + 3y) 15 x(x – y2) 25 (x + 3)(2 – y) 5 (e + f)(c – 2d) 11 (2a + x)(3y – 2z)
6 x(2 – 3x) 16 abc(a – b + c) 26 (p + q)(a + b) 6 (q – r)(3p – 2s) 12 (y + 1)(x – 2)
7 a(x + y – z) 17 2(x2 + 2x – 6) 27 x(x + y – 2) 7 (2c – d)(4 + x) 13 (a – e)(b + c – d)
8 x(x + y + 1) 18 5(x2 + 2x + 5) 28 (x + 1)(p + 1) 14 (4x – 3y)(a + b – 1)
9 5(1 – 3x2) 19 6(y2 – 2z2) 29 (a + b)(a + b – 2)
10 x(10 – 21y) 20 13x(7 – y) 30 (x + y)2(–x – 3y) = –(x + y)2(x + 3y)
 Answers 507

Investigation Exercise 3.05 (page 26)

Splitting rectangles (page 24) 1 (2x + 1)(x + 3) 10 (2x + 3)(x – 8) 19 (4x – 3)(3x + 2)
1 10 rectangles
2 (2x + 3)(x + 4) 11 (3x – 1)(x + 7) 20 5(2x + 1)(x – 3)
3 (3x – 1)(x – 2) 12 (2x + 5)(x – 4) 21 3(2x + 1)(2x + 5)
4 (5x – 3)(x – 3) 13 (3x + 4)(2x – 3) 22 3(2x – 5)(x + 2)
5 (3x + 1)(x + 2) 14 (5x + 1)(2x – 3) 23 15(2x + 1)(x + 1)

2
6 (3x + 2)(x + 5) 15 (3x + 7)(4x + 5) 24 –(2x + 3)(x – 4) or
(4 – x)(2x + 3)
3
Number of Number of 7 (7x – 1)(x – 3) 16 (5x + 4)(4x – 1)
splits rectangles 8 (3x + 2)(x – 4) 17 (4x + 3)(4x + 5) 25 (5x – 6)(3x – 2)
0 1 9 (5x – 1)(x + 4) 18 (41x + 1)(x + 2)
1 3
2 6 Exercise 3.06 (page 27)
3 10
1 (x – 6)(x + 6) 23 4a(x – 2y)(x + 2y)
4 15
2 (y + 7)(y – 7) 24 (100x – 7)2
5 21
3 (x + 3)2 25 9(3x – y)(3x + y)
3 The same number of rectangles as 4 (4 – x)(4 + x) 26 (x2 + 1)2
the number of existing splits and
side ends of the rectangle; that is, 5 (x – 5)2 27 5(2x + 1)
n + 1 each time. 6 (x + 11)2 28 (2x2 – 3)2

4 (n + 1)(n + 2) 7 (a + 8)(a – 8) 29 (3x + 5)(x – 3)

2 –x(11x
8 (9 – x)(9 + x) 30 – 6) or x(6 – 11x)
Exercise 3.03 (page 25) 9 (2x – 1)2 31 (x2 + y2)2
10 (4x + y)(4x – y) 32 0
1 (x +6)(x + 5) 12 (x + 6)(x – 1)
11 (x + 2y)2 33 xb(a – b)(a + b)
2 (x – 10)(x – 2) 13 (x – 4)(x + 15)  1 1  1 1 
12 (5 + 3x)(5 – 3x) 34  +  − 
3 (x + 12)(x + 3) 14 (x + 14)(x + 2)  x 2y   x 2y 
13 (3a – 2b)(3a + 2b)
4 (x + 6)(x + 3) 15 (x + 7)(x + 1) 35 (x3 + 8)2
14 4(x – 1)(x + 1)
5 (x – 7)(x – 20) 16 (x – 6)(x + 3)  2a 1   2a 1 
15 (3x + 5)2 36 5 +   − 
6 (x + 5)(x – 3) 17 (x – 10)(x + 2)  b c  b c 
16 (5x – 6)2 37 (2x + 5)(1 – 2y)
7 (x – 8)(x + 5) 18 (x + 12)(x + 9)
17 2(x – 3)(x + 3) 38 3x(1 – 2x)(1 + 2x)
8 (8 – x)(3 + x) 19 (x + 13)(x – 8)
18 (4x – 3y)2 39 (x4 + 2y2)2
9 (x + 12)(x – 10) 20 (x + 14)(x – 10)
19 4(4 + x)(4 – x) 40 (2x – 3y)(2x + 3y)(4x2 + 9y2)
10 (x – 8)(x + 7) 21 (x + 20)(x + 3)
20 a(x + y)(x – y) 41 2(2x + 3y2)(2x – 3y2)
11 (24 – x)(1 – x) 22 (x – 5)(x + 4)
or 21 10(x – 2y)(x + 2y) 42 (2x5 – 5y4)2
23 (x – 8)(x – 3)
(x – 24)(x – 1) 22 (3x + 2y)2 43 (5x – 2y)(10 – x – 4y)
24 (x – 32)(x – 20)
44 (a – b + c + d)(a – b – c – d)
Exercise 3.04 (page 25)
Investigation
1 2(x – 3)(x + 2)
Hollow squares (page 28)
2 4(x + 6)(x – 2)
1 8 7 8 (16n – 16) cm2
3 4(x + 4)(x + 1) Type Number Number
2 12 9 (8n – 8) cm2
4 –(x – 8)(x + 2) or (8 – x)(x + 2) of of of
3 16 hollow painted unpainted
5 7(x + 1)(x + 1) = 7(x + 1)2
4 n2 – (n – 2)2 square faces faces
6 3(x + 6)(x – 5)
or 4n – 4 3 by 3 32 16
7 2(x + 12)(x + 2) 4 by 4 48 24
5 48 cm2
8 6(x – 16)(x + 2) 5 by 5 64 32
6 32 cm2
9 5(x + 7)(x + 4) 6 by 6 80 40
10 –2(x – 12)(x + 3) or 2(12 – x)(x + 3) 7 by 7 96 48
 508 Answers

Exercise 3.07 (page 29)

3(2 x + 1) x−4 x+5
1 2 10 18 x−3 26 33 (x – 3)2
9x + 1 x−1
1 x−5 2x + 1 1
2 3
11 x–5 19 27 34 ( x − 7 )( x + 2)
x−1 3x + 2
3 1 1
3 12 x+2 x+3
2 x+2 20 x−3 28 35 ( x − 1)2
x−2
4 4 13 x+3 –(1 x+2
21 + x) 4x − 3 36
14 –(x + 1) 29 x−2
4 5 –1
−1 2
22 cannot be simplified
30
2x + 5
1
37
( x + 4)( x + 3)
6 15 x−5 x+1 2 ( x − 1)( x − 5)
2 23
x−4 –1 38 x(x – 1)
7 cannot be simplified 16 x+3 31
–1
24 2a 3x2
8 17 x+5 −1 32
25 ( x + 1)2
9 –4 x+2

4 Rearrangements of algebraic formulae

Exercise 4.01 (page 31) Exercise 4.02 (page 31) Investigation
y+1 3y − 4 Floor joists (page 34)
1 x= 13 x= 1 r= C
3 6 2π 1 (B), (A), (C)
y−3 17 − 4 y 2 a
2 x= 14 x=
4 15 Number Number of 2 a 300 mm b 467 mm
17 − 2 y
3 x=2–y 15 x= of storeys painted square  
5 3 D = 25  5x + 2  = 125x + 50
6 − 2y 12 + y (s) faces (f)  3  3
4 x= 16 x=
3 8 1 5
y−3 4 x = 3D − 150
5 x= or 17 x = 2y 2 9 125
3
4y 3 13
y 18 x=
x = −1
3
5
4 17 Exercise 4.03 (page 35)
20 y
6 x = 10 – y 19 x= 5 21 2y − 2
3 1 x= 2 11 x=
1 − 4y 6 25 y y+1
7 x= 20 x = 2y – 1
2 3 − 2y 6− y
6 − 2y f −1 2 x= 12 x=
4 y − 12 21 x= b f = 4s + 1 c s= y y+5
8 x= 3 4
3 1 + 4y 1 + 3y
y−2 3 W = P−D 3 x= 13 x=
9 x=y–2 22 x= 3 3y 4y + 2
4 2
4 a 460 minutes = 7 3 hours 1+ y y−4
10 x=
6− p 23 x= 3 4 x=
y
14 x=
2q − p y −7
2 b t = 80w + 20
y+8 6 y + 17 5y 2−y
11 x= or 24 x= c w = t − 20 5 x= 15 x=
2 5 1− y y −1
80
y 12 y + 1
x= +4 25 x= d 13.25 kg 6 x= 3 16 x= 1
2 2 2−y 2y − 1
2−y 26 (D) 5 a u = v – at b t= v−u
12 x=
10 a 7 x=
2 − 3y 17 x = 2 bc + a
y −1 1 − 2c
6 a F = 5T + 2C + 3D + 3P
y−5 16 y − 11
8 x= 18 x=
b C = F − 5T − 3D − 3P y −1 4y − 5
2
1 + 4y 2 y + 15
7 a h = 2V b 4.1 m 9 x= 19 x=
2y + 5
55n y−2
2 A − bh
8 a a= b h = 2A 2+ y 20 x=
8y
h a+b 10 x= 15 − 2 y
3 − 2y
9 a C = 3.6L – 2 b L= C+2
3.6
10 a a= A b 50 m
πb
11 a $316.80 b C= N
1.32
or $317
c 0.7576
2 2 2
12 cos(A) = b + c − a
2 bc
 Answers 509

Exercise 4.04 (page 36) Exercise 4.06 (page 37)

1 x= y2 –2 2A
1 r = SA 10 a b=
a sin(C)
y2 + 1 2π l
2 x=
2 2 a 30 b t = 240 − 2k b 9.791 cm (4 sf)
k
3 x= 3y2 c 18 °C
4 x = (y + 1)2 = y2 + 2y + 1 11 a h = 3V2 b r = 3V
πr πh
3 h = 2A
5 x = (y – 3)2 – 3 b 400 − 2 x
12 a 2x + πy = 400 b y=
π
= y2 – 6y + 6 4 a m = E2
c 13 a r = SA
5
6 x = (y – 4)2 + 1 4π
b c = E (Note: only the b 0.2115 m (4 sf)
= y2 – 8y + 17 m
positive square root is
(y + 3)2 − 1 used, because c is the 14 a 5 seconds b p = 4.9t2 + q
7 x=
2 speed of light.)
c 64 m
=
y 2 + 6y + 8 5 T = 100I uv fv
2 PR 15 a f= b u=
u+ v v− f
y2
r = 3V
3
8 x= 6
4 4π 16 a A = πR 2 − πr 2
9 x= 4y2 + 8y + 1 7 b = c 2 − a2 2
b r = πR − A
10 x = 16y2 + 2 π
SA − 2 πr 2
8 l= c 6.73 cm
3y 2 + 5 2 πr
11 x= !
1 − y2 9 a n = 360
!
b 36 17 a
2
u = 2 s − at or u = s − at
y 2 + 25 180 − a 2t t 2
12 x= 2( s − ut)
y 2 − 25 b a=
t2
Exercise 4.05 (page 37) Investigation
1 x=± y 9 x = 1± y − 2 Three squares in a row (page 39)
2 x = 8± y −
3± y − 5 1 36 4 n2 + (n + 1)2 + (n + 2)2 −2 n2 + n2 + 2 n + 1 + n2 + 4n + 4 − 2
=
10 x= 3 3
2 2 121
3 x = −3± y 3 n2 + 6 n + 3
2± y−2 =
11 x= 3 400 3
4 x = 5± y 6
3(n2 + 2 n + 1)
1 ± 3y + 1 =
5 x = 1± y − 4 x= 3
12
2 = n2 + 2 n + 1
−
6 x = 5± 4 y 13 x = − 1± (y + 2)
= (n + 1)2
1± y 3 ± (3y − 1)
7 x= 14 x=
2 2
−
2± y+6
8 x=
3

5 Simultaneous equations
Exercise 5.01 (page 40) Exercise 5.02 (page 43) Exercise 5.03 (page 43)
1 (1, 4) 5 (1, –2)
1 x = 5, y = 1 11 x= –5, y=41 1 x = 18, y = –36 6 x = –3, y = − 3 1
3 2
2 (–2, 5) 6 (–1, 3) 2 x= –7, y=4 12 x = 7, y = –11
2 x = −2 3, y = 4 1 7 x = −1 1 , y = 3 1
3 (3, –2) 7 (1, –2) 3 x = 3, y = 2 13 x = 2 1, y = 2 5 10 2 2
2 3 x = –3, y = 0
4 (–1, –5) 8 (2, 4) 4 x= –5, y= 1 14 x = 5, y = –3 8 x = 2 1, y =11
4 2 2
5 x = 2, y = 2 15 x = –4, y = 2 4 x = 7 , y =12 9 x = 3, y = –4
12 3
6 x = 2, y = 4 16 x = 1, y = 1 5 x = −1 1, y = 0 10
−
x = −7 1 , y = 5
5− 3 3
7 x= 1 ,y= 1 17 x = 0, y = –1 6 9
2 6
8 x = 1, y = 0 18 { } (no
9 x=11 ,y= 1 solution) Technology investigation
2 2
10 x = 4, y = 3 Off to the freezing works (page 44)
31 trucks and 13 railway wagons.
 510 Answers

Exercise 5.04 (page 44) Exercise 5.05 (page 45)

1 x = 4, y = –2 1 a x + y = 34; x – y = 8 11 a p + 5t = 32; p + 8t = 41
2 x = –5, y = –2 b 21 and 13 b $17
−
3 x= 4,y= 1 2 178.5 m 12 a Let x = number of correct
5 5
answers, and y = number of
4 x = 2, y = 1
3 a x is the monthly connection fee, and y is incorrect answers.
5 x = 7, y = 13 the charge per minute. x + y = 25; 6x – y = 73
x = 1, y = 5
6 6
5 b x + 32y = 29 b 14
7 x = –3, y = 5 c $13; 50c
13 a Let x = number of adults, and
8 x = –3, y = –1 y = number of children.
4 a f + 21c = 35; f + 16c = 27.5
9 x = −2 1 , y = 3 b f = $3.50, c = $1.50
x + y = 27; 8x + 5y = 147
2 4
10 x = 2, y = 5 b Four adults and 23 children.
5 a x + y = 75; 10x + 20y = 1260
11 x = 7, y = –1 14 926 746
b 24 $10 notes and 51 $20 notes
12 x = 1, y = 2 15 a The value of the warehouse
2 6 $25
13 x = –3, y = –5 after one year.
7 77c
14 x = 2 , y = –1 b $240 000
3
15 x = 2, y = –3 8 The tank of petrol costs $29.50 and the oil 16 $4000 for the computer and $6000
costs 50c. for the photocopier.
16 x = 3, y = 0
9 a i x represents the number of economy
17 { } (no solution) class passengers. 17 a When x = 40, y = 2 × 40 – 50
18 x = 2, y = 3 = 30
ii 1500y represents the total amount paid
by the business class passengers. b y = 1.5x
Puzzle b x + y = 320 c 20 < x < 100
c x = 278 and y = 42
The Boeing 757 (page 45) 18 a x – 1 = y + 1; x + 1 = 2(y – 1)
10 a 6x + 11y = 433; 5x + 22y = 733 b 12
757 km
b Analogue price = $19,
digital price = $29.

6 Quadratic equations
Exercise 6.01 (page 48) Exercise 6.02 (page 49) Exercise 6.03 (page 49)
–1, 3
1 –2, –3 18 0, 9 1 a 3, 4 b –6, 1 5 a 1 6, –1 12 5, –5
−3 1 2
2 7, –4 19 , c 5, –5 d –5, –6 –3, 5 2 3, –1 3 −3
2 4 b 13 ,
2 2 2
3 2, 5 2 4 e 5, –3 f –5, –2 3 2, 4 1 −1
20 , −
–11, 3 5 c 1, 2 14 ,
4 9 g 2, 6 h –16, 1 5 4 8, –2 6 6
1 −
21 0, 3 –3, 2 15 8, –11
5 16, –1 i –4, 3 j 5, –4 d 5 –13, 2
− 3
6 0, –2 22 0, 3 –8,
−2 16 4, –2
2 k 3 l 7, –7 e –6, 6 0, 1 −
7 0, 6 1 −1 3 17 3, 1
23 , –8, −4 −3 7 0, 6 3
5 3 2 a 5 b 7, –1 f
8 0, 5 1 1 5
,
2 1 18 8, –6
24 , c 4, –2 8 0, 4
7 3 4 −3 19 –2
9 0, –4 −5 2 g , 3
3 −3 5 2 9 0, 2
10 3 25 , 3 a , b 1, –1 20 2, –2
6 3 2 2 1
h , 7
2 −1 c 0, 5 d 0, –6 4 10 10, –3
21 1, 5
11 1, –4 26 ,
5 3 5 −2
12 0, 3 7 −1 e 0, 13 f 0, –3 i
8
,
3
11 7, –5 22 4, 3
27 , 2
2 5 4 g 0, 3 h 1, –1 3 –
13 0, 3 3 −7
j , 5
− 28 , 3 7
i 0, 4 j 1, –1 1 −3
14 0, 1 2
−b
3
−d k ,
4 29 5 4
, k 0 l 2, –2
15 7, –7 a c
q s –6, –7
16 1, 4 30 , 4 a b 10, –5
p r
c –7, 4
17 5, 5
4
 Answers 511

Exercise 6.04 (page 50) Puzzle Exercise 6.07 (page 55)

1 x = 1 or x = –2 or x = 7 Pumpkin patch (page 53) 1 5.73 cm
2 x = 0 or x = 3 or x = –4
289 2 a
3 x = 8 or x = 5
x = 1 or x = –4 or x = 3
Exercise 6.06 (page 54) x
4
2 –0.23, –1.43
− 1 –0.35, –5.65 11
5 x = 2 or x = 1 or x = 7
3 4 2 –0.38, –2.62 12 –0.36, –4.14
6 x = 2 or x = 1 or x = 3
3 –0.48, –10.52 13 1.14, –1.47
x 6
7 x = –2 or x = –4 or x = 1
4 –0.39, –7.61 14 0.84, –1.44
8 x = –7 or x = –8 or x = 1
5 5.24, 0.76 15 0.83, –0.69 x–6
9 x = 2 or x = –2
6 8.12, –0.12 16 1.71, 0.29 x
10 x = 3 or x = 4 or x = –4 b (2 x − 6) = 1000
4 7 1.19, –4.19 17 1.88, 0.32 2
11 x = 2 or x = 11 or x = –11 This simplifies to
8 4.56, 0.44 18 0.90, –2.23
12 x = 0 or x = 6 or x = 8 x2 – 3x – 1000 = 0
− 9 6.37, 0.63 19 0.74, –0.54
13 x = 9 or x = 7 or x = –8 c 33.16 cm
2 −1 10 8.53, 0.47 20 2.78, 0.72
14 x = 0 or x = or x = 4 or x = –5 3 1.805 m
2
4 0.25 m
15 x = –2 or x = 2 or x = –3 or x = 3 Puzzle
5 4.43
16 x = –10 or x = 4 or x = 1 or x = –1 Minding your p’s and q’s (page 54)
6 7.44
17 x = –4 or x = 4 12
7 43.68 cm
18 x = 4 or x = –1 or x = –6 or x = 1
8 a 8.48 b i 32.43
Exercise 6.05 (page 52) ii 44.41
1 15 m 9 3.132
2 2 m and 10 m 10 7.343 m, 16.34 m, 17.92 m
3 27
4 –3, 2 Investigation
5 12, 13 The Golden Ratio (page 56)
1+ 5
6 a x(x + 2) = 168 b 12, 14 1 a b 1.618
2
7 18, 21; –18, –21 2 a 113.3 cm b 43.3 cm

8 a 12, 19 b –12, –19

9 8 m by 16 m Exercise 6.08 (page 57)

10 60 m by 25 m
1 a 32 m/s b 115 km/h
11 a A = 6x + x(4 – x); 6x + x(4 – x) = 9
2 a 8764 m b 38500 – 485t + t2 = 3754; t = 87 °C
b x2 – 10x + 9 = 0; x = 9, 1
The width is 1 m (9 m is not a possible answer). 3 2.6 seconds

12 a A = (60 – 2x)(40 – 2x) 4 a The number of people who will pay for the service.
b x = 10 cm; 40 cm by 20 cm b The price of the service per month.
c x = 54.64, –14.64
13 a 60 km/h
d 250 (to nearest 10)
b 72t – 12t2 = 96; t = 2 minutes, 4 minutes
c i t = 0, 6 5 18.97 m, or 19 m to the nearest whole metre.
ii It takes the train 6 minutes to travel from
station A to station B.
14 a 12 cm and 20 cm
b 11.66 cm (4 sf)
9 2 1
15 x = 0.16 ; 1 m
25 3
 512 Answers

6 Operator 1: d = 4.9 × 4.22 = 86.436 m Technology investigation

Operator 2: time of boulder falling + time to hear splash = 4.5
Quadratic equation solver (page 59)
d d
+ = 4.5 –5.31662479
4.9 344 3
d
= 4.5 −
d 6 See the spreadsheet ‘Quadratic
4.9 344 equation solver answers.xls’.
2 This can be opened from the Theta
d
= 20.25 − 9 d + d 2 (taking square of both sides)
4.9 344 344 Mathematics Workbook companion
7 24 150d = 2 396 304 − 3096d + d 2 (multiplying through by 3442 ) CD, or downloaded from the
website www.mathematics.co.nz.
d 2 − 27 246d + 2 396 304 = 0
7 Equations 5, 7 and 10 have no
d = 27 158 or 88.236 (using the quadratic formula)
solution.
The appropriate answer is 88.236 m
8 Equations 4 and 6 have both
86.436 + 88.236 solutions the same.
The safe distance = −5
2
= 82.336 m, or 82 m to the nearest whole metre. 10 If b2 – 4ac > 0 a quadratic equation
has two different solutions;
7 High-speed pump: 14.64 hours; low-speed pump: 17.64 hours if b2 – 4ac < 0 a quadratic equation
has no solutions.
11 0

Exercise 6.09 (page 61) Exercise 6.10 (page 62)

1 37; 2 8 0; 1 15 2 22 e2 + 4df 1 p≤ 1 7 a< 9
–27; 5 32
2 0 9 –12; 0 16 0 23 m2 + 4ln 2 q> –8
8 s = 0 or 8
3 16; 2 10 –8; 0 17 2 24 28a2 3 a= 1 9 a > 6 or a < –6
5
4 0; 1 11 32; 2 18 0 25 1 + 20p2 − 45
4 q< 14
5 57; 2 12 0; 1 19 2 26 36q2 16 10 q=± = ± 1.871
2
6 109; 2 13 13; 2 20 0 27 25r2 5 r = ± 10 11 All values
7 17; 2 14 1 21 q2 – 4pr 6 p < 16 12 (A)

7 Non-linear simultaneous equations

Exercise 7.01 (page 66)
1 a y b x2 +x+3=0 4 Two points of intersection:
c b 2 − 4 ac = 1 − 12 = − 11 (–7, 27) and (2, 0)
<0 5 (4, 16); (1, 1)
Therefore there are no poin
nts 6 (9, 81); (–7, 49)
2
of intersection. 7 (–8, 64); (2, 4)
3 a y 8 (–7, –10); (3, 20)
–2 x
9 No points of intersection
4 10 (3, 20); (–2, 0)
b x2 – x – 2 = 0 11 (5, 8)
c (2, 4); (–1, 1) 12 (–5, –5); (–1, –5)
y 2 4 x
2 a 13 (–2, –3); (1, 0)
 −1 
3 14 (
 2 , 2  ;
− 1, 1
)
b x2 – 6x + 8 = –2x + 4
15 (6, 0); (–2, 16)
x2 – 4x + 4 = 0
b 2 − 4 ac = 4 − 4 = 0 16 (1, 6)
x
( −1, 2)
–3 3 9
Therefore the line touches the  , ;
17
parabola, and is a tangent. 2 2

c (2, 0)
 Answers 513
2 4
18  , ;
3 3
( 4, 48) 22 a y

19 One
20 One
21 a y b y c y

1
2 4 x

x x x
–3
7
b Once c (2, 1)
23 (0, 4); (2, 4)

Exercise 7.02 (page 68)

1 a y 3 a y 4 One
7 10 5 (–2, 3); (–3, 2)
5 6 (–3, –1); (1, 3)
7 (4, 2); (–2, –4)
–10 10 x 8 (6, 1); (–1, –6)
–5

( , 2) ;
57 x 3 − − 
3
(6, –8) 9  2, 
–10 2  2 
–12 1
2
–5 10 (3, 0); (–1, –4)
b 2
x + y = 1002
b Two c x2 – 7x + 12 = 0
2 3 25 
2 11
1
5
2
 , 1 ;
5 ( −1, −1)
d (4, 3); (3, 4) x +  x −  = 100
 2 
, − 3 4  ; (1, − 1)
 4 2  −
12 
2 a y 9 2 75 625  5 5 
x2 + x − x+ = 100
16 4 4 13 (–6, –1); (2, 7)
6 25 x 2 75 x 225
− + =0 14 (–3, 4)
4 16 4 4
15 (5, –3)
25 x 2 − 300 x + 900 = 0
–6
x 2 − 12 x + 36 = 0
–4 x
4 b2 – 4ac = (–122) – 4 × 1 × 36 = 0,
so the line is a tangent to the
–4 curve.
c (6, –8)
b None c x2 + 6x + 10 = 0
d b 2 − 4 ac = − 4
<0
Therefore there are no points of intersection.

Exercise 7.03 (page 70)

1 a y 2 a y 3 a y

6
2
–2
3 ×
x
x

2 4 x

b Two c x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 b None c x2 + 2 = 0
d (–3, –1); (1, 3) d b2 – 4ac = –8 <0
 514 Answers

b x2 – 4x + 4 = 0 6 No points of 16 a b
b2 – 4ac = 0 intersection y y

c (2, 3) 7 (2, 2)
4 Attempt to solve 8 (–2, 1)
simultaneously: 9 No points of
–
10 intersection
x+6= x x
x  −2 − 
10  , 3 ; ( 3, 8 )
x 2 + 6 x = – 10  3
7 11

(6, 1); (–1, –6)
x 2 + 6 x + 10 = 0
This quadratic equation 12 No points of c y 17 a (1, 1)
has discriminant intersection b No points of
b2 – 4ac = 62 – 4 × 1 × 10 = –4, 3 −  intersection
13 (–1, –11);  , 6
and hence has no solution, so 2  c (–5, –1); (–2, –4)
the line and hyperbola do not 14 (–5, 3); (–1, 7) 18 Yes
intersect.
4  x 19 (1, 12)
5 (–4, 3); (–3, 4) 15  , 5  ; (–2, –9)
5 

Exercise 7.04 (page 71)

1 a Model 1 5 a If the bearing is 030°, the 7 a Hyperbola
b Straight line; that is, angle between the line and b i $10 000 ii $6000
linear the x-axis will be 60°. The
c y
gradient of the line is the tan
c Model 2; 24 000
of this angle:
d Model 1; 3300 (2 sf) 12 000
tan(60°) = 3 = 1.732.
e Model 2 exceeds model 1
b x = 7.5 and y = 13

Value ($)
by 3000
c If the aircraft is at a
f t = 1, 5; with
maximum distance of 15 km
corresponding values of
from the station it will be
N = 20 000, 4000.
7.5 km east and 13 km north
g At 1 am both models of the station.
predict 20 000 listeners 6 x
6 a 10 m Time (years)
and at 5 am both models
predict 4000 listeners. b 3m d 0≤x≤6
c x = 3.263 and y = 3.789; and e The gradient is –2000. This
2 a 9 cm b 42 mm
x = 0.337 and y = –4.989. means the value is decreasing by
3 a x = 0, 7. The points are The positive solution for $2000 each year.
(0, 0) and (7, 168). y applies in this situation
f x = 0, 5. The two formulae give
because we are dealing with
b 7 km/h; 168 m the same result ($12 000) at
the semi-circle only. The
0 years (when the computer is
4 a i 24 cm top of the ladder is 3.789 m
new) and after 5 years, when it
ii 23 1 cm above the road.
is worth $2000.
3
b Equation 1 has a straight- Technology investigation
line graph; equation 2 has
a hyperbola for its graph. The acoustic concert hall (page 74)
1 y 2 (5.5, 12.4) and (8.5, 6.3)
c r2 – 30r + 210 = 0
12 3 6.1 m
d 18.87 cm, 11.13 cm
10 4 6110 mm
e 22.25 cm, 37.75 cm
8 (Note: refer to the spreadsheet
6 ‘Acoustic concert hall.xls’ on the
Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD
4 or the website www.mathematics.co.nz for
2 full working.)
0
2 4 6 8 10 x
 Answers 515

8 Indices
Exercise 8.01 (page 75)
1 a 16 b 343 4 a i 5 ii 6.083 7 a 32 b 32
c 625 d –1 iii 2.449 iv 4.123 8 a 1 b 0.5
e 64 f 3.24 v 8 vi 10.58 c 7 d 0.25
2 a i 0.16" ii 0.5 b It takes the square root. e 1
= 0.0416"
24
iii 0.2 5 a 15 625 b 15 625
9 a 256 b 8.651
8
b It takes the reciprocal (divides c 3 d 3
c 897.6 d 8
the number into 1).
6 a 529.09 b 529.09 e 1.071
3 a i 1 ii 1 c 529.09 d 529.09 f 0.000 226 0 or 2.260 × 10−4
iii 1 iv 1 e 529.09
b Any number to the power of 0 Puzzle
gives a result of 1. This century base 3 (page 75)
4
Exercise 8.02 (page 76)
1 1 5 16 c
1 a b 5 a b 9
y
2
x4 y7
9 4
1 5 c 4
d
c d 25
x x3 25
e 64 f 4
7 4
e f + 2 27
x2 x2 x 5 g h 3
8
3 4 25
g h i 1000 j
a2 b3 ab 4 81
4 2 4
i + 2 j
5
+ 2 −1 k
9
l
11 –4 –2 2 4 x
a3 b 5 x3 x2 x
m 16 d x=0
1 1 25
2 a b e No
16 9 6 a
1 1 x x–2
c d 7 a x−2 b x−1
4 125 0.2 25
1 1 c 2 a−1 d 3 y −1
e f 0.5 4
32 64 1 −1
0.6 2.7" e x f 4c −2
1 2
g 1 h
25 0.7 2.041 g −
5c −3 h 6 x−4
1 1
i j 0.8 1.563 4 −1 1 −2
6 8 i x j x
1 0.9 1.235 9 3
k 1 −6
100 1.0 1 k 20 x−5 l x
−1 1 7
3 a b
8 25 2.0 0.25 4 x−2
m x−5 n
−1 3.0 0.1" 3
c d 1 o 12 x−1
7 4.0 0.0625 5
1 –1
e f 8 1
81 b i 25 ii 1.563 9
−1
g
−1
h iii 0.1"
64 128

4 a 0.045 94 b 5.694 Exercise 8.03 (page 78)

c 73 700 000 d 0.082 64 1 1 8
1 a x–2 b x2 2 a b x2 c d
x x16 x3
c x–5 d x–2 1 1 1
e f 3x
g 2x2 h
e x8 f x–6 16 x 4 xy 6
g x–4 h 20x x3 4 5 9
i j k l
y6 3x 4x2 x2
i –5x–3 j 48
x4 y4 3x2 y 5 81b 32
m n o p
4y2 25 x6 4 16 a12
 516 Answers

Puzzle Exercise 8.04 (page 80)

Car number plates (page 78) 1 1 1
1 3
a x 3 a x 3 6 a b
8 9
1 26 1 1
b 6 y 1
b y 2 c d 4
2 10 32
4 1
3 262 × 104 c a c d 5 81
=5 1 27
=33
e 16 16
f 8 8
1
4 263 × 103 d 5 b d 4x 4
125
1 g 625
h = 15 5
1296 8 8
8 5 10 816 000 −
e 23 x e 2y 6
5
7 a x 3 b y2
2 a 2 4 a 3
x2 3 3
c x 2 d x 4
b 2 b 4
a 3
2 3
c 5 e y 3 f 2x 4
c 3 5 x2 7
−
d 4 g 12x2 h 5x 3
d 2 y3
e 3
8 a 100 °C b 36.2 °C
f 6 e 5 4 x5
c 16 °C
g 2 5 a 4
h 16 b 16 9 a
Weeks
i 2 c 16 1 2 3 4 5
(t)
1
j d 216 Kill-
2 93.1% 88.445% 84.02% 79.82% 75.83%
3 e 27 rate
k 4
f 343 b 58.68% c 14
3
l 4 g 32

m 2
3 h 625
Puzzle
i 27
n 5 Last digit (page 81)
2 j 8
o 1.1 k 4 1 5 3 1
l 32 2 6 4 7

Exercise 8.05 (page 81)

1 1 −3 −4
1 a b 3 a 2 b 5 5 a x 2 b x 3
x 3 y2
1 6 c 22 d 5 c x
−2
5 d x
−3
4
c d 3
4a 3 4
a e 27 f 8 −3 −5
e 2x 2 f 4x 2
4 2 4
e f g 7 h −1 −5
4 25 7x 3
x5 y3 g x 2 h
5 i 11 j 4 52 3 4
g 5 243
3 7
a 6 1
125
1 1 k 33 l 2a
2 a b 8 216
2 6 7 a x2n − 1 b x3n
127 27
1 1 m 1 n c x n
d 1
c d 216 64
9 4 −1
−1
o 2 p 49 e x f x 5
1 1
e f 7 100 −21 −1
9 8 g h x 4
8 x3
x 8
1 4
g 1 h 4 a x b −2
64 32 27
15
i x 15 j x−3 y −4
i 1 j 1 c 16 x d x
243 10 2 1
3
k 16 x−2 l 27x
1 1 e x f 3 3 x2
k l 16 8 1 1
16 m n
5 27 3 x 16 x 2 y 3
m 1
n 1 g h 9x3 y 2
3 64
9 8 2 x5 z18
o
x15 y 10
8 a
9 16
 Answers 517

Exercise 8.06 (page 83)

−1
1 −1  1 −2 1 2
1 a 23 b 25 c 2–1 5 a   b   c   8 a 2 4n b 1
3 3 3
d 2–2 e 20 2n 4n 1
 1 −5
c 4 or 2 d
 13 2 9n
1 3 d   e   1
2 a 4 2 b 4 2 c 4–1 3 3 e f 5n − 11
−5 9
d 4–2 e 4 2 9 1
6 a x=4 b x = –2 g h
3 1 −1 8 2 3n + 19
3 a 9 2 b 9 2 c 9 2 c x = 6.5 d x=5 1

d 9–2 e 9
1
4 e x = 25 f x = 49
i
2 9n + 16
j 33 n − 2 9
k 3 × 28n − 4
4 a 52 b 54 c 51 7 p = 3n
d 50 e 5–1 f 5–3

9 Logarithms
Exercise 9.01 (page 86)
1 a log6(36) = 2 b log5(125) = 3 3 a 25 b 81 c 64 6 a p=4 b p=5
c log7(343) = 3 d log1.2(2.488 32) = 5 d 100 e 32 f 256 c p=7 d p= 1
3
1  1 g 7 h 1 e p=8 f p = 81
e log 6   = –1 f log 3   = –3
6  27  4 a x = 32 b x = 25 g p=5 h p=9
g log10(0.001) = –3 h log5(0.008) = –3 c x = 64 d x=8 7 a 3 b 4 c 2
i loga(c) = b j log4(y) = –x e x = 16 f x=9 d 2 e 3 f 5
2 a 125 = 53 b 2401 = 74 g x = 256 h x= 1 8 a x = 60.75 b x=2
4
c 0.000 064 = (0.2)6 d 32 = 25 5 a 4 b 5 c 3 –5
9 a 6 b c 10
e 64 = 43 f 256 = 28 d 2 e 10 f 2 −3
–4 –3
d e f
g a = bc h p = rq 2
g 2
( 2)
–6 –4
( 5)
8 4 g h
i 16 = j 25 = h Any positive number
10 a 1 b 1 c 1
8

Exercise 9.02 (page 88)

1
1 a log(6) b log(48) 5 a log(16) b log(1152) i log(q) − log( p) − log(r )
2
c log(20) d log(pq)  
c log  9  d log(100) j 3 1
log( p) − log(q)
8 4 4
e log(xy) f log(30)
6 a log(4) b log(3) 9 a 1 b 0.398
g log(64) h log(36)
c log(27) c –0.398 d 0.602
2 a log(2) b log(9) 1
d log   = − log( 5) e 2.097 f 1.301
c log(4) d log(2) 5
  10 a p+q b p+q+r
e log  c  f log(2) 7 a log(4) b log(8)
d c r–q d 2q
  c log(2304) d log(1) = 0 1
  log  1 
g log  1  h
9 e log(4) f log(12.5)
e 2p + r f 2
q
6
3
i log(8) j log(1) = 0 8 a 2 log(p) 11 a 2 b 5 c
2
1 6 5
k log(1) = 0 l log(1) = 0 b log(p) + 3 log(q) d e f
2 5 3
1
3 a log(a) + log(b) + log(c) c
2
(
log( p) + log(q) + log(r ) ) g 3
5
h 2
3
b log(a) + log(b) – log(c) d 2 log(p) + 3 log(q) + 4 log(r) 12 a 1 b 2 c 6
c log(b) – log(a) – log(c) 1 d 2 e –1 f 1
–(log(a)
e log(r ) + log( p)
d + log(b) + log(c)) 2 g 0 h –2 i –5
1
f 2 log( p) + log(q) j 0
4 a log(25) b log(64) 3
c log(125) d log(100) g 1 1 1
log( p) + log(q) + log(r ) 13 x=2
2 4 6
1
h log( p) + log(q) − log(r )
2
14 a 18 b 6 c 51
3
 518 Answers

Exercise 9.03 (page 90) Exercise 9.04 (page 92)

1 a 2.262 b 0.6826 3 a 4.285 b 7.631 1 19 hours (to nearest whole

c 2.678 d 0.7581 c –0.4480 d 1.425 number)
e 2.175 f 2.070 2 56 days
4 a 1.465 b 2.585
g 3.322 h 2.656 c –1.255 d 1.110 3 a 8.8 hours b 620 mg
i 1.633 j 3.095 –
2 – ! c 10.1 hours
5 = 0.6
3
2 a 3 b 5 4 Five times
6 a 1.367 b 0.5313
c 3 d 2 5 14 years
–4
c 1.968
e 2 f 6 31 days
10 g –4 h –3
7 19 months
–1
i j 0 Starter (page 91) 8 30 km/h
1 3 years 9 2.8 hours
2 1.587 10 18 minutes

NCEA 2.1 Revision exercises (page 94)

x−5 8 a 61
1 a 2x3 + 5x2 – 14x + 3 b
x−3
2 5x3 b 25n + 230
= 20
2 n+4
3 log(400) 25n + 230 = 20n + 80
−1
4 a x = 0, x = ,x=5 25n − 20n = 80 − 230
2
b x=7 5n = – 150
20 9
c x= or 1 n = – 30
11 11
5 x = 0.3440, x = –1.7440 (both 4 dp) It is not possible to make a negative number of
umbrellas. The cheapest per unit cost must be
6 a 17 single, 23 double
above $25.
b 34
9 13 minutes
7 13.7 years, or 14 years to nearest whole year
10 35

2.2 Non-linear graphs

10 Factored polynomials and their graphs
Exercise 10.01 (page 98)

1 a b 2 a y b y c y
y y

16
x
x 2 –1

x e y
x d
c d y
y y
4 x
x x 5
1
–1 x x
 Answers 519

f y g y h y i y j y
1 3
6 –2
9 –1
x
x
–4 x

3 x

3 a y b y c y d y e y

–2
10
1 x × 6
× –1 x
× 5
2 × –4 ×

3 x –2
–4 x x

f y g y h y i y j y
–2
× 3 6 ×
5 ×
× –1 x –4 x

× –3
–1 x
3 x 5 x

4 a y = x2 + 1 b y = (x + 3)2 5 a Moved down 5 units.

c y= x2 –3 d y = (x – 4)2 b Reflected in the x-axis.
e y = 1 – x2 f y = –(x – 2)2 c Shifted to the left by 12 units.
g y = (x + 1)2 +1 h y = (x – 4)2 –1 d Reflected in the x-axis and moved up 8 units.
i y = –(x + 2)2 – 2 e Shifted to the right by 10 units and moved up 2 units.
f Shifted to the left by 3 units, reflected in the x-axis
and moved down 17 units.
6 (E)

Exercise 10.02 (page 100)

1 y 3 y 5 y

–2 4 x –4 2 x
–2
1 x
–2
×
1
–8 –8 (–12 , –2 4)
× 2 y ×
(1, –9) (–1, –9) 4 y
6 y
5

–1 3 x
–2 2 x
–5 –1
x
–3

× ×
(1, –4) (–3, –4) –4 (0, –4)
 520 Answers

7 y 11 y 15 y 19 y 1
23 y
1
(1 2 , 2 14) (–1 2 , 2 4)
1
6 16 –2
×
×
x
3 x
–3
–4 x

×
2 3– x 4 x
1 1
(2 2, 4 )

8 12 16 20 24
y y y y y
( 12 , 2 14) 4
×
10 2 x

1
–1 2 x –1 x
× 1 x
1 –
–16 –1 1
2
x ( 2 , 14 )
×
– –
( 34 , 9
8)

9 y 13 y 17 y 21 25 a y = (x + 1)(x – 4)
y
2 4
9 ( 3 , 3) b y = (x + 4)(x – 5)
9 ×
c y = (x – 3)(x – 6)
–4 x d y = x(x – 4)
4
3 x
e y = x(x + 2)
f y = (2 – x)(x – 5)
3 x ×
–3 3x (–2, –4) g y = (x + 2)(2 – x)

y h y = –x(x – 6)
10 14 y 18 y 22 i y = –(x + 6)(x + 3)
y
9 25 –3 1 x 26 y = (x + 3)(x – 1)
2

–3
5 x

1
×1
–3 x (–1 4 , –6 8)
×1 1
5 x (2 2 , –6 4)

Exercise 10.03 (page 101)

1 a i y b (0, 0) and (3, 0) 2 a y
c 1 m out from one end of the 8
rod there is a sag of 2 cm. The
negative sign shows the rod
is below where it would be if
0 3 x there was no sag. 20 40 x
d (1.5, –2.25) b 40 m
e The lowest point of the rod is c 8m
ii y 1.5 m from each end, and here x2
d y = 8−
50
the sag is 2.25 cm.

0 3 x
 Answers 521

3 a 5 a
Time in

Profit/Loss (millions of dollars)

0 1 2 3 4
seconds (x)
Height in 0.2
4 18 22 16 0
metres (y)

b 4m 1 2 3 Toll ($) t
c (1 + 5x)(4 – x) = 4 + 20x – x – 5x2 = 4 + 19x – 5x2
d –0.2
y

4
–0.4
–
1 4 x
5
b y = –0.15, which represents a loss of $150 000 if the road is
10
free (no charge).
e 0≤x≤4
c x = 0.5 and x = 3. 50c is the ‘break-even’ toll price – if set
f y above 50c there is a profit. If the price is set at $3 or more
there is no profit.
4m
d The toll could be set at $1.75. This gives the highest profit
4s x – shown by the maximum point (vertex) of the parabola.
6 a y
g i 22.05 m ii 18.05 m 20
Height above water (m)
4 a 16 cm b 6 cm 16
c 5 cm d y= –2x + 32; r = 16
4 12
e y = ( x − 8)2 + 2
25
8

2 4 6 8 10 t
–4 Time after diving
(seconds)

b y = 19.6. The height above the water of the diver when on

the springboard initially.
c 3.5 seconds d 6.5 seconds e 1.94 m (2 dp)

Exercise 10.04 (page 106)

1 a y b y c y 2 a y b y

x x 2 x 4 –3

–8

d e f
y y y x
3 a (B) b (C)
c (D) d (A)
3 x –2 x
–1 x
–8
 522 Answers

4 a At x = 6, x = –1 and x = 1. b At x = 5, x = –4 and x = 3.
c At x = 1, x = 4 and x = –2. d At x = 0, x = –2 and x = 3.
5 a (0, –4) b (0, 3) c (0, –8) d (0, 64)
e (0, 6) f (0, –10) g (0, 0)
6 a y b y c y d y e y

6
4 4
–3 –1 2 x

10 –6
–2 1 2 x –5 –1 1 x
–2 1 3 x –2 1 2 x
–5

f y g y h y i y j y
3
–1
4 x 4
–2 4 x
2 5 x –3 –1 1 x

–2 –1 2 x

k y l y m y n y o y
4
3
–1
4x
–2 1 2
–4 –1
x
1x –3 –1
1x –2 2 x
–4

7 a y b y c y d y e y
4 4
–2 9
1 x 3

–1
–3 –1
–2 1 x 2 x
–4 x

–1 3 x y
y –1
–3 2
f g y h i j
y y x 4x
–4

3
2 2
–12
–1 2 x 1 3 x –1 2 x
 Answers 523

k y l y m y n y o y

–2 x 1 x

3 x 2 x
–4
x

8 a y = (x + 1)(x – 1)(x – 2) b y = (x + 3)(x + 1)(x – 2) 10 y 11

c y = x(x + 2)(x – 3) d y = (x + 1)(1 – x)(x – 2)
e y = x(x + 2)(4 – x) f y = (x + 3)(x + 2)(x + 1)
g y = (x + 1)(x – 2)2 h y = –(x + 2)(x – 1)2
1 2 x
i y= x2(x – 4)
9 (A)
–4

x-intercept is (1.587, 0)

Technology investigation
The roller-coaster (page108)
1, 2 See the spreadsheet ‘Roller-coaster answers.xls’. This can be opened from the
Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website
www.mathematics.co.nz.
3 27 m (nearest whole number)
4 71 m from the start (nearest whole number)
5 53 m (nearest whole number)
6 Either side of 53 m the differences in the height are at their greatest.

11 Hyperbolas and circles

Starter (page 109)
1 2 y
Number of cash Number of people 12 ×

registers open (x) in the queue (y)

Number of people in

10
12 1
8
6 2
each queue

6 ×
4 3
3 4 4 ×
×
2 6 2 ×
×
1 12
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
Number of cash registers open

3 Each pair multiply to 12.

 524 Answers

Exercise 11.01 (page 111)

1 3 a y b y
x xy = 8, i.e. y = 8
x
4 ×
8 1
4 2
2 4 1 × 1 ×
1 8 –2 2 x –2 1 4 x
–1 –8 × –1
× –2
–2 –4

11
–4 –2

–8 –1

y c y d y
8 ×
×6

× 3
–8 1 × 9
× –1 8 x –2 4 x –3 –1 ×x
–3 ×

× –8

4 a y b y
2 10
−6
x xy = –6, i.e. y =
x
5 ×
6 –1 × 5
3 –2

2 –3
–2 1 x
–6
–1 1 x
1
–1 6
–2 3 × –5
–3 2 –10 ×
–6 1

y 5 a (B) b (D)
c (C) d (A)

× 3 6 a y b y
6
4
–2
4
3 x
–2 × 2 2
–4 –2 2 4 6
2 4 x –6 –4 –2 x
–2
–2

–4
–4
–6
 Answers 525

7 y 9 y
y=x y = 3x + 3
6
6
xy = 4 y=x
2

–2 2 x –2 1 x
–2 6 Points of intersection
xy = 4 y=x –3
are (1, 6) and (–2, –3).

Points of intersection are (2, 2) and (–2, –2). 10 y

8 a Three bags xy = –12

b 50c
11
12
c xy = 12 or y = .
x
d The number you have to sell increases. x
34
–3
e y xy = –12
–4
25 Points of intersection
are (3, –4) and (4, –3).
y=x–7
20
Number of bags sold

−
3 1 4
11 a xy = 3 or y = b xy = –1 or y = c xy = 4 or y =
x x x
15
12 a–c y d One branch of the
20 hyperbola xy = 20.
10 18 e To touch the
16 y-axis the value
5 14 of x would have
12 to be 0, and that
10 is impossible
5 10 15 20 25 x 8 because the
Price per bag ($) 6 area is 20, not 0.
4 Hyperbolas such
2 as xy = 20 do not
touch the axes.
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 x

Exercise 11.02 (page 115)

1 a The horizontal asymptote is y = –1, the vertical asymptote is x = 2; the x-intercept is (6, 0), the y-intercept is (0, –3).
2
b The horizontal asymptote is y = 1, the vertical asymptote is x = –3; the x-intercept is (–5, 0), the y-intercept is (0, 1 ).
3
c The horizontal asymptote is y = 4, the vertical asymptote is x = 6; the x-intercept is (3, 0), the y-intercept is (0, 2).
d The horizontal asymptote is y = –1, the vertical asymptote is x = 1; the x-intercept is (–1, 0), the y-intercept is (0, 1).
2 a y b y c y d y

7 ×

3 4
6 x
–2
–3 x
–2 2 x
1 x

The horizontal asymptote The horizontal asymptote The horizontal asymptote The horizontal asymptote
is y = –2, the vertical is y = –2, the vertical is y = 3, the vertical is y = 4, the vertical
asymptote is x = 0; the asymptote is x = 0; the asymptote is x = 0; the asymptote is x = 0; the
x-intercept is (6, 0). x-intercept is (–3, 0). x-intercept is (− 1 1 , 0). x-intercept is (2, 0).
3
 526 Answers

3 a y b y c y d y

12

–3 2
x
–2
–3
x
2 x
2
1 x

11 The horizontal asymptote The horizontal asymptote The horizontal asymptote The horizontal asymptote
is y = 0, the vertical is y = 0, the vertical is y = 0, the vertical is y = 0, the vertical
asymptote is x = –3; the asymptote is x = 2; the asymptote is x = –2; the asymptote is x = 1; the
−
y-intercept is (0, 2 ). y-intercept is (0, 2). y-intercept is (0, 3 ). y-intercept is (0, 12).
3 2
4 a x-intercept is (16, 0); y-intercept is (0, –4). b x-intercept is (0, 0); y-intercept is (0, 0).
5 a Moved up by 2 units. b Shifted to the left by 7 units.
c Shifted to the left by 4 units and moved down by 1 unit. d Shifted to the right by 6 units and moved up
by 10 units.
6 a Moved down by 11 units. b Shifted to the right by 20 units.
c Shifted to the left by 2 units and moved up by 13 units. d Shifted to the right by 15 units and moved down
by 8 units.
7 a y b y c y d y

7 –2 x

3
2 –3

–1 1 x –8 –4 x 1 2 13 x
–2
–4

The horizontal asymptote is The horizontal asymptote The horizontal asymptote The horizontal asymptote
y = 2, the vertical asymptote is y = –2, the vertical is y = 3, the vertical is y = –3, the vertical
is x = 1; the x-intercept is asymptote is x = –4; the asymptote is x = 1; the asymptote is x = –2; the
−
( 1 , 0), the y-intercept x-intercept is (–8, 0), the x-intercept is ( 2 1 , 0), the x-intercept is (− 1 2 , 0), the
2 3 3
is (0, –1). y-intercept is (0, –4). y-intercept is (0, 7). y-intercept is (0, − 2 1 ).
2

e y f y 8 (0, –3)

9 y = –8
10 y = –1
3
1 x 11 The horizontal asymptote is y = 9,
–2 the vertical asymptote is x = 6.
1 x
12 The horizontal asymptote is y = 1,
the vertical asymptote is x = 2.
13 The horizontal asymptote is y = 1 ,
2
The horizontal asymptote is The horizontal asymptote is y = –2, the vertical asymptote is x = 0.
y = 1, the vertical asymptote is the vertical asymptote is x = 3; the
x = 1; the x-intercept is (0, 0), x-intercept is (2, 0), the y-intercept is
the y-intercept is (0, 0). 1
(0, − 1 ).
3
 Answers 527

Technology investigation
The dance floor (page 117)
1 y= 36 5 24 m
x
6 A square
2–4 See the spreadsheet ‘Dance floor ans.xls’. This can be opened from the
Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the 7 Perimeter = 4 A
website www.mathematics.co.nz.

Exercise 11.03 (page 119) Starter (page 121)

1 (0, –5), (–4, –3), (3, –4), (–3, 4), (4, –3),
4 12
1 a y= b y= 6 5 y= +1
x−1 x+2 5( x + 3) (5, 0)
− −5
c y=
x+8
3
d y=
x−2
6 a y= 3
2( x − 1)
−4 2
y 11
− −4
2 a y=
2
+3 b y = 10 + 2 b y= +2 5
x x 5( x + 1)
6 − 6
c y = −5 d y = 8 −1 7 y= −2
x x ( x + 1)
− −4
4
3 a y= +3 b y = 10 + 4 8 y=
( x − 2)
+6 –5 5 x
x+1 x+5
−
c y=
9
−2 d y= 8 −5 9 x-intercept is
x−3 x−2
 bc − a   a  –5
−3  , 0  or  c − , 0  ;
4 a y= −2 b y = 8 −1  b   b 
x+2 x+1
− 12 y-intercept is 3 5 units
c y= +4 d y = 24 + 12  bc − a  
x−6 x−5 a
 0,  or  0, b −  .
 c   c

Exercise 11.04 (page 122)

1 a b y 3 a 7 b 10 c 8 d 25
x y = ± 9 − x2
3 4 A = (0, 4), B = (–4, 0)
–3 0 5 x2 + y2 = 81
–2 ±2.236
6 x2 + y2 = 144
–1 ±2.828 –3 3 x
7 x2 + y2 = 49
0 ±3
8 x2 + y2 = 25
1 ±2.828 –3
9 k = 100
2 ±2.236
3 0 10 k = 169

2 a y b y 11 a x2 + y2 = 289 b 17 units

2 6 12 (–8, 0) and (8, 0)

13 4x2 + 4y2 = 49
14 Yes, because (–7, –24) satisfies the circle equation:
–2 2 x
–6
(–7)2 + (–24)2 = 49 + 576 = 625.
6 x
–2 15 Reason 1: the calculation for the radius would be
−
–6
16 , which is not possible in the real numbers.
y Reason 2: x2 and y2 are both positive (or at the least
c 10 non-negative) and must add to at least 0, which is
d y more than –16.
1 16 Inside; because 52 + 62 = 25 + 36 = 61, which is less
than 64. This means (5, 6) is only 61 = 7.81 units
from the origin, whereas the circle has a radius of 8
–10 10 x
units.
–1 1 x
17 a Taking the centre of the bulls-eye as the
–10 –1 intersection of the x- and y-axes, the equation is
x2 + y2 = 900.
 528 Answers

b x2 + y2 = 144 represents the boundary b y 19 a y

Distance up the wall (m)

that separates the red and blue
annuluses. 6
3 B×
c
5 A
4 ×
18 a
Distance from Distance up
the base (x) the wall (y)
2 ×C
x
0 6
1 5.916 2 4 6 x
2 5.657 Distance from the base (m) × ×D
E
3 5.196
11 4 4.472 b x2 + y2 = 25
5 3.317 c Yes, when B and E pass to
6 0 each other.
d B and E
e 10 m
f x2 + y2 = 49
Exercise 11.05 (page 125)
1 a y b y c d y
y
6
5 5 4

–1 1 7 x 1 9 x –1 1 x 12 x

–3

–6

2 a y b y 3 a (11, 12) b (43, –4)

1 1 − 
c (–9, 0) d  , 8
4 –2 3 
8 x
4 a 7 b 10
1
c 5 = 2.236 d
2
–7 –3
x
5 a (x – 2)2 + (y – 11)2 = 64
b (x + 2)2 + (y – 3)2 = 49

–9
c x2 + (y + 4)2 = 100
d (x + 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 36
6 a (x – 5)2 + (y – 4)2 = 25
c d
y y b (x + 1)2 + (y – 1)2 = 4
c (x – 3)2 + y2 = 16
–9 –3 4 d (x + 4)2 + (y + 4)2 = 32
x
–2
7 a Move 2 units to the right and up
6 units.
–12 –4
x b Move 3 units to the left and up
7 units.
–8 –4 c Move 15 units to the left and
down 8 units.
d Move down 1 unit.
 Answers 529

8 (3, 4) and (4, 3) Technology investigation

9 a k = 100 Drawing a semi-circle (page 126)
b k ≤ 36 The spreadsheet ‘Drawing a semicircle.xls’ is provided on the Theta Mathematics
c 36 < k ≤ 64 Workbook companion CD and the www.mathematics.co.nz website.
d k > 64

Starter (page 126)

−5
1 175; the prediction for 3 120; that you cannot 4 ; the record decreases by 5 of a minute each year.
9 9
the time in 1908. run a marathon in
under 120 minutes; that 5 The hyperbola is more realistic because it suggests
2 124 minutes there is a limit that cannot be reached, and also the
is, the lower limit on
the best possible time. improvements in the time get smaller. 12
Exercise 11.06 (page 127)
1 a Body surface area 4 a, b y 5 a 0g
b Ability to lift one’s own body weight 14 b 650 g
c Speed of running c –325
12
d Body weight d 0.8 hours (or
10
48 minutes)
2 a 5 km 8
b, e 6 a 220 kPa
6
b P = 3300
t−5
4
× c P = 0;
Speed (km/h)

30
2 eventually
the tyre will
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6 8 10 x completely
–2
deflate.
10 ×
–4

–6
10 30 45 c 4 million dollars, shown by the
Time taken (minutes) y-intercept.
c A hyperbola. d 7 million dollars, shown by the
d If x is in minutes and y is in km/h, the horizontal asymptote.
equation is xy = 300 or y = 300 . e $6 600 000
x
3 a 120 f Add the line y = x and indicate the
point where it intersects with the
b 15 hours
hyperbola.
c 30 students
d y 12 Exponential and logarithmic graphs
Total time taken (hours)

15 ×
Starter (page 130)
1
Number Amount 2 a x represents the number
of bets Doubling owed of bets.
4 × 0 1 b y represents the amount
owed.
1 2×1 2
8 30 x 2 2×2 22 = 4
Number of students 3 2×4 23 = 8
e xy = 120 or y = 120 4 2×8 24 = 16
x
5 2 × 16 25 = 32
6 2 × 32 26 = 64
7 2 × 64 27 = 128
 530 Answers

3 4 a Nine bets Starter (page 131)

70 b 20 bets
See the spreadsheet ‘Simple exponential graph.xls’.
This can be opened from the Theta Mathematics
60
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website
www.mathematics.co.nz.
50
Amount owed ($)

40

30

20
12
10

0 2 4 6
Number of bets

Exercise 12.01 (page 132) Exercise 12.02 (page 133)

1 y 1 y
x y = 3x x y = (0.4)x
30 20
–3 0.04 y = 3x –3 15.625
y = (0.4)x
–2 0.11 –2 6.25 16
–1 –1 2.5
0.33 20
12
0 1 0 0
1 3 1 0.4 8
10 2 0.16
2 9
4
3 27 3 0.064

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x

2 2.25, 3.375, 5.0625 y 2 2.44, 1.56, 0.64, 0.41 y

10 3
y = (1.5)x
y = (0.8)x 2
1
5
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 x

–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 x 3 a y = ( 3 )x y
4

b 3

3 y = 4x y = (0.7)x 2
4 B 1
5 See the spreadsheet
‘Ex 12-01 #5ab.xls’. This –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
can be opened from the Theta
Mathematics Workbook companion
4 A
CD, or downloaded from the website
www.mathematics.co.nz.
 Answers 531

Exercise 12.03 (page 134)

1 To calculate the y-intercept substitute x = 0; this 4 See the spreadsheet ‘Ex 12-03 #4.xls’. This can
gives 1 because a0 = 1 (any number to the power be opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook
of 0 is equal to 1). companion CD, or downloaded from the website
2 a=3 www.mathematics.co.nz.

3 k= 3 = 1.732 (4 sf) 5 The graph is almost linear, passing through 1 on the y-axis.

Exercise 12.04 (page 135)

1 a y b y 2 a y
12 12
2
10 10 12
8 8
–2 –1 1 2 3 x
–2
6 y=3× 2x 6 y = –2x
–4
4 4 y=5× ( 12 )x
–6
2 2
–8
–2 –1 1 2 3x –2 –1 1 2 3x
b y
c y d y 2
12 12
10 10
–4 –2 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2
8 8
–4 y = –4(0.9)x
6 6
y= 4(1.7)x y = 10(0.25)x –6
4 4
–8
2 2
–2 –1 1 2 3x –2 –1 1 2 3x 3 (1, 6)
4 a (0, 5) b (0, 2)
c (0, 8) d (0, −10)
5 a D b A
c B d E
e C
6 a D b A
c C d B

Exercise 12.05 (page 137)

1 a $1000 d
600
b Yes, the claim is correct. 1.1210 = 3.106, this is more than
‘tripling’ or three times. Also note that 1.129 < 3. 500
Sales (000s)

c Approximately 6 years. 1.126 = 1.974, or almost 2, hence 400

doubled.
300
d The new equation would be y = 400 × (1.12)x. Compared with
the given graph, all distances from the x-axis should be reduced 200
by a factor of 0.4. The graph would cross the vertical axis at 400.
100
2 a $240 000
b $288 000 1 2 3 4 5 6
Years
c Repeated multiplication by 1.2 four times is the same as
multiplying by (1.2)4. e The rate of change is increasing.
 532 Answers

3 a 60 km/h 5 a y = 1.8 × (1.13)x

b 10 km/h b y
c 2 seconds 8
d The model implies the car never stops. 7
The graph is convex from below and 6
implies sudden braking at the beginning 5
and gentle braking at the end – it is more 4
likely to be the other way round, with 3 y = 1.8 × (1.13)x
gradual braking at first, so the graph
2
would be concave from below.
1
4 a
8 12 x
12 7 c 6 years
3 6 9
Price of share ($)

6 6 a y = 8000 × (0.83)t
5
b The graph for Rachel’s car has a steeper decrease.
4
c At about 2 1 years both cars are worth about $5000.
3 2
2 d i When t = 0, T = 20 000, which is the same as 12 000 + 8000.
1 ii The parents’ estimate when t = 1 is
20 000 × 0.758 = $15 160.
3 6 9 12 15 t The total of separate calculations is
Years 12 000 × 0.71 + 8000 × 0.83 = $15 160.
b $3 The parents’ estimate agrees with the calculations.
c 5% iii The parents’ estimate becomes less than the total value
d 14 years of both cars – the combined heights of the two individual
graphs are higher than the graph for the parents’ estimate.
Also, eventually the value of the parents’ estimate drops
below the value of the European car, which is not possible if
the Japanese car still has some value.
7 a 610
b 3 months and 10 months
c The rat population would die out. If the graph continues for
long enough, it will approach the value 0. Note that the graph
has y = 0 as an asymptote.
d 1150 (3 sf)

Technology investigation Exercise 12.06 (page 140)

Exponential and log graphs (page 139) 1 a b, c y
x y = log(x)
1–5 See the spreadsheet –1
1 ×
0.1 ×
‘Exponential and log graph
0.3 –0.52
investigation answers.xls’.
0.8 –0.10
This can be opened from the Theta
1
Mathematics Workbook companion 1 0 2 ×
CD, or downloaded from the website 3 0.48
www.mathematics.co.nz.
8 0.90
6 One graph is the reflection of the 10 1 ×
other in the line y = x. 5 10 x

–1
2
×

–1 ×
 Answers 533

2 a, b 3
y y =2x y 4 0.83! , 1, 1.2, 1.44, 2.488, 6.192
×y=3
x
3 y
10 ×
1 ×
1 y = log2(x)
1 3x
1 x
y = log3(x)

5 ×

c x=0
×
d i Domain = {x: x > 0, x ∈ R} × 12
ii Range = R ×
–1 5 x
×

Exercise 12.07 (page 142)

1 3 5 a y
x log10(x) log2(x) x log0.9(x) 4
0.25 –0.60 –2
0.25 13.16
2
0.5 −0.30 −1
0.5 6.58 y = log1.3(x)
0.75 −0.12 −0.42
0.75 2.73 –1 1 2 3 4 x
1 0 0 1 0 –2
1.25 0.10 0.32 1.25 −2.12
–4
1.5 0.18 0.58 1.5 –3.85
b
1.75 0.24 0.81 1.75 −5.31
y
2 0.30 1 2 −6.58
1 y = log9(x)
y y –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
3 20 –1

2 y = log0.9(x) –2
16
1 c y
12
6
–1 1 2 3x 8
–1 4 y = 3 log (x)
4
–2 4 2
y = log2(x)
–3
1 2 3 x –1 1 2 3 4 5 x
–4 –2
–4
–4
y –8
2
2 d y
y = log5(x) y 2 y = 12 log2(x)
1 4 2 1
1 ×
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7x
–1 × –1
–1
–1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–2 –2
–2
y = log2.5(x) –3
–3 –4
–4 6 a E b C
c A d D
e B
7 k>1
8 Downwards-sloping everywhere.
 534 Answers

Technology investigation
Different bases, different curves (page 143)
1, 2 Refer to the spreadsheet ‘Different bases to 3 Each graph passes through (1, 0). Each graph has the
log graphs.xls’. This can be downloaded y-axis (that is, x = 0) as an asymptote.
from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD
4 If a > 1, the graph is upwards-sloping. Large values of a
or the www.mathematics.co.nz website.
reduce the distance from the x-axis.
If a < 1, the graph is downwards-sloping. Values of a near 0
give a graph that is closer to the x-axis.

13 Transformations of graphs and modelling

13
Investigation
Reading age (page 144)
See the spreadsheet ‘Reading age answers.xls’. This can be opened from the Theta
Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.

Exercise 13.01 (page 147)

1 a y b y 3 a y b y c y

2 2 –1 x
2 x
x x
4 x

c
y
4 a y b y

3 8

x 4 5 x

2 a y b y

x
4 ×
c y d y
x
–1 2
1 x
1
c
y –3 –2
5 x

d y

6 5 x
5
2 x

x
 Answers 535

5 a b c 8 a Move to the left 2 units.

y y y
b Move down 15 units.
c Move 4 units right and down 7 units.
–2 d Move 2 units left and up 9 units.
4
× –1 x 9 a Asymptote is y = 0; y-intercept is (0, 9).
3
 1
b Asymptote is y = 0; y-intercept is  0,  .
2 x  81 
1 x c Asymptote is y = –10; y-intercept is (0, –9).
d Asymptote is y = 8; y-intercept is (0, 9).
6 a y b y e Asymptote is y = −3; y-intercept is (0, 0).

f
 1
Asymptote is y = 4; y-intercept is  0, 4  . 13
1  9
g Asymptote is y = 2; y-intercept is (0, 245).
–3 1 x
–1 h Asymptote is y = −7; y-intercept is
 − 80 
 0, 6  .
2  81 
1 10 a Asymptote is x = 2; no y-intercept.
x
b Asymptote is x = −3; y-intercept is (0, 0.48).
y y c Asymptote is x = 0; no y-intercept.
c d
d Asymptote is x = 0; no y-intercept.
e Asymptote is x = −1; y-intercept is (0, 6).
3
f Asymptote is x = −4; y-intercept is
(0, −7.40).
4 6 x
g Asymptote is x = 5; no y-intercept.
–4 –2 x h Asymptote is x = 3; no y-intercept.
–5
11 a Asymptote is y = b; y-intercept is (0, b + 1).
b Asymptote is y = 0; y-intercept is (0, 3c).
7 a Move down 10 units. c Asymptote is y = b; y-intercept is (0, 3c + b).
b Move to the left 4 units. 12 Asymptote is x = b; no y-intercept if b ≥ 0,
c Move 6 units right and up 17 units. y-intercept is log2(–b) if b < 0.
d Move 9 units left and down 20 units.

Exercise 13.02 (page 150)

1 a y b y c y d y

3
2 ×

4
x
1
1 x
1 4 x
1 3 x

2 y

2 ×

1 x
 536 Answers

3 a b y c y d y
y
3 1 3
6
1 2 4 x
–1 1
1 3 x

1 3 x
1 x

4 a y=0 b x=0 6 a Reduce all distances from the 8 a x=0 b x=0

13 c x=0 d y=0 y-axis by a factor of 2; that is,
halve them.
9 a (0, 1) b (0, 5)
5 a Reduce all distances from the c (0, 0.2) d No y-intercept
b Halve all distances from the
y-axis by a factor of 2; that is, 10 (0, b)
x-axis.
halve them.
7 No, the asymptote will still be
b Multiply all distances from
y = 0.
the x-axis by 3.

Exercise 13.03 (page 152)

1 a y b y 3 a y b y

x x
–1

x
1 x

2 a y b y 4 a b
y y

–1 x
x 1
x x

5 y = −6x
6 y = log8(−x)

Exercise 13.04 (page 153)

1 a b y c d
y y y
7

–2 4 x

x –5
8

–10
2 x
 Answers 537

2 a y b y 4 a y
3
2

2
3 x 1
–2
–2 3 x
4 x –4
b y

c y d y
1
1
13
4 x
–4 1
–2 2 x
2
–2 c y
1
2
–2 2 x

e y f y
–2 3 x
2 3
2
d y
1 2 x –2
–1 2 x
–2

–2 3 x
–1

3 a b 5 a i y
y y

4 1
2 x x

–1 3 x –4

ii y
c y d y

5 8

1 x

iii y
2 x
2 x

–2 4 x

–2

b y = 1− x
 538 Answers

6 a y b y c y
4
3
2 2 2
1

2 5 7 x x 1 4 6 x
2 5 7 (–1, –1)
–2

d y e y
1 2

2 5 7 x 1
13 –1
–7 –5 –2 x
–2 –1

7 y Exercise 13.05 (page 155)

2 1 a A = $5000; this is the total amount in b A = 3000. The ISP will always have
both accounts initially. to pay at least $3000 per month to
b $2000 the phone company.
–1 1 2 3 x
c The last one-year period. This is where c A = 6000(0.99)n + 4000
–2
the graph is steepest. 5 a Calls cost at least 60c, and the cost
d A = 5000 × (1.075)x + 2000 for each extra minute rises, but at a
–4
decreasing rate.
2 a = 1.07, b = 100 000
b 60c
3 a 6000 L
c $2.50
b The graph is steepest on the left – that
d $3.24
is, between t = 0 and t = 1.
e The price increases too slowly for
c R = 12 600 log10(t + 3)
lengthy phone calls – it is more
d The model is unrealistic because the likely to either be capped or have a
rain will stop falling eventually. It also penalty for really long calls.
ignores any draw-off of water from the
tank. 6 a There is a fixed cost ($50 000)
even if the aircraft does not fly.
4 a The vertical intercept is $9000. This is Flying extra distance makes little
the amount charged per month if there difference to the total cost on long
are no interruptions. journeys, but makes a big difference
on shorter journeys.
b C = 20 000 log10(x + 50) + 23 000
c $108 000 (3 sf)

NCEA 2.2 Revision exercises (page 158)

1 a b c d
y y y y
10 10 8 4
8 8 6 3
6 6 4 2
4 4 2 1
2 2 2 4 6 8
– 4 – 3 –2 – 1 1 2 3 4x
– 8 – 6 –4 –2 x –1
– 3 –2 – 1 1 2 3 4x –3 – 2 – 1 1 2 3 4x –2
–2
–2 –2
–4
–4 –4 –3
–6 –4
–6 –6
–8
–8 –8

–10 –10

Ans 02 pg538.indd 538 25/6/07 10:57:14 PM

 Answers 539

e y f y
2 10

8
1
6

4
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
2
–1

–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–2 –2

–4

2 a y b y c y
12 10
2
8
8 14
–4 –2 2 4 6 8 x 6
4
–2
4

–12 –8 –4 4 8 12 x –4 2
–4
–6 –2 2 4 x
–2
–8 –8
–4
–12

5 b, c y 6 a 42 °C is the temperature inside

d y 600 the car when the motorist
4 returns to it.
500 120
b T = 18 c T= + 18
2 t+5
400 d 22 °C
e The curve should curve the
–4 –2 2 4 6 8x 300
other way (be concave instead
–2
of convex) near the beginning
200
because the air-conditioning
–4
100 would become more effective
as time went on. It should also
3 (x + 2)2 + (y – 3)2 = 25 reach the minimum possible
3 6 9 12 15 x temperature quite quickly and
4 y = (x + 4)(2 – x) or y = –(x + 1)2 + 9
c No, the stopping distance then the graph would be a
5 a 600 m required is actually 208 m. horizontal line.

2.3 Derivatives and integrals

14 Introducing differentiation
Exercise 14.01 (page 161)
1 a 1 b 3 5 A 1 b The gradient is twice
c 1 and 3 B 0 the x-co-ordinate.
2 c (1, 1) d 2 C –1 c 2x
−1
7 a 4
e 2 D 3
3
3 a –1 b –2
E 3 b Less than 1
c 0 d 1 F 4 c (0, 5) and (0, –5)
4 –4
6 a –6, –2, 8 d (–4, 3)
 540 Answers

Technology investigation Exercise 14.03 (page 165) Exercise 14.04 (page 165)
The shrinking chord (page 163) 1 5x4 1 6 – 6x 8 16x3 − 21x2
1 Refer to the spreadsheet 2 2x 2 2x + 1 9 1
‘Shrinking chord 3 40x3 3 8x + 12 10 8x3
answers.xls’. This can be opened
4 6x5 + 5x4 – 4x3 + 3x2 + 2x 4 12x2 + 24x + 9 11 1
from the Theta Mathematics
Workbook companion CD, or 5 8x3 16 3x2 + 2 5 6x + 3 12 3
downloaded from the website 17 8 – 12x3 9x2
6 3 6 24x2 – 12x 13 +2
www.mathematics.co.nz. 2
7 32x3 18 2x – 5 7 18x5 + 2x 14 3x − 5
2 The value of the gradient 2
8 3 19 12x2 –2
approaches 3.
9 6x2 + 6 20 6x + 16x3 Exercise 14.05 (page 166)
3 3 −3 −3
−
10 15x4 +6 21 4 + 4x 1 2x 14
4 An error message appears, to −5
2x4
22 5x4 – 4x3 −
show an attempted division by 0. 11 1 2 4x 3
− −6 15
12 16x – 2 23 2 3 15 x x5
15 5 a 2
13
1
24 –8
4 −
10 x
−3
16
2
b 4.5 2 5x3
−6
c –7 14 2x + 1 25 p+q 5 10 x −2 9
−6 17 − or
15 –1 6 5x x3 x 4
Exercise 14.02 (page 165)
7 10 x
−3 − 2x − 9

2x −2 x4
1 3x2 14 +6
3 8 18 –15x2
2 8x7 x3
15 3 + 4x −8 −1
3 6x 9 19 + 9 or
16 20x3 x3 x3 2 x 4
− 20
4 4 17 4x3 + 6x 10 9 − 2x
x5 2x4
5 10x – 6 18 2x 6 3 1
11 20 32 x −
6 0 19 4x3 + 4x x4 x2
4x3 28
7 4x + 5 20
5
12 21 3x 2 + 13 − 124
x8 x x
8 16x3 + 2 21 5x4 + 16x −4
4
13 22
9 6x 22 6x – 6 3x 5 x3
10 4x3 23 6x – 1 Exercise 14.06 (page 166)
11 2x + 2 24 12x2 –2 1 a 48 b 3 c 0 10 x = ±2 16 a 12
12 3 25 3 2 a 11 b 7 c 1 11 x = 5, –1 b 192
13 8x 3 4 12 x=3 1 c 3
2 4
4 a –5 b 5 c –4 13 x = 1, 3 −1
17 a
5 a 5 b 29 c –475 14 x = 2, 6 32
−1
6 x=2 −1 b
15 a 2
4
7 x=2 –8
2 c
b
8 x = –1 27
9 x = ±1 c undefined

15 Calculus and curves

Exercise 15.01 (page 168) Exercise 15.02 (page 169)
1 a (5, 11) b (–1, 5) 5 (4, –45) and (2, –13)
1 a 2 b 12 c 12
d 25 e 50 f 4 1 1 6 (4, 2)
2 a (1, 0) b  , 
2 2
g 31 h 31 7 (2, 4) and (−2, −4)
2 2 3 a (–2, –3) b (2, 2)
−6 −3
8 (1, 1) and (−1, 9)
2 a b 12 c c (–1, 6)
9 p = –10

(1, ) and 

3 a 0 b 9 −
2 2 − 2  1 1 
4 1,
3 
3
10 2 , 4 
4 7  4 16 
 Answers 541

Exercise 15.03 (page 170) Exercise 15.04 (page 172)

1 a y = 8x – 11 or 8x – y – 11 = 0 1 A increasing B stationary 9 a decreasing b increasing
b y= −5 or y + 5 = 0 C decreasing D stationary c decreasing
c y = −3x − 7 or 3x + y + 7 = 0 E increasing 10 The gradient is given by 4x − 7,
d y = 7x − 7 or 7x − y − 7 = 0 2 C which has the value 4 × 3 − 7 = 5
e y = 23x + 54 or 23x – y + 54 = 0 (positive) when x = 3. Because the
3 C
gradient is positive at this point
f y = −x − 6 or x + y + 6 = 0 4 C the function is increasing.
2 y = 7x − 9 or 7x − y − 9 = 0 5 C
11 The gradient is given by
3 y= −4x + 3 or 4x + y – 3 = 0 6 a x>4 2x − 2, which has the value
4 y = 15x – 48 or 15x – y – 48 = 0 2 × 1 − 2 = 0 when x = 1. If the
b x<0
gradient at a point is 0, then the
5 y = 7x – 14, y = −7x – 35 or c x < −1 or x > 2 point is stationary. The point’s
7x – y – 14 = 0, 7x + y + 35 = 0
d 2<x<6 co-ordinates are (1, 3).
6 y = 7x – 2 or 7x – y – 2 = 0
7 y = 4x − 18 or 4x − y − 18 = 0
7 a x<4 b x>0 12 x < –2 15
c –1 <x<2 d x < 2 or x > 6 13 x< –1

8 a increasing b stationary 14 a x= 5 b x< 5

6 6
c decreasing

Exercise 15.05 (page 175)

1 (3, –3), minimum 11 (–3, 13), maximum; 17 a f ′( x) = x 2 − 4 x + 3 b y
 1
2 (–1, –4), minimum 1, 2  , minimum b y = 3x + 7 or
 3
–2
3 (0, 4), maximum 3x – y + 7 = 0 6 x
12 (–4, 166), maximum;
 1 − 1 (6, –334), minimum c 1, 3
4 1 , 3  , minimum
 2 4 d 7
13 (–1, –8), maximum;
− 1 1 y
5  2 , 12  , maximum (2, –35), minimum 18 a
 2 4
1 4 
6 (0, –3), minimum 14  ,  , maximum;
 3 27 
1 − 1 (1, 0), minimum
7  , 10  , minimum
4 8 Maximum is
15 (1, 4), maximum; –2 2 x
8 –1
(–1, 0), minimum (–1.07, 7.04),
minimum is
9 4 16 The equation 3x2 – 6x + 9 = 0 (3.74, –48.5).
10 y 1 1 (i.e. x2 – 2x + 3 = 0) has no
(2 6 , 1012) solutions because the Maximum is 19 Maximum is (–1, –2);
× (–1.15, 3.08), minimum is (1, 2).
discriminant is negative.
minimum is
(1.15, –3.08).

Exercise 15.06 (page 176)

3 a –9cm. The negative sign
1 a 3x – 0.75x2
1 4 x indicates the plank is 9 cm below
3 b 3 – 1.5x
the level of the end points.
–4 c (2, 3)
b 3x2 – 12x
d The maximum height of the trellis
is 3 m, and this is above the middle c 6x – 12
point of the base, 2 m from each d 2 m from the left slab
end. e 12 cm
2 a 150 – 10x 4 96 words per minute
b (15, 1125)
5 a 2.4 m and 6 m
c The maximum height reached by
b 1.95 m
the missile is 1125 m, and this is
achieved 15 seconds after it is fired. c 1.8 m
 542 Answers

6 a i 2645 mm/s 8 a –19000. Their fixed costs, if h $100 200

ii 2.645 m/s they run no tours at all, are i They make a maximum loss
2 $19 000. of $26 200 (i.e. minimum
b 117 − x
13 b The graph crosses the x-axis profit) if they run eight tours.
c 39 strokes per minute
and takes positive y-values
d 3.042 m/s after about x = 28.
7 a 4.8 m and 3.4 m c 27 tours
b 0.4x − 1.6 d 100 tours
c 1.6 m e About 70 tours
d i 1.4 m f 240x – 3x2 – 1800
ii a = 0.527, b = 1.844 g x = 8.38 and x = 71.62

16 Integration

16 Exercise 16.01 (page 180)

− 5x3 2
x3 x6 x4 +c x
1 a +c b +c 5 a +c b
6 11 2x8 − + 3x + c
3 6 10 2
5
5 − x5 2 x7 x
c x
+c d x+c c +c d +c 12 + x6 + 2 x 2 + c
5 15 3 5
3x2 x3 13 3x3 – 3x2 + 5x + c
2 a +c b –3x2 +c 6 − x2 + 3x + c
2 3 x6 x2
14 + x4 − + c
x2 − x2 x2 6 2
c +c d +c 7 x4 + − 5x + c
3 8 2 15 2x6 + 15x2 – 4x + c
3x2
3 a 11x + c b –2x +c 8 2x3 + −x+c 16 2 x 5 3x2 x
− + +c
2 25 4 3
3
c x+c d x+c 9 4x – x3 + c
4 x 4 x 5 x6
17 + + +c
4 x7 3x8 4x6 20 20 18
4 a +c b +c 10 x+ +c
7 4 3
− 2 x3
c +c d –2x4 +c
3

Exercise 16.02 (page 180) Exercise 16.03 (page 182) Exercise 16.04 (page 183)
x4 3
1 2x2 + 4x + c 12 − 4x + c 1 a f(x) = x2 – 3x + 3 1 a 9 b 63
4 3
−
5x3
x3 b f(x) = 2x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 10 c 21 d –6
2 − 5x2 + c 13 + 6 x 2 + 36 x + c 2
3 3 c f(x) = –2x2 + x + 9 − 17 1
e f 150
3 2x5 – 35x2 + c x3 2 2
14 − 4 x + 16 x + c
x2 4x 3 2 h(x) = x2 – 3x + 2 g 9 h 5 1
4 + +c 15
14 7 x4 x2
15 − +c 3 a y = 2x2 + 3x – 29 i 75 j −1 3
x 4 2 x2 4 2 5
5 − +c b y = x3 – x2 + 7 −1 1
20 5 x2 k l 0
x x 2 16 + 5x + c 2
6 − +c 2 c y = –2x3 + x + 49
8 8 2 a –8 b 0
3 2 17 x3 – x2 + c
x
7 + x +c 4x 5
4 f(x) = 2x4 − x2 + 3x + 1 c 24
3 2 18 − 2x + c
5 5 f(x) = 2x5 + x3 − 2x – 5
8 3x2 + 4x3 +c 3 2p3 – 16 = 38
5x2 3x 4
2 x3 5x2 19 − +c 6 f(x) = x2 – 3x + 5 p=3
9 − − 12 x + c 4 8
3 2 4 2
10 x3 – 8x2 – 35x + c 20
x
+ 3x − x + c 7 a y = x2 – x – 5
16 8 2
23 x 2 b y = x2 – x – 2
11 5x3 − + 4x + c
2 c y = x2 – x
8 y = 3x + 12
x3 2
9 y= − x2 + x + 5
3 3
10 y = x3 – 2
3x2
11 f ( x) = 2 x 3 − −5
2
12 y = 43 1
2
 Answers 543

Starter (page 184) Technology investigation

1 Combining trapeziums (page 185)
1
3
2 Approximately 33 squares = 0.33 units of area. 1 See Worksheet Part 1 in the spreadsheet ‘Combining
3 1 trapeziums answers.xls’. This can be opened from the
3 Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from
4 They are equal. the website www.mathematics.co.nz. The total area is 106 square
units.
Exercise 16.05 (page 184) 2 See Worksheet Part 2 in the spreadsheet ‘Combining trapeziums
answers.xls’. The total area is 105.5 square units.
1 a About 17 squares =
0.17 square units 3 105 1
3
b 1
= 0.16! 4 The total area of the trapeziums approaches the value of the
6
integral.
2 a About 27 squares
2 5 See Worksheet Part 5 in the spreadsheet ‘Combining trapeziums
b 26 = 27 (to nearest whole answers.xls’.
3
number)
3 a 0.0625
16
a+b
b Area = h ×
2
Exercise 16.08 (page 190)
0.25 + 1 1 2 km2 6 2 2
= 0.5 × m
2 3
= 0.5 × 0.625 2 1 1 m2 7 a 36.8 cm2
3
= 0.3125 3 a 32 cm2 b 16 cm3 b 294.4 cm2

c C = 0.8125; D = 1.5625 4 8 m2 8 a 50 m2
d 2.75 b 30 m2
2
5 The green part is larger. The area of the blue part is
2  x3  1
e ∫0 x2 dx =  3  given by ∫ 0 (6x2 + 2 x + 1) dx = 4, so the area of
0
the green part is the area of the rectangle − the blue
8 2
= = 2 = 2.6! part = 9 − 4 = 5.
3 3

Exercise 16.06 (page 187) Exercise 16.09 (page 193)

(All answers are in square units.) 1 a 10 2 b 11 5 b 41
3 3 2
1 21 2 22 6 36
7 11 3
2 24 3 7 11
16 2 3
8 31 3 = 7.542 (4 sf)
3 10 2 3 3 8 a 12 b 4
3
4 3 9 11 4 41
3 2 9 a y = 4x – 4
5 11 10 15 5 a y b Cuts x-axis when y = 0:
3 6
y=x–2
6 10 2 0 = 4x − 4
3 11 30
x 4x = 4
Starter (page 188) x=1
1 –8 y = –x2
Therefore cuts at (1, 0).
2 8 square units c 2
3
3 The region given by the integral is
below the x-axis.

Exercise 16.07 (page 190)

(All answers are in square units.)
1
1 3 1 4
2
12
2 4 5 11 5
6
3 32 1
4
 544 Answers

17 Calculus applications
Exercise 17.01 (page 194) Exercise 17.02 (page 198)
1 30 8 0.12 1 a –15 m/s 8 a –4 m (Interpret c 1.2 seconds
2 25 9 2
42 π = 134.0 b 5 m/s this as 4 m (2 sf). This gives
3 to the left of, the time when
dA 0 m/s
3 a = 2πr 10 a 30π = 94.25 2 a or below, the the yoyo is at
dr
b 2 m/s2 origin.) the bottom of its
b 8π = 25.13 b 58π = 182.2
–10 b 0 m/s path, or when it
c 8 c m/s2
is closest to the
11 10 m/s c 18 m/s2
4 192 3 a 18 m/s ground.
12 –126 m/s d 3 seconds
b 6 m/s2 d 81.4 cm
5 a 4.8
13 a 10π = 31.42 c 15 m 9 a 30 m/s e 2.4 seconds (2 sf)
b 12
b 22.42 d At 2 seconds b At 3 seconds
c 19 cm 11 a 15 m
c 45 m
17 d 361 cm2 14 dθ
= 5−
t 4 a v= –6 + 15t2
d –10 m/s2
b 30 m/s
dt 10 b a = 30t c 195 m
dA
6 a = 3t 2 − 2 15 6.5
dt 10 a 100 cm d At 12.2 seconds
−4 5 t=2
b 430 m2/s 16 b 135 cm/s (3 sf)
15 6 t = 2, 4
7 49π = 153.9 (downwards)
7 t = 2.5 seconds 12 At 2 seconds

Exercise 17.03 (page 200) Exercise 17.04 (page 201)

1 a 57 m/s2 b 110 m/s 1 a At 4 seconds c t = 0 seconds, 2 seconds
c 275 m b –18m/s2. The object is slowing d 12 m/s2
down. e 108 m
2 1m
c –49 m (49 m behind P)
3t 2 f 1301 m
3 a v = 4t − −2
2 2 a a = 6t – 4 b s = t3 – 2t2 + t
2 8 a 216 m/s
b t = seconds
3 3 a t= 2 b 120 m/s2
1
c 1 m
2 = 1.4 seconds c 600 m/s
4 a 72 m/s2 b v = 6t2 + 4
b 18 cm/s2 d After 20 seconds
c 58 m/s d s = 2t3 + 4t
c 13 cm e 8000 m
e 1494 m
4 a 224 cm b 56 1 cm/s 9 a 140 m/s
3t 2 3
5 a v= − t + 10 –10
2 5 a 145 m/s b m/s2 (The bullet is
b Distance travelled in the first slowing down.)
2 seconds. b t = 18 seconds
–10
c 1127 m
6 a 0 m/s c m/s2
d 625 m
b 1.3 seconds (2 sf) d 0 seconds ≤ t < 18 seconds
10 a 3.8 m b –0.1 m/s2
c 6.3 m/s (2 sf) e 795 m
f 65 m 11 a –10 m/s2
7 a 2 seconds
6 a 70 m/s b 10 m/s2 b h = 25t – 5t2 + 30
b v = 4t – t2 + 12
c 950 m c At t = 5 seconds
c 16 m/s
9t 2
d 6 seconds 7 a 0 m/s 12 a 1 second b s= − 3t 3
2
e 72 m b –3 m/s; left c 1.5 m d 4.5 m/s2

Technology investigation
The warehouse (page 203)
See the spreadsheet ‘Napier-Hasting Warehouse Answers.xls’. This can be opened from the Theta Mathematics
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz. The warehouse should be
located next to the Hastings shop. The total cost of deliveries each day would be $1200.
 Answers 545

Exercise 17.05 (page 204) Exercise 17.06 (page 207)

1 a 32 m 1 a y = 60 – 2x ii Maximum volume
b y = 32 – x b P = x(60 – 2 x) = 125 cm3.
c A = x(32 – x) c Cube
= 60 x – 2 x 2
= 32x – x2 c 15 7 a (8 – 2x) m
d 256 m2 d 30 b x metres
2 900 cm2 e 450 c V = x(8 – 2x)2 = 4x3 – 32x2 + 64x
3 16 200 m2 d 37.93 m3
2 50
4 a A = w(80 – w) 8 a 8.3! L/100 km
3 a i 14.4 L/100 km
= 80w – w2 b The top speed is
ii 13.6 L/100 km
b 0 < w < 80 140 km/h. At this speed
iii 13.6 L/100 km the fuel consumption is
c 1600 m2, w = 40
b 25 km/h 20.33 L/100 km (4 sf).
d 0 < A ≤ 1600
5 37.5 m2
c 13.5 L/100 km c 75 km/h 17
d 6.25 L/100 km
4 49
6 a i 480 – 3x 2

ii A = x(480 – 3x) 5 a i $8200 ii $7000

9 a s = wt
15
= 480x – 3x2 b $2x 1 2
b w=3 cm and t = 6 cm
3 3
b x = 80 gives an maximum area c P = x – 7000 – 0.0002x2
of 19 200 m2. 10 $24.93
d 2500 –12.25
7 45 000 mm2 11
6 a The total length of wire 12 6
8 a 2πx + 2y = 400
used = 60 cm. There are
x=
100
= 31.83 m (4 sf) 13 2
b eight pieces x cm long, 3
π 6
and four pieces h cm long. 14 r= = 1.24 cm
9 If the plots are arranged in a π
row then the maximum area is Therefore 8x + 4h = 60 15 6.71 cm (3 sf)
6350.4 m2. Rearranging: 4h = 60 – 8x 16 155.14 cm3
If the plots are arranged to meet h = 15 – 2x 17 3723.37 cm3
at a common point the maximum
b i V= 15x2 – 2x3 18 100.5 m2
area is 7056 m2. The extra area
gained by using the larger
configuration is 705.6 m2.

Technology investigation
The horse-breeder’s paddock (page 210)

1 90x + 75x + 75y + 75y = 9900 4, 5 The maximum area occurs when x = 30 m and y = 33 m.
165x + 150y = 9900 This maximum area is 990 m2.
9900 − 165 x 11x 6 Area = xy
2 y= or y = 66 −

( )
150 10
11x
3 See the spreadsheet = x 66 –
10
‘Horse-paddock 11x 2
answers.xls’.This can be opened = 66 x –
10
from the Theta Mathematics 22 x
Workbook companion CD, or (Area)′ = 66 – = 0 for a maximum
10
downloaded from the website 22 x = 660
www.mathematics.co.nz.
x = 30

(Note: this is a maximum because the area can be

represented by an upside-down parabola.)
 546 Answers

NCEA 2.3 Revision exercises (page 211)

1 20 4 (–2, 1) 7 a 26 m b 5 m/s
2 y = x3 – 3x2 + x + 4 5 y = 9x – 10 or 9x – y – 10 = 0 2500
8 = 350.1 cm 2
π+4
3 16 units2 64 1
6 = 21 units2 9 24 m2
3 3

2.4 Co-ordinate geometry

18 Co-ordinate geometry
Exercise 18.01 (page 213) Exercise 18.03 (page 216) Exercise 18.05 (page 219)
3 1
1 a (6, 4) b (5, 3) 1 a –3 b 3 1 a b c –1
2 3
( )
−7
−4 1 , 3 c 2 d 3
c (–3, 2) d 5 5 d –2 e 2 f
2 2
−1
e 5 f 1 –2
 1 8 g 4 h 4 i
e (1, 0) f 1, 3 
 2 −3 −1
2 a b 1 1 4
− 1  5 j k 3 l
g (2, –2) h 2 3
 2 , 4 −4
18  2  c
3
d 5
3 2
−a

2 b
e f –1
2 a (1.05, 0.3) 3 3 a 63.4° b 18.4°
1 7  1
− 13
b  ,  3 a b c 104.0° d 149.0°
 8 12  9 2
c undefined d 0 e 45° f 135°
3 a (p, p) −5
b (a, a) e 4 a 36.9° b 116.6°
3
c (5f + 2, –5g + 1) 4 a=6 c 18.4° d 141.3°

4 (–10, 9) 5 p=1 5 a 56.3° b 141.3°

−7 − 2d − 1
5 (3, –2) 6 a b c 50.2° d 116.6°
3 d+3
6 (0, –11) –1 q
c d
p Exercise 18.06 (page 220)
e 0 f undefined
−9 1 x–y+4=0
7
Exercise 18.02 (page 215) 5 2 2x – y – 7 = 0
8 0, 2 3 3x + y – 1 = 0
1 a 5 b 1.414
4 x–y=0
c 13 d 2.236 Exercise 18.04 (page 218) 5 x–4=0
e 13.34 f 2
1 a 0.4452 b 0.5774 6 2x – 7y – 35 = 0
g 5 h 1.414
c –1.376 d –1 7 3x + 4y – 4 = 0
2 a 8.374 b 14.88 8 x+y–4=0
e 0 f undefined
c 1.031 9 20x – 5y + 2 = 0
2 a 1.7 b –2.7
3 25 –0.36 10 5x + 20y + 12 = 0
c 1.2 d
4 126 km 11 8x – 3y = 0
3 a 63.4° b 14.0°
5 8.062 km 12 40x – 12y – 15 = 0
c 146.3° d 45°
6 391 m
e 0° f 60°
7 PQ = (2 − − 1)2 + (7 − 1)2 = 9 + 36 = 45
g 135° h 150°
PR = (2 − 5)2 + (7 − 1)2 = 9 + 36 = 45 i 90°
PQ = PR
4 26.6°
8 5.385 5 24.4°
9 a 21.54 b 3.808 6 71.6°
7 101.3°
 Answers 547

Exercise 18.07 (page 221) Exercise 18.10 (page 223)

1 3x – y – 1 = 0 17
1 a = 0.61 (2 dp) 3 a 3x + 2y – 2125 = 0
28
2 2x – y + 6 = 0 b The gradient is negative.
b 31.3°
3 x – 2y – 15 = 0 c 162 or 163
2 a The gradient of the ladder should be
4 4x + y – 21 = 0 d The y-intercept is 1062.5.
between 3 and 4 inclusive – at least 3
5 x – 4y – 10 = 0 but no more than 4. This means that if the
6 2x + 5y – 14 = 0 DVD players were free, the
b i m>4 ii m<3
company could ‘sell’ 1062–
7 y–1=0 c i 5.69 m ii 2.995 1063 of them. This is not
8 2x + y – 7 = 0 iii No, the placement is unsafe realistic – the demand for
because the gradient is less than 3. free DVD players would
Exercise 18.08 (page 222) d 71.5° < Safe angle < 76.0° be almost unlimited.

1 a 2x – 3y – 5 = 0
19 Further co-ordinate geometry
b 3x + 2y – 23 = 0
c 9x + y – 25 = 0 Exercise 19.01 (page 226) Exercise 19.03 (page 229)
d x–y–1=0
1 (a, c); (b, i); (d, g) 1 The gradient joining each possible
e 2x – 5y – 22 = 0
2 3x – y + 9 = 0 pair of points is 5 .
2
19
f 7x + 6y + 10 = 0
3 x+y–2=0 2 The gradient joining each possible
g 3x + 2y + 13 = 0 −
4 4x – y – 26 = 0 pair of points is 1 .
3
h x–4=0
5 a 2x – y – 2 = 0 3 p = −11
i y+2=0
b x + 5y + 10 = 0 4 a Gradient AB = gradient CD
2 a 3x – 4y + 12 = 0 6 x–y+6=0 2
= 9 ; gradient DA = gradient
b 3x + 5y – 15 = 0 7 a= –2
BC = 4.
c 2x – 3y – 12 = 0 Any quadrilateral with
Exercise 19.02 (page 228)
d 3x + 4y + 12 = 0 opposite sides parallel is a
−1 −1
e 2x – 3y = 0 1 a b c –3 parallelogram.
2 7
f x + 4y = 0 d 4 e 1 f 5 b (4, 4) c Yes
2
g 1 h –6
3 3x – 5y + 18 = 0 8
4 x+y–1=0 2 a 0 b Vertical line
5 x – 2y – 4 = 0 c Because division by zero is
6 q = –14 undefined.
−1 1
3 a b c –q
Exercise 18.09 (page 223) p p
−q q
d q e f p
1 a x–y+1=0 p
g undefined h 0
b y+1=0
c x+y–1=0 4 (b, f); (d, i); (d, g); (f, j); (e, i);
(e, g); (a, c); (a, h)
d x–y–1=0
e x+y+3=0 5 x + 2y – 4 = 0
6 4x + 3y – 24 = 0
2 a 1.73x – y – 5.93 = 0
b 0.58x – y + 0.15 = 0 7 a 3x – y – 16 = 0
c 0.23x + y + 1.15 = 0 b 2x – 3y – 13 = 0
d 0.18x – y – 2 = 0 8 a y=1 b x=1
e y=0 9 x + 2y – 3 = 0
3 y = x + 1; y = –x + 9 10 4x – 3y + 8 = 0
11 10x – 3y – 96 = 0
12 2x + y – 7 = 0
 548 Answers

Exercise 19.04 (page 230)

1 y 2 y 3 y 4 y 5 y
2
3 1
1 x –6 x
3

x x
–1
x 1
1 12

6 y 7 y 8 y 9 y 10 y

1
6 x 3 2
–4 x
4 x –1 x
x

11 y 12 y 13 y 14 y 15 y

2 x 3 x 6
5 4
x
19 –2 –3
–2
x
x
16 y 17 y 18 y 19 y 20 y

–4 x 3 x 2 x 1 2
–1
2 3
x 3 x
2

Exercise 19.05 (page 231)

1 5 9 y
y y = 32 x – 2 x y 13 y 17 y
y= 3+2 –
y = 25 x + 2 y=5
2 5
2 y = –4x + 5
5
5 x
1 13 x –6 x
–2
6 10 1 14 x
y y x
y = –2x + 1
y 4 14 y = –2x – 3 y 18 y
2 y = –x + 4 1
y = 23x + 2 2 8
y=8
–1 1 x
2
–3 x 1 x
4 x 2
–3
y y x
3 y = –x – 4 7 y= 3
–2 11
y 2x 15 y=
–
2
–3
y
–
1 3x
y= 2x +1
–4 x 1
–4 1 x
2
1 13 x
2 x
–4
–2 –3
4 y 12 y 16 y
y=x y= 2
–2 y=x–1
3x
8
y –
y = 16 x + 2
x
2 3 x 1
–2 –1
x
12 x
 Answers 549

Exercise 19.06 (page 232)

1 y 4 y 7 y 10 y
4
5

2 x 3
2 –2 x
4 x
–3
3 x

2 y 5 y 8 y

1 x
3 x 6 x

–6
–4 –6

3 y 6 y 9 y
19
2
5
5 x 6
–2 6 x 5 x
4

Exercise 19.07 (page 232) Exercise 19.08 (page 235)

1 x + 2y – 2 = 0 1 y=x−1 14 The perpendicular bisector of KL
passes through the midpoint of KL,
2 x–y+3=0 2 y=4
7
that is (5, 0), and the gradient
3 2x + 3y – 6 = 0 3 y= x − 6 or 7x – 2y – 12 = 0 1
of KL is , so the gradient of the
2 3
4 4x + 5y – 20 = 0 1 9
4 x – 4y + 18 = 0 or y = x + perpendicular bisector is −3. The
4 2
5 5x – 3y – 15 = 0 equation of the perpendicular bisector
5 y = 8x − 21 or 16x – 6y – 63 = 0
6 2x – 3y – 6 = 0 3 2 of KL is y − 0 = −3(x – 5), or
6 y = −2x + 10 or 2x + y – 10 = 0 y = −3x + 15.
7 7x – 4y + 28 = 0 1− 5 −−
7 y = 3x a The gradient of JL is = 3.
8 2x + y + 6 = 0 −
2−0
8 y = 3 x + 21 or 3x + 5y – 21 = 0 This is the same as the gradient of
9 2x – y – 4 = 0 5 5 the perpendicular bisector of KL.
9 Yes
10 2x – y = 0 b The midpoint of JK is (4, 3). This
10 All three are the same line.
11 y=2 lies on the perpendicular bisector
11 Equilateral triangle of KL because the co-ordinates
12 x = –3
satisfy the equation y = −3x + 15;
12 DE = ( 4 − 2)2 + (0 − 3)2 = 4 + 9 = 13
that is, 3 = −3 × 4 + 15.
DF = ( − 1 − 2)2 + (1 − 3)2 = 9 + 4 = 13
 
15 a P = 6 2 , 4 1 
Therefore DE = DF  3 3
− b The median from C to AB is the
13 Gradient XZ = 7 − 15 = 8 .
7−4 3 line that joins (8, 1) to (6, 6) and
7−4 3 its equation is 5x + 2y – 42 = 0.
Gradient YZ = = .
7 − −1 8 Substitute the co-ordinates of P
The product of the gradients is −1, so into this equation:
XZ ⊥ YZ, and ∠XZY = 90°. 2 1
5 × 6 + 2 × 4 − 42
3 3
The equation of the hypotenuse is 1 2
= 33 + 8 − 42 = 0.
11x – 5y + 31 = 0 or y = 11x + 31 3 3
2 5 Because the co-ordinates satisfy
or y = 2.2x + 6.2.
the equation, P lies on the line.
3
16 2 , 4, 9
4
 550 Answers

Puzzle
Wayward perpendicular bisectors (page 236)
1 2

Exercise 19.09 (page 236)

1 a y 4 a Betamax Linecall. f 1971 (nearest whole number)
b The charge per hour spent on g Very unlikely – the straight-
120
calls is $15. line equation would imply
c y = 20x that in 1971 there were no
teachers on the North Shore.
d At point D the monthly −
3
19 charge is the same for both 7 a y=
5
x + 8 or
companies, D = (5, 100).
3x + 5y – 40 = 0
e y = 80
7.5 x b i The equation of strut Å
f
b No, because this would is y = 5 x − 10 or
y 3 3
represent the time before the A = Abacus A
5x – 3y – 10 = 0.
level was measured. B = Betamax
Monthly charge ($)

B The equation of strut Ç

c No, because the level obviously
cannot be negative. D is y = 1 x + 4 or
5
× x – 5y + 20 = 0.
d y = 120. This represents the 80 C
level immediately after the six- ii 2 m
pack has been consumed. × iii 26 = 5.099 m (4 sf)
e 7.5 hours (the x-intercept). 8 a 7x – 3y – 29 = 0 or
f The gradient is –16. Each hour,
Total call-time (hours)
x y = 7 x − 29
the level of blood-alcohol 3 3
decreases by 16 mg/100 mL. 5 a A = (0, 100); B = (500, 0) b 109 = 10.44 m (4 sf)
1 b ‘Pay only $100 for Moviecard c 9x + 4y − 66 = 0 or
2 a y= x + 2 or −
2
and watch 500 hours of y = 9 x + 33
x – 2y + 4 = 0 4 2
movies.’
b The y-intercept is 2. The length d Add lines representing the
c The gradient is –0.2. The value three perpendicular bisectors
of the spring is 2 cm when there
stored on the card falls by of ABC. D would be at the
is no weight attached; that is,
20c an hour spent watching point where these three lines
when it is unstretched.
movies. intersect.
c 14.5 cm
6 a The graph and figures imply a 9 2.16 km (3 sf)
d No. The spring would have a
steady increase in the number
maximum uncoiled length. It 10 a P and Q are closest.
of teachers on the North Shore
would break if there was too PQ = 5.02, PR = 6.36,
over a six-year period.
much weight attached. QR = 5.28.
b The background shows a
3 a The x-intercept is 900. If derelict caravan – implying b i 55x – 195y + 74 = 0 or
there were no full members, urban decay – not a positive 11 74
y= x+
there would be 900 associate image for a government at 39 195
members. election time. ii 0.365 m
b The y-intercept is 675. If there c 60
were no associate members,
d y = 60x – 118 240
there would be 675 full
members. e 2960
c 660

Ans 04 pg550.indd 550 26/6/07 8:32:49 PM

 Answers 551

Puzzle
The stolen bicycle (page 239)
16 km

NCEA 2.4 Revision exercises (page 240)

1 a 5.83 m (3 sf) −
9 x 11 2 Gradient AC = 6 − 8 = 2
b y= − or 9x – 4y – 22 = 0 6−1 5
4 2
6−1 5
5 x 13 Gradient BC = 6 − 4 = 2
c y= − or 5x – 7y – 13 = 0 −
7 7 2 5 −
− 
The product of the gradients = × = 1, so the
1 5 2
d  3, 1 
 2 lines are perpendicular and ∠ACB = 90°.
0 − −4 4
e Gradient BH = =
0 − −3 3 AC = (6 − 1)2 + (6 − 8)2 = 25 + 4 = 29
Gradient HD = 8 − 0 = 4 BC = (6 − 4)2 + (6 − 1)2 = 4 + 25 = 29
6−0 3
The gradients are the same and have H in Therefore AC = BC and the triangle is isosceles.
common, so B, D and H are collinear.
3 a 16.57 m
f 7.159 m (4 sf) 2 18
b y= x+ or 2x – 7y + 18 = 0
7 7
4 30.85 m
20
2.5 Statistical inference
20 Sample statistics and data display

Exercise 20.01 (page 245)

1 a Mean = 16.5, median = 16, no mode 9 a 22
b Mean = 3.06! , median = 3, mode = 4 b Yes, for example Adam, Beth and Chris might
c Mean = 4.7, median = 4.55, no mode each read 23 books, and Daniel might read three
books.
2 See the spreadsheet ‘Christchurch Temperature
data Feb 2005 answers.xls’. This can be opened 10 9
from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion 11 50 m
CD, or downloaded from the website 12 a 74 kg
www.mathematics.co.nz.
b 47 kg

Minimum Maximum 13 Some family members may have died.

temperatures temperatures Some babies may be present.
Mean 13.62857 24.10357 Some family members may have attended one
Median 13.2 24.65 reunion and not the other.

Mode 17.6 24.8 14 8.2

15 The mean = $25 000, the median = $20 000. The
mean would be higher because some people would
3 7
earn very high wages, whereas the bottom half are
4 2, 3, 5, 5, 5, 7, 8 compressed between 0 and 20 000.
5 6.2 16 a 1, 3, 4, 5, 5
6 22.975 b 1, 2, 3, 5, 5
7 $75 c i For a yes, e.g. 0, 3, 4, 4; for b no.
8 15 ii For a no; for b no.
 552 Answers

Exercise 20.02 (page 247)

1 a Mean b Mean 3 a Early arrivals
c Median d Median b Airline C: 16.79; 5
e Mode f Median Airline U: 15.36; 12.5
g Mean c Median
2 a 782 m2 b 758.5 m2 d Mean
c Two outliers, that is, two sections are very large e Median
compared with the others. 4 a $778.33; $675; $650
d Median b Median
5 a 4:33.64
b 4:34.11
c Median – the mean is affected by one extremely low
reading (one official may have missed the start).

Exercise 20.03 (page 252)

1 a 4.789; 3 b 6.556; 6 6 a 2 8 9
2 a 20.1 cm 3 0 7 7899
4 4 4 77888 99
b Maria is correct, the mode is 20 – this was the most 5 1 6 89
20 common hand-span, recorded for 59 students, which 6
7
1
9
3 5
is more than any one of the other measurements.
3 a 84 b 1.571 c 132 b October January
9 8 2
4 a 46 b 187 9987 7 0 3
c Two modes: 2 and 6; mean = 4.065 9988877 4 4 4 9
98 6 1 5 6
5 a 6 5 3 1 6 7 8 889
9 7 1 7 9
5 8 1 4 6788
9 5 7 899
Frequency

4 10 1 1 9
3 11
12 3
2
c The graph shows an increase of about $40 in
1
room rates from October to January. The January
0 rates have a greater spread.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of complaints
per month
b i 8 ii 5 iii 5.5

Exercise 20.04 (page 256)

1 44 111 km 3 a b 2000–2100 hours
24 c 52 years
2 a 4
b 23 20 d 2050 hours
Frequency

c $36 087 16 e 2103 hours

12 4 a 4–4.5 kg b 42
8 c 162 kg d 3.857 kg
4
~
~

1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300

Number of hours per year
 Answers 553

5 a

Number of innings
8

60 120 180 240

Time for an innings
(minutes)

b 115.6 minutes
c Change the class intervals to 0–29, 30–59, etc. or 0–30, 31–60, etc.

Technology investigation Starter (page 258)

Motorcyclist crashes (page 257) 1 The Post Shop queue has less
variation.
1, 2 See the spreadsheet ‘Motorcyclist accident analysis.xls’. This can At the supermarket it is likely that
be opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or people choose a queue for a particular
downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz. check-out, and it may turn out that
3 The data shows that there are most accidents in the second half that particular queue is either fast
of the day – that is, after noon. There is an increase in the relative or slow. At a Post Shop it is more
(percentage) number of accidents at night-time for the weekends likely there is a single queue, and the 20
compared with weekdays. No data is given about the total number person at the front is called to the first
of motorcyclists on the road at these times, so it is not possible to available counter.
answer the question ‘When is the safest time to ride a motorbike?’ Customers would prefer the Post
Shop type of queue because it is fairer
(people are served in order of time
spent waiting) and it is less likely they
will have a long delay – waiting time
for most people is close to the mean.

Exercise 20.05 (page 262)

1 a 19, 8, 18, 10 3 See the spreadsheet ‘Christchurch Temperature data Feb 4 a 31
b 29, 6, 16, 10 2005 answers.xls’. This can be opened from the Theta b i 76%
Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from
c 66, 450, 485, 35 ii 70%
the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
d 30, –0.5, 14.5, 15 iii 85%

2 a 87, 29, 87.5, 58.5 Minimum Maximum iv 15%

temperatures temperatures 5 a 8
b 9.7, 4.4, 8.9, 4.5
Range 10.7 14.3 b i 1
c 865, 164.5, 744, 579.5
Lower quartile 11.75 21.5 ii 3
d 9, 33, 38, 5
Upper quartile 16.925 26.775 c 2
Interquartile range 5.175 5.275

Exercise 20.06 (page 264)

1 a 131, 165.5, 94.5 3 a 16 km/h
b 94.5 131 165.5 b 10 km/h
c There is a much wider range of speeds
0 (42 km/h after compared with 30 km/h
170 before). The interquartile range has
Number of cars in car-park
increased, from about 5 km/h to 16 km/h.
2 a 125 b 43 c 45
 554 Answers

4 (A) (3) (B) (4) (C) (5) b

(D) (1) (E) (2) 34 52 58 63 70
For
5 a Median = 20c, lower quartile = 7.5c, upper quartile = 35c
21 36 42 55 90
b 7.5 20 35 Against

5 40 c The median of the goals ‘for’ is higher than the

c There are not many possible values for the data to take median of goals ‘against’.
(they can only be multiples of 5c between 5 and 45). d The team scores goals more consistently than it
prevents the other team from scoring.
6 a 3 b 2 c 4
d 1 e 5 8 a i 2 ii 3 iii 1
b 12
7 a For: median = 58, upper quartile = 63,
lower quartile = 52 9
Against: median = 42, upper quartile = 55, 7
lower quartile = 36
4 The upper quartile could be 9
or 10; the lower quartile could
2
be 4 or 5.

Exercise 20.07 (page 270)

20 1 a 1.581 6
x f x×f ( x − x )2 f ( x − x )2
b 3.786
0 7 0 676 4732
c 1.414
10 3 30 256 768
2 a 3.291
20 0 0 36 0
b 246.0
30 4 120 16 64
c 4.003 40 5 200 196 980
3 See the spreadsheet ‘Christchurch 50 6 300 576 3456
Temperature data Feb 2005 answers.xls’.
Totals 25 650 10 000
This can be opened from the Theta Mathematics
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from 10 000
the website www.mathematics.co.nz. Mean = 650 = 26, standard deviation = = 400 = 20
25 25
Minimum Maximum 7 2.36, 1.368
temperatures temperatures
8 a Hinemoa: mean = 55.8, standard deviation = 7.24
Standard Ngaire: mean = 55.8, standard deviation = 19.8
deviation 2.951567 3.852895
b Hinemoa’s results were more consistent – the standard
4 a (D), (A), (B), (F), (E), (C) deviation is smaller.
b Standard deviation of (A) = 0.6325, 9 a
standard deviation of (B) = 0.8944, Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
standard deviation of (C) = 1.789, Frequency 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
standard deviation of (D) = 0,
standard deviation of (E) = 1.414, b Larger than expected, because there are more extreme results
standard deviation of (F) = 1.265 (1 and 8) and fewer results near the mean (3, 4, 5, 6) than
expected. Note: in part a the standard deviation is 0 because
c The standard deviations increase as
the results are all the same – there is no spread.
the scores become more spread out.
5 (D) 10 a 64.3 b 19.40 c Decrease d Increase
11 a s3 b s1, s2 c s3
12 a Mean = $130.56, standard deviation = $59.84
b Mean = $89.75, standard deviation = $46.47
c Dentist B
d Mean = $113.03, standard deviation = $58.32
 Answers 555

Technology investigation
Coffee cups (page 272)
1−9 See the spreadsheet ‘Coffee cups (answer).xls’. 11 651
This can be opened from the Theta Mathematics 12 3.071
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the
website www.mathematics.co.nz. 13 New mean = 3.099, new standard deviation = 1.994

10 212, given by cell B12 14 New mean = 3.173; new standard deviation = 2.125

21 Sampling processes and making inferences

Exercise 21.01 (page 275)
1 a If people are on the internet, d This will exclude new b Some people may disagree
they already have a computer and many late-model cars with New Zealand becoming
– this may make them more – car-fairs tend to sell older a republic but still be
(or less) likely to be buying cars. The ages of cars for prepared to stay here.
a new computer than the sale, anywhere, may not be c This question is an invasion
general population. representative of the ages of of privacy, and also may not
18 months is probably too far cars currently on the road. be answered honestly. It also
ahead for people to know. e This excludes people who ignores other forms of teenage
b This sampling method walk to work, for example. theft.
excludes people who use It would also exclude people d An adult may be an ex-
other methods of transport. It who do not work in the inner smoker rather than a current 21
also excludes people who take city, or who have private car- smoker.
later trains and these may be parks.
e People may have changed
more congested.
2 a This doesn’t ask about other their minds about the party
c People may not be truthful channels. Also people may they vote for. A few may not
in order to make some watch Channel 1 news but do remember who they voted for.
money. The voucher is to most of their viewing on other f People may not remember.
do with taste, not service. channels. The question doesn’t ask
‘Satisfactory’ service is not the
about other expenses, e.g.
same as ‘the best’ service.
sightseeing, accommodation.

Exercise 21.02 (page 276)

1 a Yes 2 No, there should be more d False – the pattern 111 will
b No, not all first digits are equally variation. Just because digits are occur about one time in
likely, e.g. 1 is not often used. equally likely, it doesn’t mean every 1000 in the long run.
they will occur in exactly the same In fact with a huge number
c Yes
number. of random digits it would be
d No, the numbers are not equally suspicious if the pattern 111
likely. 3 a True – random digits are
never occurred.
independent, and a single
e Yes
one has probability 0.1 of 4 The logic is incorrect. Each case is
f This would only be random if the being 5, and so does the independent, and what happened
number of houses in the street other digit in the pair, so to previous patients will not affect
was a multiple of 10, making the P(55) = 0.1 × 0.1 = 0.01. the current patient. By simulation,
last digits equally likely. It would generate five random numbers
b False – a particular digit can
also favour the lower digits between 1 and 5. Take 1 as living,
repeat, in the long run 10% of
(1, 2, 3), as red roofs are fairly and 2, 3, 4, 5 as dying. You should
the time.
common. 4
find that of the last patients
c False – five 0s is the most 5
g Not suitable – some will die if all the four previous
likely number of 0s, but it is
supermarkets have more than patients died.
possible there could be four,
nine check-outs, no supermarkets
or six, or any other number.
have zero check-outs, and
different numbers of check-outs
are not equally likely.
 556 Answers

Technology investigation
Numeral soup (page 277)
See the spreadsheet ‘Numeral soup (answer).xls’. This can be opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook
companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.

1−3 See the spreadsheet. The median will nearly always be 4 or 5 exactly.
4 The F9 key ‘recalculates’ the formulae in a spreadsheet, The mode is equally likely to be any digit from 0 to 9,
so the random numbers will change each time, and so and will change randomly.
will the mean, median and mode. 6 See the spreadsheet.
5 The mean will nearly always be between 4 and 5, 7 The formula RANDBETWEEN(a,b) gives whole
centred on 4.5, and will usually be a number with 1 or 2 random numbers between two values. To use this in
decimal digits.
ExcelTM the data analysis pack needs to be installed.

Exercise 21.03 (page 281)

1 Number the test-tubes from 1 to b There probably isn’t enough 5 Locations on the map can be
30, starting at the top-left corner data to make meaningful represented by six-figure co-
and moving along the row, then comments about spread. ordinates, where the first three
down to the next rows. Low weights could result digits are between 000 and 070 and
Use a spreadsheet or a from the student not represent the position relative to
calculator to obtain four random taking subjects with heavy the horizontal (east–west) direction,
numbers – if there are any repeats, textbooks, or not doing and the last three digits are
21 discard the repeat and use the much homework(!) and between 700 and 750 and represent
next random digit. heavy weights could result the position relative to the vertical
On a spreadsheet you from bringing gear to school (north–south) direction. To choose
could use the formula for sports practice. five different clusters, use a
=INT(30*RAND())+1 or spreadsheet to generate random
3 The proportion may vary from
RANDBETWEEN(1,30). whole numbers between 0 and 79
school to school, or from region
On a calculator press the RND and 700 and 750 and combine these
to region, so you would need
key or RANDOM key to get three- to obtain a six-figure co-ordinate
a method that sampled from
digit random numbers: of a place on the map. Then choose
several schools throughout New
For example: 0.867, 0.949, 0.769, the nearest kiwifruit orchard to this
Zealand. A cluster sample would
0.689, 0.852, 0.615, 0.145, 0.338, location, and discard if the method
probably be best. You would
0.784, 0.039, 0.912, 0.996, 0.914, gives an area in Te Puke town, for
need access to a listing of New
0.034 (discard), 0.803, 0.48, 0.048, example.
Zealand high schools to choose
0.111. Then select a systematic sample
schools, and then access to the
This gives the random of four kiwifruit vines from each
full school roll for those schools.
numbers 14, 3, 4 and 11 with the of the five orchards – the vines
corresponding test tubes labelled 4 The most convenient method may not always be well organised
C2614, C4118, C2066 and C0156. would be to use data from into rows and easy to number, so
registration stickers, and from a method like choosing two in the
2 a Calculate the percentage of cars that were parked in the middle and two on the outside for
the maths class made up of one area. Choosing the area convenience would be OK.
male students, and of female would be difficult – in the CBD
students. 6 a You could use the
of Auckland or Wellington
Apply these percentages spreadsheet formula
cars would be more likely to
to the total number of =RANDBETWEEN(1,116)
be newer company cars, and
students in the class, to work to choose the 25 students.
sampling from a supermarket
out how many bags to weigh Discard repeats. Listing these
car-park mid-week might over-
from each stratum. 25 digits and highlighting
represent cars driven by the
Draw up a list of all the the weights used is sufficient
elderly. Therefore some kind of
students, divided into male detail.
cluster sample would be best.
and female strata, and allocate Note that if the registration b Because there is no obvious
a number to each student. sticker was used, it gives the relationship between the bag
Then obtain random numbers date when the car was first weights and the students’
and hence decide which bags registered in New Zealand, which places on the list it would be
to weigh. is not always an indication of the OK to choose every fourth
age of the car. person on the list.
 Answers 557

c First count the number of males and the number significant difference in the ages of the two groups
of females. This gives 63 males and 53 females. – you could conclude that typically actors are about
Calculating 63 as a fraction of 116 and estimating the 8 years older than actresses when they are awarded
number of males required in the sample of Oscars. Another conclusion, shown by the outliers, is
63 that some very young actresses, and some very old
40: × 40 = 21.72 = 22 (nearest whole number).
116 actors, have been successful, but not the other way
This leaves 18 females. Then repeat the process in round. There is also hardly any spread around and
part a, but discard if you already have 22 males, or 18 below the median for the actors, showing that 40 is
females. a very common age for an actor to be awarded an
Note: in a spreadsheet the easiest way to do this Oscar.
would be to sort the data by ‘male/female’ and then
link each item to a random decimal. To avoid mixing 8 a Stratified sampling
up males and females add 1 to each male random b Some samples (e.g. four casual workers and
decimal. Then sort from lowest to highest random 11 salaried staff) have no chance of being chosen.
decimal. Then choose data for the first 18 females and
first 22 males. 9 a Each block on the map can be represented by six-
figure co-ordinates, where the first three digits are
d See the spreadsheet ‘School bag weight
between 124 and 149, and represent the position
analysis.xls’. This can be opened from the
relative to the vertical (north–south) direction, and
Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD,
the last three digits are between 051 and 062, and
or downloaded from the website
represent the position relative to the horizontal
www.mathematics.co.nz.
(east–west) direction. Use a spreadsheet to generate
The spreadsheet shows that each value for
random whole numbers between 124 and 149, and
the female 5-point summary is higher than the
051 and 062, then combine. Alternatively, the 6-digit
corresponding value for the male 5-point summary.
grid reference could be obtained from the formula
Otherwise, however, the distributions are similar,
with the same kind of spread.
=1000*RANDBETWEEN(124,149)+RANDBETWEEN 21
(51,62).
7 a Choose three decades at random. You will have to b A stratified sample of 40 blocks involves selecting
choose decades that have 10 items of data. You could 10 from each of the quarters (organic and irrigated,
do this by generating a random number that gives non-organic and irrigated, organic and not irrigated,
the first year of the decade – for example non-organic and not irrigated). For the first quarter
=10*RANDBETWEEN(3,9)+1900. (organic and irrigated) this could be done using the
Then select eight data items from each decade spreadsheet formula =1000*RANDBETWEEN(124,1
− the easiest way of doing this would be to select 36)+RANDBETWEEN(51,56), and repeating this at
randomly two years to discard, and select the least 10 times, discarding repeats. Similarly for the
remaining eight. For example, use the spreadsheet other three quarters. Alternatively, link each block
formula =RANDBETWEEN(0,9). If doing this for to a random decimal, and then sort them in order of
1940−1949 gave 3 and 5, you would use the years random decimal, and choose the first 10
1940, 1941, 1942, 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 and 1949. from each quarter. See the first worksheet
b Data is given for 42 years before 1970 and 34 years in the spreadsheet ‘Olive grove sampling
after 1970. Calculating using percentages: (answers).xls’. This can be opened from the Theta
42
× 100 = 55% of the overall sample should be Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or downloaded
76 from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
before 1970 – that is, 55% of 40 = 22 years. This leaves
Note that several types of graph would be
18 years after 1970.
appropriate, including a histogram or a boxplot.
See the first worksheet in the
spreadsheet ‘Oscar age analysis.xls’. This c To take a systematic sample of 30, choose
can be opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook a starting point at random in the top row
companion CD, or downloaded from the website (=RANDBETWEEN(1,12)) or left column
www.mathematics.co.nz. The spreadsheet shows (=RANDBETWEEN(1,26), and then select every
that since 1970 the winners are a few (4−5) years 10th item, going along the rows and/or columns.
older than before 1970, and that there is slightly less This would be fairly representative of the whole
spread in ages. Note that this conclusion is based on plantation because 10 is not a factor of 12 (the
a sample of ages, and different samples show slightly number of columns) or 26 (the number of rows), so
different results. the items selected would be well spread.
c Because there are an equal number of female d A cluster sample. The main advantage would be
actresses and male actors, a stratified sample of 50 convenience. But because of the way the plantation
will contain 25 from each group. See the second is laid out, it is quite likely that the two rows chosen
worksheet in the spreadsheet ‘Oscar age would both be irrigated, or both not be irrigated,
analysis.xls’. The spreadsheet shows a making it possible the sample would not include any
items from one type of watering scheme.
 558 Answers

e If the randomly chosen block was too near the edge of western half so that the ‘downhill seepage’ effect is
the plantation the process would not give 25 blocks, so controlled – at present watering the trees at the top
would have to be repeated, and therefore there would would distort the results for the trees below them.
be a bias towards getting blocks near the middle of the An ideal layout would be:
plantation. Another limitation is that the block may NW NE
exclude one type of watering scheme, or exclude the
organic or non-organic trees. Organic Organic
f It would be better to have the organically grown trees Irrigated Not irrigated
on the northern half so that the prevailing north-east Non-organic Non-organic
wind does not blow pesticides on to them from the non- Irrigated Not irrigated
organic part. The irrigated half should be the eastern or
SW SE

NCEA 2.5 Revision exercise (page 291)

(Note: in this exercise all of the spreadsheets referred to can be opened from the Theta Mathematics
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.)
1 a There are 42 advertised on the internet, 25 in the The prices of cars advertised on the internet are
newspaper and 34 at car-yards. Use these to clearly lower than the other two forms of advertising.
42 The prices near the median of cars advertised in the
calculate fractions of 20: × 20 = 8.31,
101 newspaper have little variation, shown by the small
25 34
× 20 = 4.95 and × 20 = 6.73. Rounding interquartile range. There are not many cheap cars
101 101
this, we need to sample eight ‘internet’ cars, five advertised in the newspaper.
‘newspaper’ cars and seven ‘car-yard’ cars. For f It is not representative of all car prices. It excludes
the internet cars, take the values that are in cells other models and all older cars.
A5 to A46 and select random numbers from 5 to g There is some ambiguity about whether these prices
46, discarding repeats, until you have eight cars. are advertised or final selling prices, so the data may
Similarly for the other two groups. not be a good fit with the question. The rounding of
22 b See the first worksheet in the spreadsheet ‘Toyota prices to the nearest $500 would tend to inflate these
Corolla Prices Analysis.xls’. results slightly, because people tend to advertise cars
c Cluster sampling with prices ending in $900 for example. There are
other places where cars are advertised – for example
d Systematic sampling
at vehicle auctions, car-fairs, parked alongside a busy
e To carry out a meaningful comparison of the three road, or with an advertisement in a rear window
different advertising methods you should use all – these have not been included. The investigation
the data available. See the second worksheet in the could be improved by sampling all models of car,
spreadsheet ‘Toyota Corolla Prices Analysis.xls’. and increasing the sample size.

2.6 Probability
22 Theoretical probability

Exercise 22.01 (page 294)

3 1 5
1 a 0.2 b 0.9 c 0.5 d e f 11 a 8 (i.e. ABCD, BCDA, DABC,
4 2 13
d 0.4 e 0.4 f 0.4 CDAB, and each in reverse.)
2 9 4 1
7 a b c 1
5 21 3 7 14 7 b i ii 8
2 a b c 4
26 26 13 d 0 3
iii iv 0
3 4 7 4
d e f 1 1 5
26 13 26 8 a b c 1 1
4 8 4 8 12 a b
g 5 6 3
13 d 1
8 13
2
3 a 0.3 b 0.3 c 0.4 1 3 3
9 a b c 0 14
3 1 7 4 4 25
4 a b 4 c
8 8 d 1 2 2
15 a b
1 7 4 5 5
5 a b c 2 5 3
11 11 11 10 a b c c 2
15 6 10 15
1 1 1 1 1 1
6 a b 52 c d e 16
13 4 2 15 3
 Answers 559

Exercise 22.02 (page 298)

1 1 6 a
1 a b 0.4 Over 5 0.3
4 2
2 3
8 NZ
9 3 0.75
3 a b 8 Under 5 0.45
16 0.6
216 127
4 a 343
b
343 0.3 Over 5 0.075
5 a 0.25
0.2 V VV 0.04 I
0.3
V C VC 0.06 0.7 Under 5 0.175
0.5 b i 0.45 ii 0.375
0.2 D VD 0.1
7 0.5375 13 0.6141 20 0.74
0.2 V CV 0.06 8 0.1192 14 0.425 21 0.0106
0.3 0.3 15 0.318 22 0.960 596
C C CC 0.09 9 a 0.3307
4
16 23 Benedict; 0.506!
b 0.3619 9
0.5 D CD 0.15 24 a Quickpaint
17 a 0.084
10 0.085 625
b 0.432 b 0.916 25
0.5 11 0.5842
0.2 V DV 0.1
7 18 0.01
0.3 12 a or 0.38!
D C DC 0.15 18 1
19 or 0.0625
1 16
0.5 b or 0.16!
D DD 0.25 6

b i 0.25 ii 0.49 22
iii 0.38
Exercise 22.03 (page 304)

Puzzle 1 a 4 2 25 1
O OO 9 3 or 0.2451 10
9 102 15
The white marbles (page 302) O 32
1 4 1 11 or 0.048 27
or 0.05882 663
Put one white marble in one bag, 2 5 5 17
E OE 18 24
9 5 1 12
and in the other bag put five or 0.002 024 or 0.2637
494 91
white and six black marbles. Your
5 15 8
probability of choosing white will 5 6 or 0.5357 13 or 0.1702
9 O EO 18 28 47
be
8 ! !.
= 0.72 1
2 E 6 14 35
11 7 or 0.065 93 or 0.1716
91 204
4 2
E EE 9 4 59
2 9 8 or 0.2105 15 or 0.3105
b 19 190
9
1
9 9
2 a NS, SN, 9 SS, 1 15
35 35 7
1
b
7

Exercise 22.04 (page 308)

13
1 0.9 5 a 51 9 or 0.216! 13 a b 53
or 0.353!
60 BS
106 150
2 0.1 b 49 10 0.45 28
11 14 a 0.44
3 0.66 6 0.83 11 3
or 0.12 35
25 12 b 0.28
11 46
4 a 7 0.21 26 36
20 12 a 0.08 c 0.15
3 A E
b 8 a 0.77 b 0.31
5
3 b 0.16
c
4
 560 Answers

Exercise 22.05 (page 310)

69 39
1 a or 0.345 b or 0.78 b
200 50
P(E) P(E′) Totals
131
c or 0.655 P(F) 0.23 0.36 0.59
200
111 P(F′) 0.33 0.08 0.41
2 a 449 b = 0.2472 ( 4 sf)
449 Totals 0.56 0.44 1.00
c 173
= 0.3853 ( 4 sf)
449
4 a P(A ∪ B) b P(A ∩ B)
3 a
C C′ Totals 5 a 0.4 b 0.15
D 29 7 36 c 0.09 d 0.97
D′ 14 25 39 e 0.75
Totals 43 32 75

Exercise 22.06 (page 312)

91 115 1
1 a = 0.37 (2 dp) b = 0.47 (2 dp) b = 0.5
247 247 2
78 78 6 4 a 81% b 88% c 67%
c = 0.68 (2 dp) d = = 0.86 (2 dp)
115 91 7
17 149 63
e 119
= 0.76 (2 dp) 5 a i 20
ii 200
iii
100
156
b 21 c 13
329 47
2 a 180 3
= = 0.4286 (4 sf) b = = 0.783! 25 15
420 7 420 60
77
8 2 60 6 = 0.85!
c = = 0.2857 (4 sf) d = 0.6593 (4 sf) 90
28 7 91
22 3 a
Time of day
Daytime Night-time
(6 am to 6 pm) (6 pm to 6 am) Totals
Type Crimes of violence 11% 11% 22%
of Property crimes 30% 48% 78%
crime Totals 41% 59% 100%

Exercise 22.07 (page 316) Exercise 22.08 (page 318) Investigation

1 125 1 a 1
b 1 c 23 50c and the polar bears (page 319)
2 12 60
2 156 d 0 1 If a coin hits one or two strands it
will usually deflect in.
3 340; no, because some customers 5 1 1
2 a b c 2 If it touches a corner it would be
may buy more than one CD. 6 3 2
d 0 touching four strands; otherwise
4 240
it isn’t wide enough (30 mm) to
5 576 1 23 touch strands that are 50 mm
3 a b c 1
6 0.54, 108 8 48 8 apart.
4 1 5
7 17.86
2
8 3.5 1
D B D
1 1
5 a b c C C
9 3.5 2 10 4
10 1.99; on average a client has 1.99 1
6
stopovers – i.e. almost 2. 25 B A B
1
11 2.28 7
2
12 1.07 C C
D B D
 Answers 561

6 P(A) = 0.16
P(B) = 0.48
P(C) = 36 − 9π = 0.077
100
P(D) = 9π = 0.283
100
P(fence is effective) = 0.283 (assuming all coins that hit one or two strands deflect in)

23 Experimental probability and simulation methods

Puzzle
Baker’s dozen auction (page 323)
11

Exercise 23.02 (page 326)

(Note: in this exercise all of the spreadsheets referred to can be opened from the Theta Mathematics
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.)
1 a It took four simulated tosses e Take the mean of the 50 8 a See the spreadsheet
until a ‘head’ appeared; that purchases noted in part d. In ‘Dartboard score
is, the first three random theory the average number is simulation.xls’. A reasonable
numbers were greater than about 11.42. estimate of the mean score
0.49 so gave ‘tails’ and then f See the second worksheet in the would be about 10.8.
0.04 on the fourth toss gave spreadsheet ‘Coloured Cards b The estimate is reasonable,
the first occurrence of ‘heads’. Simulation.xls’. In theory the because the numbers 1–20
b 2.83 (2 dp) average number is 14.7. are equally likely, and the
c The simulation should be higher scores for the bulls-
4 See the spreadsheet ‘Boy or girl in
repeated many more than just 4-child family simulation
eye, inner, doubles and
trebles are balanced by the
23
12 times. It is also possible (1000 trials).xls’. In theory if the
that it may take more than no-score for landing on the
individual probabilities are
10 coins before a head appears outside. However, in real-
P(boy) = 0.515 and P(girl) = 0.485,
and more columns should be life when playing darts
then P(3 boys in a 4-child family)
added to allow for this. you are more likely to hit
= 0.265 and P(3 girls in a 4-child
somewhere near the centre
2 a See the spreadsheet ‘Fives and family) = 0.235.
rather than close to the edge
sixes (200 tosses) simulation. 5 See the spreadsheet ‘Three members of the dartboard.
xls’. The probability is of a family simulation (1000 trials).
somewhere between 0.15 and 9 a–c Results will vary.
xls’. In theory the probability that
0.2. each of the members of a three- d The long-term proportion
b There are six ways out of 36 of person family was born on a should be about 40%. The
getting a sum of 10, 11 or 12. 30 theoretical probability is 0.398.
different day is = 0.6122 (4 sf).
49 e See the spreadsheet
These are (4, 6), (5, 5), (5, 6),
6 a See the spreadsheet ‘The ‘Overbooked car-ferry
(6, 4), (6, 5) and (6, 6); 6 = 1 .
36 6 gamblers simulation (1000 trials). simulation.xls’.
c 5 xls’. A reasonable estimate would
9 be about 0.75. 10 a See the spreadsheet ‘Triangle
3 a Most customers wanting all inequality simulation.xls’.
b Somewhere between about $2.80
five cards will need to buy The long-term proportion
and $2.95.
more than five, because after should be about 50%.
they have already collected, 7 See the spreadsheet ‘Chinese b The length of the strand does
say, three cards, they are more Lunar Calendar simulation (1000 not make any difference
likely to get a colour they trials).xls’. In theory the probability to the result if there is no
already have rather than a is 41 = 0.4271 (4 sf). restriction that the lengths
new colour. 96
The main assumption would must be whole numbers.
b See the first worksheet in the be that the people were chosen However, if the lengths must
spreadsheet ‘Coloured Cards independently – unlikely in a group each be whole numbers, and
Simulation.xls’. of friends where they would tend to if the longest length is small,
c, d Results will vary. be about the same age and therefore the result in part a would be
born in the same or adjacent years. affected significantly.
 562 Answers

11 a See the spreadsheet ‘Right-angled, acute c If 1 was not subtracted, 12 See links posted at the www.
& obtuse triangle simulation.xls’. then the maximum mathematics.co.nz website for
b Because of the triangle inequality, i.e. possible third length could simulations. Yes, you should
that ‘the two smaller sides of a triangle be the sum of the first and change your choice, because this
add to more than the longest side’. second lengths, making makes the probability of winning
the triangle ‘flat’. 2.
3
Starter (page 334)
1 There is a ‘period’ of about 10 years – every 10 years there is a peak, and in the middle of each 10-year period there is a
trough.
2 The predator population (lynxes) lags slightly behind the prey population (hares). The reason is that after the hare
population decreases the lynxes have less food, and therefore the number of lynxes decreases, allowing a rebuilding of
the hare population. This then provides the lynxes with plenty of food, so the lynx population increases again.

Exercise 23.03 (page 336)

(Note: in this exercise all of the spreadsheets referred to can be opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook
companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.)
1 a The population of mice 3 a 4 a 40%
increases dramatically. There Month Number Number
b 1.15 would be replaced by
is a slower growth in the number of ferrets of fantails
1.2; that is, the equation
number of cats. 1 3 250 would now be v = 1.2v.
b 82 months 2 5 115
c See the spreadsheet
c See the spreadsheet ‘Predator- 3 5 8 ‘Predator-prey simulation
prey simulation 1 (cats and 4 2 1 4 (toheroa and off-road
mice).xls’. If there were no 5 1 0 vehicles).xls’. Year 14.
24 cats the number of mice 6 0 0 d Year 17
would increase exponentially,
e If the number of off-road
without limit – impossible in b 6%
vehicles is frozen at the
real-life due to food and space
c This product represents the level applying in Year 3
limits on the island.
interaction between the numbers (that is, 60 000) then the
d The population of cats would of ferrets and fantails. The more toheroa would survive
die out after 20 months if ferrets there are, the more fantails indefinitely. Freezing
there were no mice. are killed. The ferret (predator) at the number in Year 4
component is positive and the onwards would be too
2 a 39 000 sharks, 137 000 fish
fantail (prey) component is late to save the toheroa.
b See the spreadsheet ‘Predator- negative because the predator is
prey simulation 2 (sharks and eating the prey. The product of a
fish).xls’. positive number and a negative
c Year 57 number is negative.
d The fish will be first to die out
– in Year 116.
e 42 more years

24 The normal distribution

Starter (page 338) Exercise 24.01 (page 339)
1 (A) = (3), (B) = (4), (C) = (2), (D) = (1) 1 a (B) b (A) 3 A: 2 months old, B: 8 months old,
2 The tallest columns in the middle, c (C) d (D) C: 14 months old
with a few shorter bars on either e (E) f (D) 4 a Blue Grotto
side.
g (B) b Red Cliff
2 a Air Wellington c Black Rocks
b Air Wellington
 Answers 563

Exercise 24.02 (page 342) Exercise 24.03 (page 348) Exercise 24.06 (page 352)
1 a Mean = 100, standard deviation = 20 1 a 0.4192 b 0.4486 (Results may vary slightly depending on
b Mean = 55, standard deviation = 8 c 0.1423 d 0.9729 whether traditional probability tables or
technology is used.)
c Mean = 33, standard deviation = 1 e 0.9574 f 0.2061
d Mean = 17, standard deviation = 2 g 0.1117 h 0.3339 1 a 0.0913 b 0.0685
2 a 68% b 2.5% i 0.7814 2 Egmont Gold
c 84% d 97% 2 a 0.4906 b 0.4292 3 0.7888
e 97.5% c 0.2946 d 0.9830 4 a Mean = 58.835, standard
3 a 25 and 35 b 20 e 0.9190 f 0.0031 deviation = 1.216
c 45 d 35 g 0.3099 h 0.3429 b 15% c 0.1691
e 15 i 0.9686 5 a Almost certainly not – the
4 a 16% b 47.5% probability that a Douglas fir
c 0.5% d x = 64, y = 94
Exercise 24.04 (page 349) is that large is close to 0.
e z = 69 1 a 0.158 655 b 0.841 344 b i 0.0252 ii 0.2670
5 a 95% c 0.9545 d 0.682 689 6 a 2.05% b 0.0131
b 65 km/h and 125 km/h e 0.579 259 c 0.0836 d 0.4277
c 16% 2 a 0.2742 b 0.5995 7 a 1350 hours b 0.9332
d 105 km/h c 0.9641 d 0.0188
6 a 16% b 16% e 0.4068 f 0.2550 Exercise 24.07 (page 354)
c 2.5% d 20 g 0.7448 (Results may vary slightly depending on
e 20 whether traditional probability tables or
3 a 0.3632 b 0.9082
f i 672
c 0.2912 d 0.9412
technology is used.) 24
ii 672 1 17
4 a 0.9008 b 0.3558
7 24 2 153
c 0.2853 d 0.6873
8 a 2.3 kg 3 74
b 97.5% 5 a 6.68% b 87.16% 4 168
c 1.7 kg and 3.5 kg c 59.87% 5 a 34 b 108
d i 292 60 180
Exercise 24.05 (page 351) 6 a b
ii 244
9 a 352 is between 1 and 2 standard (Results may vary slightly depending on
deviations below the mean of technology used.) Spreadsheet investigation
375. It is unlikely, but not very 1 a 0.646 17 b 0.144 004 The normal curve and
unlikely, that a genuine figurine the witch of Agnesi (page 355)
would be this light. c 0.646 17 d 0.236 533
1
b 435 is more than 3 standard e 0.323 434 f 0.273 333 2 y=
1 + x2
deviations above the mean of g 0.638 344
3–6 See the spreadsheet
375. It is almost certain that
2 a (B) b (C) ‘Witch of Agnesi
this figurine is not made by
answers.xls’. This can be
the manufacturer. 3 a (E) b (B)
opened from the Theta
10 No – it is well outside the ‘likely’ 1 4 a 0.256 605 b 0.884 93 Mathematics Workbook companion
standard deviation limit. CD, or downloaded from the
c 0.340 319
11 700 website www.mathematics.co.nz.
12 a 0.25 b 0.9506 5 a 0.076 564 b 0.612 451

13 a 195 b 800 c 0.310 985

c 0.9409 6 a 0.477 25 b 0.894 35

c 0.919 882 d 0.214 403
e 0.999 912
Answe s

e c se .11 (page 366)

( ote: in this exercise all of the
spreadsheets referred to can
be opened from the a a ma
companion C , or downloaded
from the website www.mathematics.co.n .)
1 For example: 236. 7 cm, 26 .6 cm,
24 .02 cm, 251.26 cm, 237.33 cm,
235.07 cm, 246. 2 cm, 240.77 cm For the simulation see the rst wor sheet in the spreadsheet
 Answers 565

139 153 37 244

2 a = 0.5538 (4 sf) b = 0.6096 (4 sf) c = 0.1474 (4 sf) d = 0.9721 (4 sf)
251 251 251 251
237 633 277
3 a i = 0.85 (2 dp) ii = 0.45 (2 dp) iii = 0.40 (2 dp)
280 1400 700
544 79
b = 0.88 (2 dp) c = 0.37 (2 dp)
633 215
4 a 5 b 5% c 504 d 7.26 L/100 km

2.7 Sequences
25 Introducing sequences
Exercise 25.01 (page 369) Exercise 25.03 (page 372)
1 1 1
1 a 9, 11, 13 b , , 4 (C) 1 a 12 7 70 16 a 50
4 8 16
c 162, –486, 1458 d 25, 36, 49 5 13, 17 b 34 8 20 1 b 706
12
e 17, 23, 30 f 1, 5, 9 6 13, 21 c 51 9 2 1 c 2500
1 12
g 125, 216, 343 h , 1 , 1 7 001, 121 5 10
64 128 256
8 J, J
2 a ∑ ti 10 73
4 17 a ∑ (n + 1)
i 43, 63, 87 1
15 n =1
9 E, N 11 11
32
3, 2 , 5 , 3 ∑ xi
8
2 a 5, 8, 11, 14 b
3 2 10 D, M
b
8 12 –7 b ∑ n2
c 4, 5 , 6 , 1 d 2, 6, 12, 20 3 8
n =1
3 5 11 sense, 13 112 7
e –1, 2, –3, 4 f 2, 4, 8, 16 heaven 4 10 14 13 c ∑ (4n + 4)
g 1, 1 , 1 , 1 h 0, 1, 2, 3 12 B, L 5 10 15 0
n =1
2 4 3 5
−5 − 13 S, C 6 20
i − −
3, 2 ,
3
, 3
2
d ∑ (3n + 1)
14 n =1
3 2, 2 1 , 3 1
2 3

Investigation 25
Technology investigation
Identical triplets (page 370) Painted cubes (page 373)
1 Eight 4 24
1 See the spreadsheet ‘Identical triplets
answers.xls’.This can be opened from 2 The corners. 5 The inside.
the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or 3 24 6 Eight
downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
7
2 No, the only exact way of defining a sequence is to use Size of Number Number Number Number
a rule, not list terms. large of Alpha of Beta of Gamma of Delta
cube (n) cubes cubes cubes cubes
Exercise 25.02 (page 371) n=2 8 0 0 0
n=3 8 12 6 1
1 a 5, 3, 1, –1 b –3, –6, –12, –24
n=4 8 24 24 8
c 2, 2, 2, 2 d –1, –5, –17, –53
n=5 8 36 54 27
e –6, 7, –6, 7 f 16, 4, 1, 1 n=6 8 48 96 64
4
g –2, 6, 30, 870
8 There are 12 ‘edges’ on the large cube. All of the cubes
2 a 16, 64, 256 b 3, 27, 2187 except the two corner ones will be Beta cubes – that is,
3 a –4, –6, –2, 4 b –7, –27, –95, –339 if there are n cubes on an edge, there will be (n – 2) Beta
1 1 1 –7,
cubes. Altogether there will be 12(n – 2) of these.
c , , , 2 d 11, –18, 29
2 6 3 9 6(n – 2)2
4 14 10 (n – 2)3
5 a tn + 1 = tn + 2 , t1 = 1 b tn + 1 = 2tn , t1 = 2 11 The total number of all cubes will be n3, and this is made
up of Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta cubes.
c tn + 1 = 2tn + 1, t1 = 1
 566 Answers

Exercises 25.04 and 25.05 (pages 375 and 376) Technology investigation
See the spreadsheet ‘Ex 25-04 and 25-05.xls’. This The Fibonacci sequence (page 378)
can be opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook
1 From and including the third term, each term is the sum
companion CD, or downloaded from the website
of the two previous terms.
www.mathematics.co.nz.
2 tn + 2 = tn + 1 + tn; t1 = 1, t2 = 1
3, 4 See the spreadsheet ‘Fibonacci sequence
Exercise 25.06 (page 377) answers.xls’. This can be opened from the
Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or
See the spreadsheet ‘Ex 25-06.xls’. This can be downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook
companion CD, or downloaded from the website 5 The ratio of successive terms approaches 1.618 033 989.
www.mathematics.co.nz. Other answers are given here. y
7 =L
x
1 21 523 361 y = Lx
2 59.999 389 65
Substitute into y = x + y :
3 Gives #NUM! message (a very large number). x y
Lx x + Lx
4 a All terms after the first are 0 b –1 =
x Lx
5 4 1+ L
L=
6 b On the 15th day. L

7 69 L2 = 1 + L

8 a 12 + 22 + 32 = 1 + 4 + 9 = 14 c 32; 560 L2 − L − 1 = 0
9 a 15 c 20 Solve using the quadratic formula (a = 1, b = −1, c = −1):
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
e 1± 1− 4 × 1× −1
6 L=
2×1
1± 5
=
2
= 1.618 033 989 or − 0.618 033 989
26 The Golden Ratio is the positive root of the equation.

26 Arithmetic sequences
Exercise 26.01 (page 381) Exercise 26.02 (page 382)
5 –97
1 a 21, 26 b 0, –10 1 –6, 5, 16, 27, 38, 49
c 165, 182 d 559, 671 6 a 7p, 9p 2 –85, –62, –39, –16, 7
−1 −3 –3c
e , b + 2b, –5c + 4b 3 239
8 8
f 0.431, –0.956 7 a –52p b 15x + 28y 4 13.4
5 25
2 a 102 b 70 8 a 52 b 93
6 k = –2
c –188 d 1012 c 30 d 64
7 –11, –8, –5, –2 or 4, 1, –2, –5
e 247 f 16 e 237
–10 –94.241
8 11
g h 9 15, 19, 23, 27
9 127
3 a 2n – 1 b 5n – 13 10 74
10 The difference between each term
c n− 2 d 1100 – 100n 11 12b – a and the previous term is the same:
3
log(ab) – log(a) = log   = log(b)
ab
4 a (B), (D) and (F)  a
b The points should lie in a  ab 2 
straight line. Puzzle log(ab2) – log(ab) = log  ab  = log(b)
 
Sequential clock display (page 382) That is, the common difference is
0000, 0123, 0246, 1111, 1234, 2222, 2345 log(b).
 Answers 567

Exercise 26.03 (page 384)

1 a 330 3 a 1760 6 a 9394p 11 a 1 b 100
b 616 b 5750 b –232x
12 –5, –2, 1, 4
c 1225 c 2204 c 1 117 215x + 13 a = 5, d = 2
d 80 n 440 892y
4 ( 5n + 7 ) 14 18 655
2
e 500 500 7 16 15 a 15
5 a n2
f 301.5 5n2 21n 8 3 b 36
b −
g 422.614 2 2 9 –580
n(n + 1)
2 c
c n n
− 10 80.5 2
2 1176 2 6
10q − 11p q p
d 1050n – 50n2 16 d= or d = −
220 22 20
99 p − 45q 9 p 9q
S18 = or S18 = −
55 5 11
Technology investigation
The parking building (page 385)
1 See the spreadsheet ‘Parking building calculations answers.xls’. This
can be opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or
downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
2 Six

Exercise 26.04 (page 386)

1 59 200 km 11 31 weeks 16 $128 000 000
2 2805 12 18 17 a 9000 m
3 1984 mm b 171 000 m or 171 km
13 a 46 b 375
4 a 1450 m 18 See the spreadsheet
b 19 500 m = 19.5 km
14 a 41 b $4100
‘Holiday savings plan.xls.’ 26
c Loses $100 This can be opened from the
5 a 897 km Theta Mathematics Workbook
15 a
b 846 km Number of companion CD, or downloaded
dominoes from the website
c The 24th day
Number needed to www.mathematics.co.nz.
6 a $101.95 b 15 1 of levels build the steps Each family has saved the same
2
1 3 amount after 13 weeks.
7 a 72 b 8388
2 8 19 a 25 b 225 mm
8 $382
3 15
20 a i 111 ii 1692 iii 22 893
9 690 m 4 24
b 3n – 108
10 a 40 5 35
21 2nx + y(n2 − n)
b a = 205, d = 40 b n(n + 2)
c 40n + 165
d 40n + 165 = 725; n = 14

Puzzle
The 51 pearls (page 388)
See the spreadsheet ‘The 51 pearls.xls’. This can be opened from the
Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from
the website www.mathematics.co.nz. The middle pearl is worth $4000.
 568 Answers

27 Geometric sequences
Exercise 27.01 (page 390)
1 a 96, 192, 384 4 a 2.097 × 106 8 a x5, x6, x7
1 1 1 b 32x11, –64x13, 128x15
b , , b 1.442 × 101
4 8 16
1 −1 1 c –1.968 × 104 9 a x
c , ,
9 27 81
d 1.907 × 10–6 b –2x2
d 162, 486, 1458
−1 − − 5 1209.6 10 8
e , 1, 1
16 64 256
1 − 6 a 1 b 2 11 a 12
f , 1, 1 –8
32 128 512 c b 16
g 1, –1, 1 7 a 3 × 2n − 1 c 3840
1 n−1
2 a 2 b  1 180  20  d –15
2 b 180 ×   =  = n − 1 
−1  3 3
n−1
3
c
3
d 3
 −1  − − n−1 12
54 x 5
(= 2 × 3 4−n
× x6 − n )
( 2)
n−1 ( 2) n−1
−1 c − − n n−4 (3 x)
e 1 f  8  × =
8
= ( 1) 2
4 4 1
13
g –1 d 5 × ( − 2 )n − 1 2
1  3n − 1 
3 a 1280 b 128
e 64 × (1.5)n − 1  = n − 7 
 2 
1
c 531 441 d
1024

Technology investigation Exercise 27.02 (page 392) Exercise 27.03 (page 393)
Watering down drinks (page 391) 1 a 0.5 or –0.5 1 a 5115 b 265 720
−
See the spreadsheet b
7
= 0.218 75 or 7 = –0.218 75 c 7.9999 (4 dp) d 85.33 (4 sf)
‘Watering down drinks 32 32
answers.xls’. This can be opened 2 a 2 or –2 2 a 5 044 201 b 12.80 (4 sf)
from the Theta Mathematics Workbook b 1 or –1 c 170.625 d –60.75 (4 sf)
27 companion CD, or downloaded from
c 16 384 or –16 384 3 a –1 b 7
the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
1
1 =A3/40*100 3 4 a 0 b 0
2187
(Other answers are possible.) 4 25 5 10
2 =A3*39/40 5 –1 6 9
(Other answers are possible.)
6 24 or –24 7 4, 20, 100, 500
3 30.42, 9.58, 76.05%
7 6 A(1 + k ) (1 + k )n − 1
4 24 843 mL a−b 8 a
8 k
5 After 19 refills. a+b
b $3867.74
9 a Yes, the common ratio for
multiplying each term to get Exercise 27.04 (page 395)
the next is 5x.
b 59 x + 1 1 $563 700 (4 sf)
2 9770 tonnes (3 sf)
3 101 mm by 74 mm (to nearest
Technology investigation mm)
The grains of rice (page 392) 4 22.3 mm2
1, 2 See the spreadsheet ‘Grains of rice answers.xls’. This can be opened 5 a 2.2 × 1012
from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or b There would have been some
downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz. inbreeding.
3 1.845 × 1019 6 0.0105%
4 36 893 488 147 tonnes 7 30.3 m
5 2n − 1 8 3.7%
6 2n − 1 9 Eight sheets
 Answers 569

Technology investigation Exercise 27.05 (page 398) Exercise 27.06 (page 399)
The four gifting schemes (page 396) 1 a 8 b 121.5 1 72 kg
See the spreadsheet ‘The four c 27 d 125 2 6.25 g
gifting schemes.xls’. This can be
2 a 4 b 9.6 3 a 16.40 tonnes (4 sf)
opened from the Theta Mathematics
c 4
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded
– 36 = – 36.57 (4 sf) b 250 tonnes
7
from the website www.mathematics.co.nz. d −
416
2
= − 416.6!
The best scheme for George depends on 3 4 a 75 litres
how long Grandma lives. 3 12.5 seconds b 25 litres
• Scheme A is the best for the first eight 4 a 6 b 12 5 a 1000°
years.
1 5 b 12.22 m (4 sf)
• Scheme C is the best for Years 9 and 10. 5 a 3
b 8
• Scheme D is best from Year 11 1 6 45 m
c
4
onwards. 30 or 4.29 m
6 a 0.7! b 0.7! 7
7
7 8 a 54.63 cm (4 sf)
c 9
!! !! b 218.5 cm (4 sf)
7 a 0.45 b 0.45
5 c 512 cm2
c
11
4 2
8 a b
9 11
c 415 d 13
999 30

28 Growth and decay

Exercise 28.01 (page 404) Technology investigation
1 a $7387.28 b $13 551.18
Business depreciation (page 405)
c $31 142.40 d $18 252.72 1 A: Straight-line depreciation
28
e $21 059.13 2 B: Diminishing value depreciation
3 See the spreadsheet ‘Business depreciation answers.xls’. This can be
2 a $12 832.52 b $3242.56
opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or
c $13 219.17 d $80 070.13 downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
e $5303.96 4 7 years
3 a $2444.63 b $15 709.09
c $25 210.50 d $64 196.81 Exercise 28.03 (page 407)
1 a $8019.61 b $53 536.16 9 a 228
Exercise 28.02 (page 404) c $119 263.56 b 16 (to the nearest hour)
2 a 11.61% b 15.37% 10 43.27
1 19 494
c 4.64% 11 13.23%
2 $22 291.75
3 a 5.55 b 22.80 12 $0.51
3 $4538.40
c 17.16 13 9.78%
4 35 000
14 3.44
5 1.57 m 4 a 13.58% b 4.96%
15 57 489
6 940 (2 sf) 5 16.69%
16 $51 936.87
7 358 400 6 $57 930.05
17 $1353.61
8 $52 942.29 7 3.58
18 $1706.20
9 a $1147.04 b $1209.41 8 $1 695 421
19 1590 tonnes (3 sf)
c b
20 4
 570 Answers

Investigation Exercise 28.04 (page 410)

The sharebroker’s report (page 409) See the spreadsheet ‘Ex 28-04 answers.xls’. This
See the spreadsheet ‘The sharebroker’s report.xls’. can be opened from the Theta Mathematics
This can be opened from the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
website www.mathematics.co.nz. 1 $5868.74
1 $154 587 2 $15 962.54
2 $36 824.50 3 $3531.58
3 9.10% (3 sf) 4 $19 812.25
4 42 years

NCEA 2.7 Revision exercises (page 411)

1 a $66 225 3 3.9 m 5 3 hours
b $297 675 4 a $410 6 76 cm
2 a 70 777 tonnes b 22 minutes 7 110 000 (2 sf)
b 926 500 tonnes (4 sf)

2.8 Trigonometry problems

29 Triangle trigonometry

Exercise 29.01 (page 414) Exercise 29.02 (page 416) Exercise 29.03 (page 419)
1 4.346 cm 15 60.3° 1 14 m 1 23.5 m
2 5.299 cm 16 49.5° 2 60 mm
2 a i 3 ii 7
3 6.713 cm 17 a 15.72 cm 3 a b 2.9 m
iii 4 iv 6
4 6.734 cm
29 5 5.503 cm
b 17.21 cm
27°
b 1
18 19.98 cm 3 14.35 m
6 14.50 cm x
19 a 7.128 m 4 4.7 m
7 51.87 cm
b 3.632 m 5 60°
8 240.6 m
c 7.014 m 6 15.64 m
9 46.54 cm
d 10.65 m 1.3 m 7 24.1 m
10 36.39 m
20 a 52.16 m 8 a
11 45.6° 4 25.7°
12 48.6° b 73.3° 5 355 mm
13 52.4° 21 47.5°, 47.5°, 6 11.4° (that is, 5.7° either side
14 57.5° 85.0° of the hole)
22 p = 72°, 7 46 mm
q = 108° 8 a 3.2 km b 3.8 km
80 20°
9 119° 9°
10 a 037° b 217°
11 19.35 m
12 8m b 41.8 m
13 54.5°
14 1.846 m
 Answers 571

9 a Exercise 29.04 (page 421) Puzzle

18° 1 2.853 cm2 8 32.48 cm2 Circumscribed triangle

25° 2 18.00 m2 9 166.3 cm2 (page 422)
3 54.32 cm2 10 41.4°, 69.3°, 69.3°
33 m 93.30 cm2
4 198.6 cm2 11 15.20 cm
5 4.475 cm2 12 1189 m2

b 56 m 6 27.58 cm2 13 1.784 m

10 12 m 7 39.39 m2

30 The sine rule

Exercise 30.01 (page 424) Exercise 30.03 (page 427) Exercise 30.05 (page 428)
p q 4 × sin(75! )
1 = = r 1 sin(θ ) = 1 22.65 m
sin( P) sin(Q) sin(R) 5
10 × sin(98! )
g 2 sin(θ ) = 2 a 70° b 51.5°
2 = h = i 17
sin(G) sin( H ) sin( I ) 8 × sin( 42! ) c 38.5° d 47 m
3 sin(θ ) =
2 × sin(65! ) 13
4 x= 3 a 52° b 128°
sin(13! ) 4 35.3°
c 5.44 km
12 × sin(30! ) 5 33.2°
5 x=
sin( 47! ) 6 20.6° 4 a Angles on a line add to 180°
20 × sin(62! ) b 54 m
6 x= 7 16.1°
sin(63! )
8 33.3° 5 a Alternate angles on parallel
39.1 × sin( 46.7! )
7 x= lines
sin(101.4! )
Exercise 30.04 (page 427) b 5°
8 1.770 c 104 m
9 5.792 1 59.8°
d 98 m
10 5.461 2 37.1°
6 129 m
11 1.602 3 52.4°
7 142 m
12 646.3 4 34.3° 30
5 58.1° 8 a Donna is closer (because side
DT is shorter than side CT – it
Exercise 30.02 (page 425) 6 a sin(θ ) sin(62! )
= ; θ = 62! is opposite the smaller angle).
12 12
1 4.021 cm b Base angles of isosceles b 80 m
2 14.96 cm triangle are equal. c 68 m
3 9.334 cm 7 a sin(D) sin(E) sin( F ) d 24.8 m
= =
d e f
4 12.35 cm 9 13 200 m
b 35.0° c 83.0°
5 29.89 cm 10 6.037 m or 6 m (to nearest metre)
p q 8 α = 40.4°, β = 88.6°
6 a = = r
sin( P) sin(Q) sin(R) 9 α = 36.5°, β = 95.5°
b 68°
10 α = 138.9°, β = 20.1°
c 22.10 cm
11 α = 30.5°, β = 112.5°
7 a Isosceles b 11.52 m 20 × sin(120! )
12 a sin(θ ) =
8 4.644 cm 16
b 1.083
9 4.903 cm
c You get an error message.
10 15.01 cm
d It is not possible to draw this
11 15.10 cm
triangle to scale – the shorter
12 38.74 cm given side cannot be opposite
13 x = 30.67 cm, y = 28.26 cm an obtuse angle.
 572 Answers

Exercise 30.06 (page 431)

1 11 D
Angle sine sine Angle D
75° 0.9659 0.51 30.7°
105° 0.9659 149.3° 8.7° 111.3°
10
8 10 8
41° 0.6561 0.7 44.4°
139° 0.6561 135.6°
30° 141.3° 30° 38.7°
30° 0.5 0.19 11.0° E F E F
2.4 14.9
150° 0.5 169.0° 12 a 91.1°, 48.9° b, c
169° 0.1908 0.84 57.1°
6 safe
11° 0.1908 122.9°
unsafe
2 37.6°, 142.4° 7 46.2°, 133.8° 20°
3 30°, 150° 8 68.8°, 111.2°
13 a 0.7226 b 46.3°, 133.7°
4 24.6°, 155.4° 9 81.5°, 98.5°
c α = 46.3° and β = 101.7° or
5 2.1°, 177.9° 10 58.6°, 121.4°
α = 133.7° and β = 14.3°
6 54.9°, 125.1° d Yes
14 No
15 19.5 cm

31 The cosine rule

Exercise 31.01 (page 435) Investigation
1 p2 = q2 + r2 – 2qr cos(P) 4 5.060 The octagon chop (page 437)
2 f 2 = d2 + e2 – 2de cos(F) 5 4.603 1 20
3 z2 = x2 + y2 – 2xy cos(Z) 6 34.86 2
7 5.312 Type of diagonal Example Number of these
Short AC 8
31 Exercise 31.02 (page 436) Medium AD 8
1 4.566 cm Long AE 4
2 4.595 cm !
3 Each exterior angle is 360 = 45!.
3 a p2 = q2 + r2 – 2qr cos(P) b 15.17 cm 8
Interior angle = 180° – 45° = 135° (∠’s on line)
4 a e2 = d2 + f 2 – 2df cos(E) b 20.68 cm or
Use the formula (n – 2) × 180° for the sum of the
5 7.108 cm
interior angles, and divide by 8.
6 9.085 m (8 − 2) × 180! 6 × 180!
= = 135!
7 6.358 km 8 8
8 33.58 cm 4 Short: 1.848 cm,
9 7.938 m Medium: 2.414 cm
10 744.6 m Long: 2.613 cm

11 When evaluating 145 – 144 cos(10°), the multiplication 5

of 144 by cos(10°) should be done before the subtracting. 1.307 The octagon can be split
The correct answer is 1.785 cm. into eight triangles
45° as shown.
12 A negative sign has been omitted … cos(110°) is –0.3420. 1.307
The correct answer is 4.915 cm. Use the triangle formula:
1
Area = ab sin(C).
13 The square root step at the end has been omitted. The 2
correct answer is 2.124 cm. Area is 4.828 cm2
 Answers 573

6 1 7 Multiply short diagonal by long diagonal.

2 3

Exercise 31.03 (page 439) Exercise 31.04 (page 439)

q2 + r2 − p2 1 46.6° 10 a (A) 1 (B) 0
1 cos(P) =
2 qr
2 111.3° (C) 0.5 (D) –1.19
d2 + f 2 − e2
2 cos(E) = d2 + f2 − e2 b (A) 0° (B) 90°
2 df 3 a cos(E) =
2 df
x2 + z2 − y 2 (C) 60° (D) Not possible
3 cos(Y) = b 71.7°
2 xz c (A) This triangle is ‘degenerate’; that is, like
4 13.3° 4 61.2° a straight line – the two smaller sides
5 33.2° add to the longest side.
5 117.3°
(B) This triangle is right-angled (from
6 77.7° 6 101.4°
Pythagoras).
7 138.6° 7 139.3° (C) The triangle is equilateral.
8 52.6° (D) A triangle with these measurements
9 90.8° does not exist – the two smaller sides
must add to more than the longest side.
11 a 10.26 cm b 55.6°
12 64.6°
13 53.6°
14 a 102.6° b 45.2°
c 32.2° (∠ sum of ")

Investigation Exercise 31.05 (page 442) Exercise 31.06 (page 442)

The Golden Ratio and
the cosine rule (page 440)
1 a
b
4.702 cm
63°
1 184 mm
31
2 a 36.4°
c 4.586 cm
1 108° y 4 b 9
d =
2 3.236 units sin(63! ) sin( 51! ) 3 87.1°
3 1.618 (4 sf) 4 × sin(63! )
y= 4 a 3943 m
sin( 51! )
b 12.5°
Starter (page 441) = 4.586
5 a 100°
BL BL 2 x = 8.424 cm, α = 60.3°, β = 72.7°
tan(α ) = ⇒ BJ =
BJ tan(α ) b 2186 m
3 α = 73.4°, β = 58.4°, γ = 48.2°
BL BL
tan(β ) = ⇒ BK = 4 x = 9.539 cm, α = 33.0°, β = 27.0° 6 33.6 mm
BK tan(β )
BK − BJ = 20 5 α = 79.8°, β = 68.2°, x = 12.27 cm 7 a 97.2°
BL BL 6 θ = 41.8°, x = 4.035 m b 7.5 m
− = 20
tan(α ) tan(β )
8 9m
 1 1  Puzzle
BL  − = 20
 tan(α ) tan(β ) 
20 tan(α ) tan(β ) Double triangles (page 442)
BL =
tan(α ) − tan(β )
9.598 m
 574 Answers

32 Practical trigonometry Technology investigation Exercise 32.04 (page 449)

The kidney-shaped pool (page 449) 1 x = 11.26 m
Exercise 32.01 (page 446)
1 For the working see the 2 θ = 42.8°
1 33.1 m spreadsheet ‘Kidney- 3 x = 5.291 cm
2 74.6 m shaped pool answers.xls’.
This can be opened from the
4 θ = 95.2°
Theta Mathematics Workbook 5 θ = 60.4° or 119.6°
Exercise 32.02 (page 446) companion CD, or downloaded 6 4236 m
from the website
7 18.2°
1 Area = 223.0 m2, www.mathematics.co.nz.
8 89.2 m
perimeter = 60.85 m
2 45.9 m3
9 214 cm
2 Area = 708.1 m2,
3 The pool has curved sides. 10 Length of mine shaft = 127.2 m.
perimeter = 110.1 m
4 An under-estimate, because in Width of seam of coal = 2.75 m.
3 Area = 5825 m2,
most cases the edge of the pool 11 a 155°
perimeter = 303.7 m.
is concave when viewed from b 2637 m
For the working see
inside the pool, meaning the
the spreadsheet 12 Perimeter = 124.8 m,
edge of the pool is outside the
‘Ex 32-02 Qn 3 answers.xls’. This area = 777.6 m2
imaginary straight lines that are
can be opened from the Theta 13 11.16 m
part of the eight triangles.
Mathematics Workbook companion
14 15.7 m
CD, or downloaded from the 5 More measurements should be
website www.mathematics.co.nz. taken. Then there would be more
triangles, and their sum would be Puzzle
a better approximation to the area
Exercise 32.03 (page 448)
of the pool surface. The mobile crane (page 451)
1 At about 35 cm. For the working 5.74 m
see the spreadsheet ‘Croquet-
hoop answers.xls’. This can
be opened from the Theta 33 Circular measure
Mathematics Workbook
companion CD, or Starter (page 453)
downloaded from the website
www.mathematics.co.nz. 1 A 2 3
33 2 The apparent width of AB or CD
is largest when the penalty spot
Exercise 33.01 (page 455)
is 2.6 m from the goal line. The π π
1 a b 4 a 35.1° b 73.9°
actual position of the penalty spot 3 2
π π c 10.2° d 12.4°
is much further back – for reasons c d
6 4
including skill of the players, the 5π 3π e 46.6° f 114.6°
e f
possibility of hitting the ball in the 6 4 g 307.1° h 22.9°
air instead of along the ground, 2π 4π
g h i 23.7° j 178.8°
to allow the goalkeeper some 5 9
reaction time, etc. For the working 7π
i j 4π 5 2π or 6.283
4
see the spreadsheet ‘Penalty-spot
answers.xls’. This can be opened 2 a 2.094 b 0.5411 6 a 0.6283
from the Theta c 0.4957 d 5.515 b 2.5 seconds
Mathematics Workbook 1
e 9.233 f 2.496 7 a second
companion CD, or downloaded 50
from the website g 3.665 h 1.501
b 0.003 183 seconds
www.mathematics.co.nz. i 2.251 j 3.456
c 1 080 000° or 18 850 radians
3 a 8m 3 a 90° b 60° 8 (B)
b The floor of an ordinary c 45° d 360°
cinema usually slopes
e 120° f 270°
downwards towards the
screen. g 144° h 450°
i 420° j 80°
 Answers 575

Puzzle Exercise 33.03 (page 459)

Straight hands (page 456) 1 a 63 mm
12:32:44 (12.32 pm + 44 seconds approximately) b 1 radian
c 11 624 cm
d Longer, because the thread would start winding
Technology investigation on top of thread that was already there, and the
radius, and therefore the circumference, would
The Polygon Society and the round tablecloth (page 456) increase.
1 2
1 Area = x sin( A) 2 157.3 m
2
2 12 990 cm2 3 a i Left
3 20 000 cm2 ii
4 23 776 cm2
5 25 981 cm2
6 Equilateral triangle: 41.35%
Square: 63.66% 36 mm
Regular pentagon: 75.68% b 26 mm
Regular hexagon: 82.70%
4 a 0.000 29 radians
7 For the working see the spreadsheet ‘Polygon
b 6900 m
society answers.xls’. This can be opened from
the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD, or 5 a 100 b 16
downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
6 92 m
8 The area of the polygons is approaching the area of the 7 641 mm
circle (π × 1002 = 31 416 cm2) as the number of sides
increases. 8 a × ×

Exercise 33.02 (page 458)

1 a 6 cm b 8.4 mm 8 a 90° × × × × ×
1 2 3 4 5
c 1.68 cm d 6 mm b 80.2°
9π c 238.7° b 514 m
2 a 2π mm b
2
mm
d 34.7° 9 46.75 m/s
33
3π 9π
c cm d cm
10 2 e 31.8° 10 a 6
3 a 6.283 cm b 11.78 mm f 96° b 0.2832
c 6.489 m d 14.79 cm 9 a 13.05 mm c 14r + 2πr = 2r(7 + π)
4 a 2.2 cm b 111.2 m b 51.77 cm 11 0.615 m
c 34.27 mm 10 18.62 cm 12 99.1 cm
5 a 2 mm b 3.2 m 11 4.5 cm 13 15 680 km
c 6.239 cm d 43.29 mm 12 8.156 cm
e 0.5 m f 12 cm 13 11.48 cm Investigation
g 13.37 m h 20.03 cm
14 a 4.887 cm The Auckland–Sydney road tunnel (page 461)
i 47.42 mm j 18.00 cm
b 4.589 cm
6 a 8.117 cm b 23.51 mm c 9.476 cm 1 2140 km
c 6.405 cm 2 90 km
15 18.14 cm
3 336 100 000 m3
7 a 4 b 0.6# 16 (B)
4 No. It would reduce the average depth from 3 m to
c 0.39 d 0.5#
about 2.5 m.
e 4.712 f 0.7854
 576 Answers

Exercise 33.04 (page 463) Exercise 33.06 (page 467) Exercise 33.08 (page 468)
1 a 22.5 cm2 b 43.30 m2 1 a 4.908 cm2 b 113.1 m2 1 a i w = 1.95 m
c 563.7 cm2 ii d = 0.78 m
2 a 0.6944 b 3.673
iii Area of cross-section
3 a 6.649 cm b 1.686 m 2 a 7.841 cm2 b 390.6 cm2
= 1.136 m2
4 a 16 m2 b 24.15 cm2 3 7.94 cm iv Volume = 3.409 m3
4 34.79 cm2 b See the spreadsheet
c 245.4 mm2 d 13.23 m2
‘Water-trough
5 52.38 m
5 a 2.25 b 1.318 calculations.xls’. This can
6 a 2.996 cm2 b 22.67 cm2 be opened from the Theta
c 1.284
Mathematics Workbook
6 a 60.9° b 78.0°
Exercise 33.07 (page 468) companion CD, or
c 257.7° downloaded from the website
1 142.9 m2 www.mathematics.co.nz.
7 a 3.162 cm b 10.44 cm
2 123 mm2
c 7.407 cm d 5.082 m 3.40
2.66
3 a 5.77 cm b 61.4 cm2 1.95
8 a 9, 27 1.29
b 19.10, 114.6 4 1216 mm2 0.72
0.26
c 5.528, 7.236 5 79 cm2 0 litres

d 1.655, 6.96
Investigation
e 0.6272, 28.22
f 1.8, 33.3# The Reuleaux triangle (page 469)
9 r = 3 cm, θ = 2 1 Perimeter of Reuleaux triangle is πr.
10 a 0.86 cm2 2 Area =
r2
2 (
π− 3 )
b 0.16 cm2
c Stacking in triangles saves
more space. The saving is NCEA 2.8 Revision exercises (page 470)
81%.
1 a 4.933 m b 53.2°
11 21.92 m2
2 a AC (the running leg), ∠ACB, and CB (the cycling leg).
Exercise 33.05 (page 464) b 18.9 km
33 3 a b 2566 m2
1 368 m2
4 35π + 60 = 170.0 m
2 a 4224 cm2 b 7494 cm2
10 5 a 76.5 m (3 sf)
c 36%
b 2780 m2 (3 sf)
3 637.1 mm2 10
20 c The fence divides the
4 335 cm2 area into two triangles.
20 10 Each triangle has the
5 a 1800 m2 b 3600 seats
10 same base (40 m) and the
c Some space will be same ‘height’ or altitude
needed for aisles, etc. (a horizontal line from
6 a 194.4 cm2 b 151.0 cm2 the opposite vertex to
an imaginary extension
c 43.41 cm2
of the fence), so the two
areas must be equal.
 Answers 577

2.9 Trigonometric equations

34 Trig graphs and equations
Starter (page 472)
See the spreadsheet ‘Trig graphs.xls’. This can be opened from the Theta Mathematics
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.

Exercise 34.01 (page 474) Technology investigation Exercise 34.03 (page 481)
1 45° Producing trig graphs 1 a 23.6°, 156.4° b 49.5°, 310.5°
2 A = (90°, 1), B = (270°, –1), using radians (page 478) c 18.8°, 198.8° d 236.1°, 303.9°
C = (180°, 0), D = (360°, 0) 1 See the spreadsheet e 97.8°, 262.2° f 111.3°, 291.3°
‘Simple trig graphs
3 P = (0°, 1), Q = (360°, 1), 2 a 1.266, 5.017 b 3.302, 6.122
using radians.xls’. This
R = (180°, –1), S = (270°, 0) can be opened from the c 1.373, 4.515 d 2.752, 5.894
Theta Mathematics Workbook e 2.647, 3.637 f 0.8038, 2.338
4 y = sin(x) and y = tan(x)
companion CD, or downloaded
5 y = sin(x) from the website Exercise 34.04 (page 484)
6 No www.mathematics.co.nz.
1 83.1°, 276.9° 9 18.1°, 161.9°
7 (0°, 0); (180°, 0); (360°, 0) 2 1E-16 represents 10−16. The 2 0.4780, 2.664 10 1.306, 4.448
8 calculations in the spreadsheet
give this result instead of 0. 3 2.051, 5.193 11 2.026, 4.257
y
4 185.2°, 354.8° 12 154.4°, 334.4°
1 3, 4 See the spreadsheet.
5 28.8°, 208.8° 13 180°
180° 5 See the spreadsheet. The Chart 6 2.606, 3.677 14 π
or 1.571
360° x Wizard has trouble handling 2
the undefined values and 7 0.8500, 5.433 15 no solution
–1 consequently the vertical scale 8 226.1°, 313.9° 16 no solution
gets exaggerated. It also tries to
9 The graph of y = cos(x) is below connect the undefined results, and
the x-axis for values of x between hence violates the asymptotes.
90° and 270°.
10 a 90°, 180° b 180°, 270° Starter (page 482)
c 180°, 270° y x y
1 sin(θ ) = , cos(θ ) = , tan(θ ) =
r r x
11 225°
2 x is negative and y is positive
12 a x = 90° b 150° 3 x is negative and y is negative 34
13 a x = 180° b 40° 4 x is positive and y is negative
14 k = 1.732, p = 240° 5 Positive
15 a 73° b 287° 6
Angle y x tan(θ ) = y
r sin(θ ) = r cos(θ ) = r
16 330°
Quadrant range x y x
17 a 68° b 248° 1 0°–90° + + + + + +
18 253° 2 90°–180° – + + + – –
3 180°–270° – – + – – +
Exercise 34.02 (page 480) 4 270°–360° + – + – + –
1 a 160° b 340°
c 290° d 200°
e 242° f 323°
2 a a = 230°, b = 310° b a = 198°, b = 342°
c a = 131.3°, b = 228.7° d a = 114.8°, b = 245.2°
e a = 111.8°, b = 291.8° f a = 145°, b = 325°
 578 Answers

Exercise 34.05 (page 485) Exercise 34.06 (page 485)

1 60°, 300° 7 14.5°, 165.5° 12 35.3°, 144.7°, 1 1.05, 4.19 9 0.52, 3.67
2 60°, 120° 8 150°, 210° 215.3°, 324.7° 2 2.62, 3.67 10 1.89, 4.40
3 41.8°, 138.2° 9 71.6°, 251.6° 13 90°, 270° 3 3.93, 5.50 11 0.59, 5.70
4 36.9°, 323.1° 10 64.2°, 115.8°, 14 no solution 4 0.52, 2.62 12 3.29, 6.13
5 146.3°, 326.3° 244.2°, 295.8° 15 no solution 5 0.72, 5.56 13 1.27, 1.88
6 45°, 315° 11 60°, 120°, 6 2.09, 4.19 14 0.93, 2.21, 4.07, 5.36
240°, 300°
7 2.90, 6.04 15 no solution
8 1.40, 4.88

35 Further trig graphs and equations

Starter (page 487)
1
1 The period is about 11 hours and represents the time between successive high tides or successive low tides.
2
2 An appropriate vertical scale would be in metres, from about 0 to 8 m. The amplitude is approximately 2.4 m.

Exercise 35.01 (page 487)

1 a 40 seconds e i The central position. ii The far left.
b The time required for one complete revolution of 4 a The level of the Sun is below the horizon –
the Ferris wheel. i.e. night-time.
c 10 m b 24 hours
d 10 m c 49°, which is the maximum apparent height of the
e 200 seconds or 3 minutes, 20 seconds Sun above the horizon.
f 30 seconds d 1300 or 1 pm
g 13 seconds e 0900 and 1700
2 a 0.04 seconds b 0.04 seconds 5 a i
c 40 decibels d 25 hertz 73°
e y = 80 sin(50πt)
3 a 20 cm b 1.6 seconds 1300 1300
0°
c Right
central position (cm)

35 10
Note: daylight saving not taken into account.
ii
Distance from

26°
0.8 1.6 0°
1300 1300
Time
10 (seconds)
Left
d Period is 1.6 seconds, amplitude is 10 cm. b Move it down by 47°

Exercise 35.02 (page 491)

1 2 y 3 4 5
y 3 y
2 y y 3
1 1 2
1
π 2π x π 2π x π 2π x π 2π x
–1 –1 π 2π x
–2
–3
 Answers 579

6 y 10 y 14 y 18 y
π 2π
1 2 2
–1
x
π 2π x 1
–2 –1
π 2π x π 2π x

–2
7 y 11 y 15 y
1 1 6
π
4
π 2π x –1 2π x 19 y
–1 2
2
π 2π x 1

π 2π x
y 12 y 16 y
8
1 1 3
2π y
π 20
2π x –1
π x π 2π x 5
–1
–3

3
9 y 13 y 17 y
1 2 1
1
2π π 2π x
π 2π x π
–1
–1 x π 2π x

–2

Technology investigation
Modelling monthly temperatures in Clyde, Central Otago (page 492)
See the spreadsheet ‘Clyde average daily temperatures.xls’. This can be opened from the Theta Mathematics
Workbook companion CD, or downloaded from the website www.mathematics.co.nz.
1 The period is 12 months; it represents the time elapsed before the yearly temperature cycle repeats.
2 The amplitude is about 7 °C. This represents half the difference between the maximum mean temperature and the
minimum mean temperature.
3 p = 7, q = 10
4 It is not such a good fit in spring-time.
35
Exercise 35.03 (page 493) Exercise 35.04 (page 497)
1 (D) 10 A = (45°, 0), B = (90°, 0), 1 a 87.9°, 312.1° 3 a 0.73, 2.01
2 (E) C = (135°, 0), D = (0, 1 ) b 126.4°, 353.6° b 0.35, 2.85
2
3 (A) 11 f1 = (F), f2 = (G), f3 = (C), c 225°, 315° c 3.46, 6.05
4 (E) f4 = (E), f5 = (A), f6 = (B) d 6.9°, 113.1° d 0.30, 2.84
5 (A) e 65.0°, 355.0° e 0.83, 2.31
12 a y = sin(2x)
6 (360°, –2) b π f 110°, 170°
π −   3π − 
7 a  , 1 c  , 1 2 a 90.5°, 309.5°
2   4 
b 160°, 280°
b f(θ ) = cos(2θ ) 13 a g(x) = cos(2x)
c 18°, 258°
 7π −  h(x) = –sin(x)
8  , 4 d 24.4°, 301.6°
 6  b 2π
9 (45°, 2) c π 7 π 11π e 76.9°, 123.1°
, ,
2 6 6
f 260.5°, 319.5°
 580 Answers

Exercise 35.05 (page 499) Exercise 35.06 (page 500)

1 a 16.4°, 163.6°, 196.4°, 343.6° π 5π 13 π 17 π
1 , , ,
12 12 12 12
b 4.5°, 40.5°, 94.5°, 130.5°,
2 π 7π 9 π 15 π 17 π 23 π 25 π 31π
184.5°, 220.5°, 274.5°, 310.5° , , , , , , ,
16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
c 69.6°, 110.4°, 189.6°, 230.4°, 3 π
309.6°, 350.4° 2 π 4π
4 ,
d 63.6° 3 3
2 π 5 π 5 π 11π
e 63.3° 5 , , ,
3 6 3 6
f 11.8°, 108.2°, 131.8°, 228.2°, π 5π
6 ,
251.8°, 348.2° 3 3
7 π 3 π 5 π 7 π 9 π 11π 13 π 15 π
, , , , , , ,
2 a 0.32, 1.25, 3.46, 4.39 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
b 1.81, 2.90, 4.95, 6.04
c 0.55, 2.59, 3.69, 5.73 Exercise 35.07 (page 500)
d 0.75, 1.35, 2.84, 3.44, 4.94, 5.54
1 a 3m b 1.5 m
e 0.96, 1.40, 2.53, 2.97, 4.10, 4.54,
5.67, 6.11 c 3m d d
f 0.48, 2.67, 3.62, 5.81 e 1m
3
3 a 15°, 75°, 195°, 255° f 3 am and 9 am

Depth (m)
b 45°, 135°, 225°, 315° 2
c 37.8°, 142.2°, 217.8°, 322.2°
d 64.8°, 115.2°, 184.8°, 235.2°, 1
304.8°, 355.2°
4 a 0.23, 0.82, 2.33, 2.91, 4.42, 5.00
t
b 1.19, 1.95, 4.33, 5.10 3 am 6 am 9 am 12 am
c 0.85 Time of day
d 4.81 2 a 14.14 m b h
e 0.15, 1.94, 2.24, 4.04, 4.34, 6.13 c 10 seconds 20
f 0.60, 0.97, 3.75, 4.11 d 20 m
Height (m)

15
5 a 45°, 135°, 225°, 315° e The graph is symmetric
b 22.5°, 67.5°, 112.5°, 157.5°, either side of 10 seconds. 10
202.5°, 247.5°, 292.5°, 337.5° f It is steeper between
0 and 5 seconds than between 5
5 and 10 seconds.
5 10 15 20 t
35 3 4.7 seconds Time (seconds) 35
4 4 seconds
5 1.1 seconds
6 a 4 seconds b i 1.08 seconds ii 5.08 seconds
7 a 1303 hours – that is, about 1 pm.
b Between 4:86 am and 7:14 am; that is, for about 2.3 hours.

NCEA 2.9 Revision exercises (page 502)

1 a 41.4°, 318.6° 4 a π 5 π or 0.785, 3.93
3 a 158.2°, 338.2° ,
4 4
b 213.4°, 326.6° b 33.2°, 146.8°, 213.2°, 326.8° b 1.94, 2.77, 5.09, 5.91
2 a 7 π 11π or 3.665, 5.760
,
c 89.4°, 180.6° c 2.91, 5.37
6 6
b 1.104, 5.179 5 2.6 seconds
6 a 4.4 hours (1 dp)
b 3.8 hours (1 dp)
 Index 581

Index

5-point summary—259 constant term—23 Golden Ratio—56

contingency table—310 and cosine rule—440
acceleration—196 conditional probability—312 gradient—160, 216
altitude, of a triangle—233 continuous probability—317 grads—452
ambiguous case, sine rule—430 cosine rule—433 grouped data—253
amplitude—486 calculating angles—438 calculating the mean—254
angles of elevation and calculating sides—433 growth curve—133
depression—418 proof of—434
annulus—123 cross-multiplication—9 histogram—255
anti-differentiation—179 cubics—105 constructing in a spreadsheet—
apparent width—447 365
arc length formula—453 data encryption—278 horizontal asymptote, equation
area decay curve—132 of—118
of a sector—462 decreasing functions—171 hyperbolas—110
of a segment—465 definite integral—183 translations of—113
of a triangle—420 degrees to radians, conversion hypothesis—287
under curves, integration—184 between—454—
arithmetic sequence—380 depreciation—403 included angle—420
general term—380 depression, angles of—418 increasing functions—171
sum of terms—383 derivative—160 index—14
asymptote—110, 133, 474 of polynomials—162 index equations—90
equations of—118 derived function—160 indices
difference of two squares—4, 27 fractional—79
bar graph—249 differentiating, by sight—164 negative—76
base—14 diminishing value depreciation— rules of—77
bell-shaped curve—340 405 inequations—6, 10
bias—274 discrete probability—317 infinity symbol—398
boxplot—262 discriminant—60 inflation—403
distance, between two points—214 inflection, point of—172
census—274 integration—179
central tendency—242 elevation, angles of—418 area under curves—184
changes of scale, for graphs—149 elimination method—41 constant of—179, 181
changing the subject of a formula— enclosed areas—204 definite—183
30 encryption, of data—278 limits of—183
Chart Wizard, in a spreadsheet— equally likely outcomes—294 intercepts—231
375 expected value—315 interquartile range—260
chequers—6 exponent—14, 131 intersection, of sets—306
Chinese Lunar Calendar—330 exponential curves and functions— inverse normal—356
circles 131
centres not at origin—124 kinematics—196
equation of—121 factorising—22
class interval—253 Fibonacci sequence—378 like terms—1
cluster sampling—279, 281 fractional index—79 likelihood—293
coefficients—23, 42 frequency graph—249 limits
collinear points—228 frequency table—248 of integration—183
common difference—380 mean and mode—248 of summation—372
common logarithms—84 standard deviation—268 line segment—213
common ratio—389 linear equations—7, 40
complementary events—307 general term, of a sequence—369 linear rearrangements—30
compound interest—402 geometric sequence—389 linear relations—218
spreadsheet applications—410 general term—389 logarithmic graphs—139
conditional probability—312 sum of first n terms—393 logarithms—84
constant of integration—179, 181 sum to infinity—397 formal definition of—86
582 Index

properties of—67 trees or branching diagrams— proof of—424

long-run relative frequency—293, 296 solving triangles—441
320 pronumeral—1 spread—266
lower quartile—259 pseudo-random number spreadsheets, using the Chart
generator—278 Wizard—375
mathematical model—401 standard deviation—266
maxima and minima quadrants—482 from a frequency table—268
applications—203, 206 quadratic equations—48 of normal distribution—340
maximum points—172 spreadsheet solver—59 using technology—267
mean—242 quadratic expansions—23 standard normal distribution—344
from a frequency table—248 quadratic expressions—3 converting to—348
from a spreadsheet—244 quadratic formula—53 curve of—344
of grouped data—254 quartiles—251, 259 tables for—344
of normal distribution—340 stationary points—172
median radian, definition of—452 stem and leaf plot—251
from a spreadsheet—244 radians to degrees, conversion straight-line depreciation—405
of a side of a triangle—233 between—454— strata—279
of data—243 random numbers—276 stratified sampling—279, 281
midpoint—213 random sample—275 subject of a formula or equation—
minimum points—172 range—259 30, 219
mode—243 rates of change—194 substitution method—44
from a frequency table—248 rational expressions—33 sum to infinity, of a geometric
from a spreadsheet—244 reading age—144 sequence—397
model, mathematical—401 real roots—60 surds—79
modelling—126 recursive definition of sequences— systematic sampling—279, 280
Monty Hall problem—333 370
Moore’s Law—91 reflections—151 tangent to a curve—65–9, 160, 169
mutually exclusive events—307 Reuleaux triangle—469 transformations
roots, of a quadratic equation—54, of graphs—145
Napier, John—84 58 of trig graphs—489
natural logarithms—84 translations
negative index—76 sampling—274 of graphs—146
normal distribution—340 cluster—279, 281 of hyperbolas—113
mean—340 simple random—279, 280 triangle inequality—332
simulating values—364 stratified—279, 281 triangulation—445
standard deviation—340 systematic—279, 280 trig graphs—476—
without replacement—302 transformations of—489
parabolas—96 segment, of a circle—465 turning points—172
in factorised form—100 sequence two-stage factorising—23
parallel lines—225 arithmetic—380 two-way table—310
partial sum—383 definition of—369
perfect square form—3, 26 general term of—369 union, of sets—306
rearrangements—36 generating in a spreadsheet—374 upper quartile—259
perimeter, irregular shapes—446 geometric—389
period, of a trig graph—477, 486 recursive definition of—370 velocity—196
perpendicular bisector of a side of sigma notation—372 Venn diagrams—306
a triangle—233 simple random sampling—279, 280 vertex, of a triangle—233—
perpendicular lines—226 simulation—323 vertical asymptote, equation
point–gradient equation—170, 221 of normally distributed values— of—118
point of inflection—172 364
population—274 simultaneous equations—40 whiskers, of a boxplot—263
predator—333 elimination method—41 witch of Agnesi—355
predator–prey simulations—333 substitution method—44
prey—333— sine rule—423 x-intercept—231
principal (financial)—402 ambiguous case—430
probability calculating angles—426 y-intercept—231
definition of—293 calculating sides—423
 Useful formulae 583

Useful formulae

2.1 Algebra There are two kinds of turning point: a maximum

point (pl. maxima) and a minimum point
The quadratic formula (pl. minima).
The two solutions of the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 are:
−b + b 2 − 4ac −b − b 2 − 4ac
x = and x =
2a 2a
The discriminant of a quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the number b2 – 4ac.
1 b2 – 4ac > 0 two real roots
2 b2 – 4ac = 0 one repeated root
Integration
3 b2 – 4ac < 0 no real roots
n+1
Indices ∫ xn dx = x +c
n+1
x − n = 1n
1
ax = x a n+1
x
∫ axn dx = ax +c
n+1
Logarithms
Kinematics
If bp = q then logb(q) = p
Index form Log form Velocity is the rate of change of distance with respect
to time:
b is called the base, p is called the logarithm
and q is the number. v = ds
dt
We say logb(q) as ‘log of q to base b’. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with
1 log(ab) = log(a) + log(b) respect to time:
(When multiplying numbers, add their a = dv
logarithms.) dt

2
b ()
log a = log(a) – log(b) 2.4 Co-ordinate geometry
(When dividing numbers, subtract their The co-ordinates of the midpoint of the two points
logarithms.) (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are:

3 log(an) = n log(a)  x1 + x2 y1 + y 2 
 , 
(When raising a number to a power, multiply the 2 2
logarithm by that power.)
The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
is:
2.3 Derivatives and integrals
d = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
The rule for differentiation (finding derived
functions) of powers of x is:
The gradient of the line joining the two points (x1, y1)
f(x) = xn ⇒ f ′(x) = nxn – 1
and (x2, y2) is:
For multiples of powers of x: y 2 − y1
m =
f(x) = axn ⇒ f ′(x) = anxn – 1 x2 − x1
At a turning point the gradient is zero,
i.e. f ′(x) = 0.
584 Useful formulae

Equations of lines 2.6 Probability

1 Given gradient m and a point (x1, y1) on the line: For complementary events:
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
P(A) + P(A′) = 1
(the point–gradient equation)
2 Given two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on the line: For mutually exclusive events:
y − y1 y − y1 P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)
= 2
x − x1 x2 − x1 For intersecting events:
(the point–point equation) P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)

2.5 Statistical inference 2.7 Sequences

The mean from a frequency table is: Arithmetic sequences
x =
∑ xf First term = a
∑f
The range is the difference between the largest value Common difference = d
and the smallest value. General term: tn = a + (n – 1) d
The two quartiles, together with the median, separate Sum of first n terms: Sn = n  2 a + (n − 1)d 
a set of numbers into four quarters: 2
Geometric sequences
First term = a
Common ratio = r
General term: tn = a × rn – 1
a(r n − 1)
• The lower quartile (LQ) is the value below which Sum of first n terms: Sn =
r−1
one-quarter of the measurements lie.
a(1 − r n )
• The upper quartile (UQ) is the value below which or Sn =
1−r
three-quarters of the measurements lie (or above
which one-quarter lie). Sum to infinity
The interquartile range is the difference between the S∞ = a (for − 1 < r < 1 only)
two quartiles: 1−r

Interquartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile Compound interest

( )
n
The standard normal distribution A = P 1+ r
100
An ordinary normal curve has a mean of µ and a
standard deviation of σ. where P is the original amount invested (principal),
r is the interest rate, n is the number of years for the
To convert an ordinary normal measurement (x) to a investment and A is the new principal, including
standard normal measurement (z), use the equation: interest, at the end of the term.
x−µ
z =
σ
 Useful formulae 585

2.8 Trigonometry problems Radian measure

1 radian = the angle formed in a sector with the arc
length the same as the radius.

Area of a triangle
Area = 1 ab sin(C)
2 Conversions between degrees and radians:
The sine rule 1° = π and π radians = 180°
a b c 180
= =
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C)
Arc length formula
or
s = rθ
sin( A) sin(B) sin(C) where s is the arc length, r is the length of the
= =
a b c
radius and θ is the angle at the centre of the sector,
The cosine rule measured in radians.
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A) Sector area formula
or Area = 1 r 2θ
2
cos(A) = b + c − a
2 2 2
2bc

An expanded version of these useful formulae is supplied as a pdf file on the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD
so that students and teachers can print them out for easy reference if required.
586 Normal distribution table

Normal distribution table

This table gives the area under the standard normal curve,
between 0 and z, shaded in the diagram. 0 z

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0754 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141 4 8 12 15 19 22 27 31 35
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517 4 8 11 15 19 22 26 30 34
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879 4 7 11 14 18 22 25 29 32
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 27 31
0.6 0.2258 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2518 0.2549 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
0.7 0.2580 0.2612 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2996 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133 3 6 8 11 14 17 19 22 25
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 18 21
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 15 16
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 14
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998 0.4998 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.5 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.6 0.4998 0.4998 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.7 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.8 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.9 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

This normal distribution table is also supplied as a pdf file on the Theta Mathematics Workbook companion CD so that students
and teachers can print it out for easy reference if required.