Shri Shivaji Education Society Amravati’s

Shri Shivaji Science College, Amravati

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Shivaji Nagar, Amravati – 444603 (M.S.)

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Semester-I)

As per the new syllabus
NEP-20 pattern

Session: 2025-2026

General Chemistry-I

Unit No.-III
A) Organic Compounds
and
B) Electronic Displacements

Prepared by
Dr. Pramod R. Padole
Department of Chemistry
Shri Shivaji Science College, Amravati.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 1
 Shri Shivaji Science College, Amravati
Department of Chemistry
Notes for B.Sc. First Year (Semester-I) Students as per new NEP syllabus Session: 2025-2026
Time: 2:00 Hrs Paper-I (Chemistry) 1S1 Max. Marks: 30

Unit No. – III

General Chemistry-I
Syllabus: A) Organic Compounds: Classification, and Nomenclature, Hybridization, shapes of Methane, Ethane,
Ethylene, and acetylene, Bond lengths, bond angles, and bond energies. Hydrogen bonding in organic compounds (with
reference to alcohol, phenols, amines, acids) and consequences.
B) Electronic Displacements: Inductive, Electromeric, Resonance and Mesomeric effects, Hyperconjugation and their
applications; Dipole moment; Organic acids and bases; their relative strength with emphasis on factors affecting pKa
values.
Q.1) What is science?
Ans: A variety of things has been provided to us by nature, and a scientist seeks to study the nature
of all these things systematically.
A systematic way of studying natural phenomena is known as science.
Q.1) What is chemistry?
Defination: Chemistry is the branch of science that studies chemical changes, the conditions
influencing these changes, the composition, and the properties of various substances.
The various branches of chemistry as,
(1) Inorganic Chemistry:
Inorganic Chemistry deals with the isolation, preparation, synthesis, reactions, structures, and
properties of inorganic substances (compounds, which include metals, minerals, and organometallic
compounds.). (The difference between synthesis and preparation is that synthesis is to combine two or more things to produce
a new, more complex product, while in preparation, the reactions that produce a particular functional group.)
OR
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the production, reactions, and properties of chemical
compounds that do not involve a carbon-hydrogen bond.
Inorganic compounds can be classified as acids, bases, salts, and oxides. "Inorganic" chemistry meant the chemistry of
"non-living" things, which were non-carbon-based molecules and ions.
Alfred Werner is known as the father of Inorganic chemistry. In 1913, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
(2) Organic Chemistry:
The term “organic chemistry” was first used in about 1807, when Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced
it to explain the study of compounds derived from the living resources available in nature.
The term "Organic Chemistry" literally means the chemistry of life.
Defination: Organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of carbon compounds.
OR
Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and
preparation of carbon-containing compounds, which include not only hydrocarbons but also
compounds with any number of other elements, including hydrogen (most compounds contain at least
one carbon-hydrogen bond), nitrogen, oxygen, ..., etc.
Friedrich Wöhler is known as the father of organic chemistry. He was a German chemist who was the first to
isolate many elements.
Wohler prepared urea's first organic compound by heating it in the laboratory in 1928 from the inorganic compound
ammonium cyanate.

(3) Physical Chemistry:

Defination: Physical chemistry deals with the relationship between substances' physical
properties, their chemical composition, and the transformations of materials.
Physical chemistry is a part of our everyday life. The batteries in our vehicles use the principle of
electrochemistry. The photosynthetic process of green plants is an example of physical chemistry applied by biological
systems. Solar devices change energy from sunlight into electrical energy.
Wilhelm Ostwald is known as the father of Physical Chemistry. In 1909, he received the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for his scientific contributions to catalysis, chemical equilibria, and reaction velocities.
(4) Analytical Chemistry:
Analytical Chemistry is the science and art of determining the composition of materials in terms
of elements or compounds (that deals with the analysis of different substances).
Analytical chemistry deals with the qualitative and quantitative determination of chemical components of substances.
4.1) Quantitative estimation/ analysis is a branch of analytical chemistry that helps determine the quantity
(amount) of a substance present in a given sample (Quantitative analysis is used to determine the amount or
concentration of a particular compound or element in a sample.)

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 2
4.2) Qualitative analysis is used to identify the presence or absence of certain chemical compounds or elements
in a sample.
This method is often used in organic chemistry to identify unknown substances.
Quantitative observations involve measuring or counting something and expressing the result in numerical
form, while qualitative observations involve describing something in non-numerical terms, such as its
appearance, texture, or colour.
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A) Organic Compounds:
Q.1) What is/are organic compound/compounds?
Ans: Organic Compounds:
Compounds (in solid, liquid, or gaseous states) that contain carbon and hydrogen in their
molecules are known as organic compounds.
OR
Organic compounds also contain carbon and other elements essential for the reproduction of
living organisms.
Carbon is the main factor as it has four electrons that can accommodate eight electrons in an
outer shell. As a result, several forms of bonds can be formed with other carbon atoms and elements
such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Hydrocarbons and proteins are strong examples of organic
molecules capable of producing long chains and complex structures.
-----*****-----

There are two major sources of organic compounds:

(1) Natural and (ii) Synthetic sources.
(1) Natural Sources:
(a) Plants: Carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose, starch, cellulose), acids, esters, vegetable oils,
vitamins, gums, alkaloids, essential oils, perfumes, alcohol, acetone, etc., are some of the important
organic compounds which are obtained from plants.
(b) Animals: Some of the important organic compounds that are derived from animals are
proteins, hormones, fats, and urea.
(c) Fungi and micro-organisms: These are the sources responsible for the production of
hosts of useful substances like alcohols, acids, antibiotics (penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline), and
vitamins by using the process of fermentation.
(d) Coal: Coal tar obtained during the destructive distillation of coal is the main source of
aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, heterocyclic compounds, dyes, drugs, perfumes, etc.
(e) Natural gas and petroleum: Petroleum is one of the major sources of organic compounds.
Gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oil, vaseline, paraffin wax, etc., are a few examples of compounds
obtained directly from petroleum by fractional distillation. Hundreds of useful organic compounds are
prepared from a wide range of hydrocarbons that serve as starting materials for synthetic reactions.
(2) Synthetic Sources:
More than 90% of the known organic compounds are synthetic, i.e., prepared by artificial
methods. Simple organic compounds derived from petroleum and coal have been converted into
useful products by synthetic methods. Many natural products, such as dyes, fibres, rubber, drugs,
vitamins, etc., are prepared by synthetic reactions.
-----*****-----
IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:
Organic compounds play an important role in our daily activities. The following list clearly illustrates
this.
(1) Food: Carbohydrates; Proteins; Fats; Vitamins, Enzymes, etc.
(2) Clothes: Cotton, Silk, Wool, Nylon, Rayon, Dacron, etc.
(3) Fuels: Coal, Wood, Natural gas, Petrol, etc.
(4) Medicines: Penicillin, Streptomycin, Chloromycetin, Sulphadiazine, Sulphathiazole, Morphine,
Aspirin, Iodoform, Cocaine, etc.
(5) Explosives: Nitroglycerine (NG), Nitrocellulose, T.Ν.Β., T.N.T., etc.
(6) Dyes: Indigo, Malachite green, Alizarin, etc.
(7) Insecticides: D.D.T., Gammexane, Malathion, etc.
(8) Household and other everyday articles: Soaps, Cosmetics, Perfumes, Detergents, Paper,
Rubber, Plastics, Leather, Resins, Inks, Paints, Varnishes, Photographic Films, etc.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 3
 Organic compounds can be mainly classified as acyclic (open chain) or cyclic (closed chain).
Organic Compounds Classification:

Q.1) What are hydrocarbons?

Ans: Hydrocarbons:
The organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
They are used as fuels (e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas, and tar), fragrances, and detergents.
Hydrocarbons are also classified into three types:
1) Aliphatic Hydrocarbons or Acyclic Hydrocarbons or Open Chain Hydrocarbons
2) Alicyclic Hydrocarbons &
3) Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
1) Aliphatic Hydrocarbons or Acyclic Hydrocarbons or Open Chain Hydrocarbons:
Defination: Organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen atoms have a linear structure, and
they are called aliphatic compounds or aliphatic hydrocarbons.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons are usually linked in chains via single, double, or triple bonds.
They have also branched and straight chains.
Examples: Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, etc.

(A) Saturated hydrocarbons:

Saturated hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only single covalent bonds
between two carbon atoms.
(i) Alkanes (IUPAC Name) or Paraffins (Common Name):
Q.1) What are Alkanes?
Definition: The organic compounds that contain (consist of or are composed of) carbon and
hydrogen atoms with single bonds are called alkanes.
OR
The compounds containing carbon and hydrogen only with carbon-hydrogen bonds and carbon-
carbon single bonds are called alkanes.
The general formula of Alkane is CnH2n+2
The characteristics of the functional group in an alkane is C-C or C-H
These are known as saturated hydrocarbons or saturated compounds.
Paraffins (Greek word) = Parum + Affinity
Parum = Little (or Simple) & Affinity = Attraction
Alkanes are called paraffins because they have lesser affinity towards general reagents.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 4
 (B) Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain double and triple bonds
between two carbon atoms.
(ii) Alkenes (IUPAC Name) or Olefins (Common Name):
Q.1) What is Alkene?
Defination: The organic compound that contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond (>C=C<)
is called alkene.
Olefin is a Latin word that means oil production.
The general formula of Alkene is CnH2n.
The characteristics of the functional group in an alkene is >C=C<

(iii) Alkynes (IUPAC Name) or Acetylenes (Common Name):

Q.1) What are Alkynes?
Defination: The organic compounds that contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond
are called alkynes.
The general formula of Alkane is CnH2n-2
The characteristics of the functional group in an alkyne is -C≡C-

(iv) ALKADIENES or Dienes: 1,3-Butadiene:

Introduction:
Q.1) Define / What are Alkadienes or Dienes? (S-07, W-13 & S-15, 1-2 Mark)
Defination: Alkenes containing two carbon-carbon double (C=C) bonds are called dienes or
alkadienes.
They have a general formula CnH2n-2, Where n is the number of carbon atoms.
e.g.
4 3 2 1
CH2=CH-CH=CH2
1 2 3 4
1,3-Butadiene
Classification of Dienes:
Dienes are mainly classified based on carbon-carbon double bond.
a) Conjugated Diene:
The diene in which the double bonds are separated by one single bond is called as
conjugated diene.
C=C-C=C
Characteristic function group

CH2=CH-CH=CH2 CH2=CH-CH=CH-CH3
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5

1,3-Butadiene 1,3-Pentadiene

b) Isolated or Non-Conjugated Diene:

The diene in which the double bonds are separated by more than one single bond is
called isolated or non-conjugated diene.
C=C-C-C=C
Characteristic function group
CH2=CH-CH2-CH=CH2
1 2 3 4 5

1,4-Pentadiene

c) Cumulated Diene:
The diene in which the double bonds are adjacent to each other is called a cumulated diene.
C=C=C
Characteristic function group
CH2=C=CH2
1 2 3
1,2-Propadiene

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Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 5
2) Cyclic or Closed Chain or Ring Compounds:
The organic compounds contain carbon atoms that are linked in such a manner as to form a
closed chain and are called Cyclic or Closed Chain or Ring Compounds.

These cyclic compounds are further classified into homocyclic and heterocyclic compounds
based on ring structure.
(A) Homocyclic Compounds or Carbocyclic Compounds:
Homocyclic compounds can be defined as molecules that are ring structures that contain only
Carbon (C) atoms within the ring.
It is further divided into two types:
(i) Alicyclic Compounds:
An alicyclic compound is a hydrocarbon with a cyclic chain of Carbon (C) atoms and single
bonds between all the atoms.
They have the general formula CnH2n.

Example: Cyclopropane(C3H6), Cyclobutane(C4H8),Cyclopentane(C5H10), Cyclohexane(C6H12), etc.

(ii) Aromatic Compounds:

A cyclic, planar, completely conjugated compound with (4n+2) π e-s is known as an aromatic
compound.
For example: Benzene (C6H6), Naphthalene, etc.

Cyclopropenyl cation Benzene Cyclopentadienyl anion Naphthalene

(6 −electrons) Cycloheptatrienyl cation
(2 −electrons) (6 −electrons) (6 −electrons) (10 −electrons)

(a) Aromatic Benzenoid Compounds:

Q.1) What are Benzenoid compounds?
Defination:
The aromatic compounds that contain one or more benzene rings in their structure are
called aromatic benzenoid compounds.
They contain (4n+2) π e-s.
Where n is the integer number & n = 0,1,2,3,……, etc.
Examples:

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Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 6
 (b) Aromatic Non-Benzenoid Compounds:
Q.1) What are Non-Benzenoid compounds?
Q.2) Illustrate the Non-Benzenoid aromatic compound. (S-23, 1 Mark)
Defination:
The aromatic compounds that contain other unsaturated rings instead of benzene rings in
their structure are called aromatic non-benzenoid compounds.
They contain (4n+2) π e-s.
Where n is the integer number & n = 0,1,2,3,……, etc.
Examples:

-----*****-----
The Similarities Between Benzenoid and Non Benzenoid?
(1) Both are cyclic structures.
(2) Benzenoid and Non-Benzenoid are aromatic compounds with conjugated π e-s systems
(3) Both Benzenoid and Non Benzenoid exhibit an extra stability
-----*****-----
(B) Heterocyclic Compounds:
Q.1) What are heterocyclic compounds? How are they classified?
Defination: Heterocyclic Compounds or Heterocycles:
The cyclic compounds obtained by replacing one or more carbon atoms of a ring with a
heteroatom, like, N, O, or S, are called heterocyclic compounds.
OR
A heterocyclic compound, or heterocycles, is a cyclic compound in which one or more of the
atoms of the ring are heteroatoms. A heteroatom (such as N, O, S, etc.) is an atom other than carbon.
Classification of Heterocyclic Compounds:
(i) Alicyclic Heterocyclic Compounds:
Aliphatic heterocyclic compounds that contain one or more heteroatoms in their rings are
called alicyclic heterocyclic compounds.
Examples:

(ii) Aromatic Heterocyclic Compounds:

Aromatic heterocyclic compounds that contain one or more heteroatoms in their rings are
called aromatic heterocyclic compounds.
Examples:
The common names of heterocycles are-
4 3 4 3 4
4 3
5 3
5 2 2
5 5 2
N 6 1 2
1 O1 S1 N
H
Pyrrole Furan Thiophene Pyridine
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Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 7
 Classification of Organic Compounds based on functional groups:
Functional Groups, in the field of organic chemistry, are the substituent atoms or groups of atoms that
are attached to specific molecules.
Defination: A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms that gives an organic compound some
characteristic properties.
A functional group is attached to the Carbon chain through its free valency or valencies. It acts
as the reactive side of the molecule.
The chemical properties of organic compounds are determined by their functional group,
whereas the remaining structure of the compound determines its physical properties.
Various classes or families of organic compounds are shown in the table below, along with
their functional groups:

---------*****---------
Nomenclature of Aliphatic Hydrocarbons:
(i) Alkanes (IUPAC Name) or Paraffins (Common Name):
Q.1) What are Alkanes?
Defination: The organic compounds that contain (consist of or are composed of) carbon and hydrogen
atoms with single bonds are called alkanes.
The general formula of Alkane is CnH2n+2
The characteristics of the functional group in an alkane is C-C or C-H
Paraffins (Greek word) = Parum + Affinity
Parum = Little (or Simple) & Affinity = Attraction
Alkanes are called paraffins because they have lesser affinity towards general reagents.
Note that:
(1) Molecular Formula: A molecular formula gives information about the number of atoms of various
elements present in a molecule.
(2) Structural Formula: The structural formula of a substance represents the exact position or arrangement
of atoms of various elements present in the molecule.
No. of Molecular Structural Formula Common IUPAC Name
C-atom Formula Name
CnH2n+2
n=1 CH4 CH4 Methane Methane
n=2 C2H6 CH3-CH3 Ethane Ethane
n=3 C3H8 CH3-CH2-CH3 Propane Propane
n=4 C4H10 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 n-Butane Butane

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 8
 n=4 C4H10 Iso-butane 2-methyl-Propane

n=5 C5H12 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 n-Pentane Pentane

n=5 C5H12 Iso-pentane 2-methyl-Butane

n=5 C5H12 Neo-pentane 2,2-dimethyl-Propane

(ii) Alkenes (IUPAC Name) or Olefins (Common Name):

Q.1) What are Alkenes?
Defination: The organic compounds that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond (>C=C<)
are called alkenes.
Olefin is a Latin word that means oil production.
The general formula of Alkene is CnH2n.
The characteristics of the functional group in an alkene is >C=C<
No. of Molecular Formula Structural Formula Common Name IUPAC Name
C-atom CnH2n
n=2 C2H4 CH2=CH2 Ethylene Ethene
n=3 C3H6 CH3-CH=CH2 Propylene Propene
n=4 C4H8 CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 α-Butylene 1-Butene
n=4 C4H8 CH3-CH=CH-CH3 β-Butylene 2-Butene

(iii) Alkynes (IUPAC Name) or Acetylenes (Common Name):

Q.1) What are Alkynes?
Defination: The organic compounds that contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond (-C≡C-)
are called alkynes.
The general formula of Alkane is CnH2n-2
The characteristics of the functional group in an alkyne is -C≡C-
No. of Molecular Formula Structural Common IUPAC Name
C-atom CnH2n-2 Formula Name
n=2 C2H2 CH≡CH Acetylene Ethyne
n=3 C3H4 CH3-C≡CH Propyne
n=4 C4H6 CH3-CH2-C≡CH 1-Butyne or But-1-yne
n=4 C4H6 CH3-C≡C-CH3 2-Butyne or But-2-yne

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 9
 ---------*****---------
HYBRIDIZATION:
Q.1) What is hybridization?
Defination: The process of mixing and recasting of atomic orbitals of the same atom having nearly
the same energy to form a new set of equivalent hybrid orbitals having the same energies, shapes
and different orientations is called hybridization (संकरीकरण).
Types of Hybridization:
Different types of hybridizations depend upon the number and type of atomic orbitals involved in
mixing with corresponding geometry and one example of the molecule is given in the following table:
Sr. Hybrid Example of
Type of Hybridization Geometry
No. orbitals Molecules
CH≡CH
1. 2 sp hybridisation Diagonal or Linear
Acetylene (Ethyne)
Trigonal planar or CH2=CH2
2. 3 sp2 hybridization
Flat Triangular Ethylene (Ethene)
CH4, Methane
3. 4 sp3 hybridisation Tetrahedral
CH3-CH3, Ethane
4. 5 sp3d hybridisation Trigonal bipyramidal PCl5

5. 6 sp3d2 hybridisation Octahedral SF6

Pentagonal
6. 7 sp3d3 hybridisation IF7
bipyramidal

1) sp3 -Hybridization:
The process of mixing and recasting one s-orbital and three p-orbitals of the valency shell
of an atom of nearly the same energy to form four new sp3 hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy
and shape is called sp3 hybridization. sp3 hybridisation is also called tetrahedral hybridization.

The four sp3-hybrid orbitals are oriented (directed) toward the four corners of a regular
tetrahedron. The molecule in which the central atom is sp3 hybridized and linked to four other atoms
has tetrahedral geometry.
The angle between them is 109028' (109.50) with one another.
The formation of CH4, Methane & CH3-CH3, Ethane, etc. can be explained as follows:

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 10
Formation of CH4:
In CH4, the central C atom undergoes sp3 hybridization, which can be shown with the help of a box
diagram as follows: C (6) = 2, 4

Formation of σ-bonds in Methane (CH4):

In Methane (CH4), the carbon atom is bonded to four hydrogen atoms. So, the carbon atom is sp3 hybridized.
Signally filled four sp3 hybrid orbital of carbon atom form σ–bonds with four hydrogen atoms (C-H bonds) by the
linear overlap of sp3 hybrid orbital of carbon with s-orbital of hydrogen atom (i.e., sp3-s overlap).
The four sp3-hybrid orbitals are oriented (directed) toward the four corners of a regular tetrahedron.
The angle between them is 109028' (109.50) with one another.
So, four sigma (σ) bonds are present in the Methane (CH4).
Bond length: In Methane, the Bond Length of C-H bond is 1.112 A0
Bond energy: The bond energy of the C-H bond in methane is 406 KJ.

---------*****---------
Formation of Ethane (CH3-CH3):
In CH3-CH3, the C-atom undergoes sp3 hybridization which can be shown with the help of a box
diagram as follows: C (6) = 2, 4

Formation of σ-bonds in Ethane (CH3-CH3):

In Ethane (CH3-CH3), each carbon atom is bonded to four other atoms (one carbon atom and three
hydrogen atoms.) So, each carbon atom is sp3 hybridized.
Signally filled four sp3 hybrid orbital of each carbon atom forms σ–bond with adjacent carbon atoms (C-C) bond
by the linear (axial or co-axial) overlap of sp3(C)-sp3 (C) hybrid orbital and a three σ–bonds with three hydrogen
atoms (C-H bonds) by the linear overlap of three sp3 hybrid orbitals of carbon with s-orbital of three hydrogen
atoms (i.e., sp3-s overlap).

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 11
 The four sp3-hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom are oriented (directed) toward the four corners
of a regular tetrahedron.
The angle between them is 109028' with one another and tetrahedral geometry.
So, seven sigma (σ) bonds are present in the Ethane (CH3-CH3).

Bond length: In ethane, Bond Length of C-C bond is 1.54 A0, and C-H bond is 1.112 A0
Bond energy: The bond energy of C-C bond is 347 KJ and C-H bond is 406 KJ in ethane.

---------*****---------
2) sp2 -Hybridization:
The process of mixing and recasting of one s-orbital and two p-orbitals of the valency shell of an
atom of nearly the same energy to form three new sp2 hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy and
shape is called sp2-hybridization.

These three sp2 hybrid orbitals are oriented along

the three corners of an equilateral triangle, making an
angle of 120° with each other.
Therefore, it is also called trigonal hybridization.
For sp2 hybridized central atoms, the only possible
molecular geometry is trigonal planar.

Formation of ethylene molecule (H2C=CH2):

In ethylene, each carbon atom undergoes sp2 hybridization.
Ground state electronic configuration of carbon, Z = 6 is 1s22s22px12py12pz0
i) Formation of σ-bonds:
In ethylene, each carbon atom is bonded to three other atoms (one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms.)
In ethylene, each carbon atom is sp2 hybridized.

Signally filled three sp2 hybrid orbital of each carbon atom forms σ–bond with adjacent carbon atoms (C-C) bond
by linear (axial or co-axial) overlap of sp2(C)-sp2 (C) hybrid orbital and a two σ–bonds with two hydrogen atoms
(C-H bonds) by the linear overlap of two sp2 hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom with s-orbital of four hydrogen
atoms (i.e., sp2-s overlap).
The three sp2-hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom are oriented (directed) toward the three
corners of an equilateral triangle, making an angle of 120° with each other and trigonal planar geometry.
So, five sigma (σ) bonds are present in the ethylene (H2C=CH2).

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 12
ii) Formation of π- bonds:
After forming three σ-bonds by each carbon atom, each carbon atom is left with one unhybridized
p-orbital containing one electron each. The p-orbitals of carbon atoms are perpendicular to the plane
of the molecule (σ-bonds) and parallel to each other & they overlap laterally (sideways) with each other
to form π-bonds because each p-orbital has two lobes or electron clouds, one lying above and the other below
the plane of the atoms.

Bond Angle and Geometry:

All the H-C-H and H-C-C bond angles are 120°. All six atoms in ethylene (Two Carbon and four Hydrogen atoms)
lie in one plane; hence, the geometry of the ethylene molecule is trigonal planar.
Bond length: In ethylene, Bond Length of C=C bond is 1.34 A0, and C-H bond is 1.103 A0
Bond energy: In ethylene, Bond energy of the C=C bond is 607 KJ, and C-H bond is 435 KJ.

---------*****---------
3) sp -Hybridization:
The process of mixing and recasting of one s-orbital and one p-orbital of the valency shell of an
atom of nearly the same energy to form two new sp-hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy and shape
is called sp-hybridization.
The two sp-hybrid orbitals are oriented in a straight line but point in the opposite direction, making an
angle of 180° with each other, resulting in a linear or diagonal geometry.

The formation of acetylene can be explained on the basis of sp-hybridization.

Formation of acetylene (ethyne, HC≡CH) molecule:

In acetylene or ethyne, each carbon atom is bonded to two other atoms (one carbon atom and one
hydrogen atom.)
In acetylene, each carbon atom is sp hybridized.
The H-C-C bond angle in acetylene is 180° and there are two pi bonds between two carbon atoms
which can be explained on the basis of sp-hybridisation.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 13
Orbital Overlap
Out of the two sp-hybrid orbitals, one half-filled sp-hybrid orbital of one carbon atom overlaps axially
with a similar half-filled sp-hybrid orbital of another carbon atom to form a C-C sigma covalent bond
by sp(C)- sp(C) overlap.
Each carbon atom's remaining half-filled sp-hybrid orbital undergoes axial overlap with the half-filled
1s orbital of the hydrogen atom, forming a C-H sigma covalent bond by sp(C)-s(H) overlap.
The unhybridized 2py and 2pz orbitals of each carbon atom then undergo lateral overlap to form two
pi (π) bonds between two carbon atoms.
Thus, the ethyne, HC≡CH molecule has three sigma bonds and two pi bonds.

Bond Angle and Geometry:

The H-C-C bond angle in acetylene is 180°. All the four atoms in the acetylene molecule lie in a
straight line. Hence, the geometry of the acetylene molecule is linear or diagonal.
Bond length: In acetylene, Bond Length of C≡C bond is 1.20 A0, and C-H bond is 1.08 A0
Bond energy: In acetylene, Bond energy of C≡C bond is 803 KJ, and C-H bond is 502 KJ.
---------*****---------

The three types of hybridization of carbon can, thus, be summarised in the following manner:

Bond Number of unhybridized Percentage Percentage

Type Geometry
angle p-orbitals s-character p-character
sp³ Tetrahedral 109°28′ 0 25.0 75.0
(109.5°)
sp² Trigonal planar 120° 1 33.3 66.6
sp Linear 180° 2 50.0 50.0
---------*****---------

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 14
Bond Length:
Q.1) What is bond length?
Defination: The average distance between the centre of the nuclei of the two bonded atoms in a
molecule is called the bond length.

The length of a covalent bond between two given atoms depends on whether it is a sigma bond or a
combination of a sigma andπ bond or π-bonds, i.e., a single, double, or triple bond.
It also depends on the type of hybridization and the resonance.
The bond length is:
Single bond > Double bond > Triple bond
The bond length of the sigma bond in different types of hybridization follows the following order:
σ -bond (sp³) > σ-bond (sp²) > σ-bond (sp)
Similarly, C-H bond length lies in the following sequence:

The bond length between two given atoms is approximately constant in different molecules
depending upon the above conditions unless it is not affected by inductive effect and mesomerism.
The bond length is expressed in angstrom units (A) or picometre (pm),
1A0 = 10-10 m, 1 pm = 10-12 m.
Bond lengths are measured by X-ray crystallography and microwave spectroscopy. For most bonds,
the values are 1 to 2 A0. However, bond length values may vary slightly depending on the structural
environment of the bond and the experimental method used to measure it.
Bond length: In Methane, the Bond Length of C-H bond is 1.112 A0
Bond length: In ethane, the Bond Length of C-C bond is 1.54 A0, and C-H bond is 1.112 A0
Bond length: In ethylene, Bond Length of C=C bond is 1.34 A0, and C-H bond is 1.103 A0
Bond length: In acetylene, Bond Length of C≡C bond is 1.20 A0, and C-H bond is 1.08 A0
The bond lengths of some common covalent bonds are listed below:

---------*****---------
Bond Energies or Bond Strengths:
Bond energy or bond strength is defined as the energy required to break a bond in a
molecule. Each bond has a characteristic value of this energy, which measures the strength of the
bond. It is generally observed that the shorter the bond length, the greater the bond energy, i.e., the
greater the strength of the bond. The carbon-carbon bonds, single, double, and triple, are not of equal
strength; with the shortening of bond length, bond strength increases.
It is in the following order:

The unit of Bond energy or bond strength is kJ mol-1 or kJ/mol

Similarly, C-H bond strength lies in the following sequence:

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 15
Bond energy: In methane, the bond energy of the C-H bond is 406 KJ.
Bond energy: In ethane, bond energy of C-C bond is 347 KJ and C-H bond is 406 KJ.
Bond energy: In ethylene, Bond energy of the C=C bond is 607 KJ, and C-H bond is 435 KJ.
Bond energy: In acetylene, Bond energy of C≡C bond is 803 KJ, and C-H bond is 502 KJ.
---------*****---------
Hydrogen Bonding in Organic Compounds:
Hydrogen Bonding in Organic Compounds:
In 1920, Latimer and Rodebush introduced the idea of the "hydrogen bond" to explain the
nature of the association in the liquid state of substances like water (H2O), hydrogen fluoride (HF),
ammonia (NH3), and formic acid, etc.
In a hydrogen compound, when a hydrogen atom lies between two atoms having high
electronegative charges, it shows a unique property of forming a bond or a bridge between them,
holding one of the atoms by a covalent bond and the other by purely electrostatic forces (dipole-dipole
attraction).
This chemical combination between highly electronegative atoms of small atomic radius, such
as F, O, and N, through a hydrogen bond, is referred to as a Hydrogen bond or Hydrogen bridge.
For example:
In H-F, the hydrogen is attached to a strongly electronegative element, fluorine.
As a result, fluorine acquires a partial negative charge, and hydrogen acquires a partial positive
charge [ Hδ+—F δ-].
A negative charge on the fluorine atom in another molecule of hydrogen fluoride will electrostatically
attract the positive charge on hydrogen in that molecule.
This electrostatic attraction (dipole-dipole attraction) between different molecules of hydrogen fluoride
continues, forming a large molecular aggregate.

So, the linkage between hydrogen and the other fluorine is simply due to electrostatic forces
of attraction, which results in a weak bond, commonly known as the Hydrogen Bond and represented
by dotted lines (—-—-—-).
Definition: A hydrogen bond is "an electrostatic attractive force between the covalently bonded
hydrogen atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom (such as F, O, N) of the other
molecule".

The resultant bond (hydrogen bond) is weaker (strength about 2-10 kcal/mol or 8.4-42 kJ/mol)
as compared to a covalent bond (strength about 50-100 kcal/mol or 209-418.4 kJ/mol).
Liquids in which hydrogen bonds hold molecules together are said to be associated. Such
liquids have high boiling points due to the greater energy required to break the hydrogen bonds
present in them.
1) Examples of H-bonding between the two molecules of the same compounds are:

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 16
2) Examples of H-bonding in between the two molecules of different compounds are:

---------*****---------
Conditions for Hydrogen Bonding:
(i) Hydrogen atoms such as F, O or N should be linked to highly electronegative atoms.
(ii) The size of the electronegative atom should be small. The smaller the size, the greater the
electrostatic attraction.
The higher the electronegativity and the smaller the size of the atom (F, O, N), the stronger the
hydrogen bond, which is evident from the relative order of energies of hydrogen bonds in the three
elements.
For example, electronegativities decrease as F > O > N.
Consequently, the strength of hydrogen bond decreases as:
H-F-------H > H-O----H > H-N---H
10 kcal/mol 7 kcal/mol 2 kcal/mol
Note:
Although Chlorine (Cl) has the same electronegativity as Nitrogen (N), no hydrogen bonds are
formed in H-Cl because the Cl atom is larger.
Similarly, sulphur (S) forms a very weak hydrogen bond due to its low electronegativity, although
oxygen (O) in the same group forms a strong hydrogen bond.
---------*****---------
Types of Hydrogen Bonding:
Generally speaking, the hydrogen bonds can be classified into two categories:
(1) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding: (Occurs between two neighbouring molecules)
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is a weak attractive force between molecules that occurs
when a hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to a partially negatively charged atom in another
molecule.
This type of bonding occurs between two or more identical or different molecules when
combined to form a dimer or polymer, respectively, and leads to a phenomenon called association.

Examples are:

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 17
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases the compound's boiling point and solubility in
water. The increase in boiling point is due to the association of several molecules of the
compound.
(2) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding: (Occurs within the same molecule itself)
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding occurs within two atoms of the same molecule, leading
to chelation.

This type of hydrogen bonding frequently occurs in organic compounds and results in the cyclisation
(six- or five-membered ring) of the molecule.
Examples are:

This type of hydrogen bonding decreases the compound's boiling point and its solubility in
water.
The chelation between the ortho-substituted groups restricts the possibility of intermolecular
hydrogen bonding. It thus prevents the association of the molecules, which would have raised the
melting point or boiling point.
In m- and p-isomers, chelation does not take place because the two groups (atoms) are far apart,
and hence, in such cases, intermolecular hydrogen bonding occurs.
Thus, we can explain the lower melting and boiling points of the ortho isomers of hydroxy, nitro, and
carbonyl compounds than their corresponding m- and p-isomers.
Intramolecular hydrogen bonds are also considered to influence the acidity of certain acids.
Thus, o-hydroxy benzoic acid is about 18 times more acidic than benzoic acid, whereas p-hydroxy
benzoic acid is half as acidic as benzoic acid, i.e.,

The considerable acidity of Salicylic acid is due to the intramolecular hydrogen bonding, which
stabilises the salicylate ion.
Thus, intramolecular H-bonding is weaker than intermolecular H-bonding.
---------*****---------

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 18
Nature and Importance of Hydrogen Bonding:
(i) A hydrogen bond is merely an electrostatic force rather than a chemical bond.
(ii) Hydrogen bond never involves more than two atoms.
(iii) The bond energy of a hydrogen bond is in the range of 3 to 10 kcal/mol or 10 to 40 kJ/mol,
i.e., about 1/10th the energy of a covalent bond.
(iv) With the increase of electronegativity of the atom to which hydrogen is covalently linked,
the strength of the hydrogen bond increases.
(v) All the three atoms in X-H---X lie in a straight line.
---------*****---------

Effects of Hydrogen Bonding on Physical Properties:

(i) Solubility:
Lower alcohols are soluble in water because of the hydrogen bonding that can take place
between water and alcohol molecules.
(ii) Volatility:
As the compounds involving hydrogen bonding between different molecules have a higher
boiling point, they are less volatile.
(iii) Viscosity and surface tension:
Substances containing hydrogen bonding exist as associated molecules, so their flow
becomes comparatively difficult. They have higher viscosity and high surface tension.
The lower density of ice than water:
In solid ice, hydrogen bonding gives rise to a cage-like structure of water molecules. Each
water molecule is linked tetrahedral to four other water molecules. The molecules are not as closely
packed as they are in a liquid state. When ice melts, this case-like structure collapses, and the
molecules come closer to each other.
Thus, the volume decreases, and density increases for the same mass of water. Therefore,
ice has a lower density than water at 273 K, which is why ice floats.
---------*****---------
Q.1) Differentiate between Intermolecular hydrogen bonding and Intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
Ans:
S.No. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding Intramolecular hydrogen bonding
1. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding occurs Intramolecular hydrogen bonding occurs within
between two neighbouring molecules. the same molecule itself.
2. Has high melting & boiling points and low Has low melting & boiling points and high
vapour pressure. vapour pressure.
3. Stability is comparatively high. Stability is relatively low.
4. Examples: Water, methyl alcohol, ethyl Examples: o-nitrophenol and salicylic acid,
alcohol, ammonia, hydrogen fluoride and
sugar.

---------*****---------

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 19
 Unit-III B) Electronic Displacements Or Mobility of electrons:

B) Electronic Displacements: Inductive, Electromeric, Resonance, and Mesomeric effects; Hyperconjugation and its
applications; dipole moment; organic acids and bases; their relative strength, with emphasis on factors affecting pKa
values.
The covalent bond is non-polar (e.g., Cl-Cl), but some factors cause polarisation.
Mobility (or migration or transmission or displacement) of electrons in the covalent bonds can be studied with the
help of two effects, which are (i) Inductive effect & (ii) Electromeric effect.
(i) Inductive Effect: Or Transmission Effect:
(Mobility or Migration or Transmission of electrons in the single covalent bond)
Q.1) Define the Inductive effect with suitable examples. (S-11, S-12 & S-17, 2 Mark)
Q.2) What is the Inductive effect? Explain –I & +I effects with suitable examples. (W-12, 4 Mark)
Q.3) Explain the Inductive effect with suitable examples. (W-13 & S-15, 4 Mark)
Q.4) Explain the term: Inductive effect with suitable examples. (W-14, S-15 & W-18, 2-4 Mark)
Q.5) Discuss the application of the Inductive effect. (S-18, 4 Mark)
Q.6) Define the Inductive effect and discuss its applications. (S-19, 4 Mark)
Q.7) The correct order of substituents with respect to inductive effect is: (W-22, 1 Mark)
(a) -NR2 < -OR < -F (b) -F < -OR < -NR2 (c) -OR < -F < -NR2 (d) -OR < -NR2 < -F
Q.8) Explain the Inductive effect and its applications. (S-23, 4 Mark)
Q.9) -CH3 shows ___________ inductive effect.
Q.10) +I effect (inductive effect) is shown by
(a) -CH3 (b) -OH (c) -F (d) -C6H5
Q.11) Which of the following statements about inductive effect is correct?
(a) It involves electrons in σ-bond (b) The electron pair is only slightly displaced during the +I effect
(c) It is a diminishing effect (becoming smaller) (d) All are correct
Q.12) In benzyl amine amino group is a
(a) – I group (b) + M group (c) + I group (d) both (a) and (b)
Q.13) Arrange the following in the decreasing order of essential strength
(i) Pyrrole (ii) Pyridine (iii) Aniline
(a) i > ii > iii (b) ii > iii > i (c) ii = iii = i (d) iii > ii > i
Q. 14) Which of the following is strongest – I group
(a) – F (b) – Cl (c) – Br (d) – I
Q.15) Inductive effect refers to –
(a) Electron displacement along a carbon chain through σ-bond
(b) Complete transfer of one of the shared pair of electrons to one of the atoms joined by a double bond
(c) Complete transfer of unshared electrons (d) None of the above
Q.16) Which of the following groups has the highest inductive effect?
(a) -CH3 (b) CH3CH2- (c) (CH3)2CH- (d) (CH3)3C-
Ans: Inductive Effect:
In a covalent bond between two dissimilar atoms, the electron pair forming the bond is never shared
equally between the two atoms but is attracted a little more toward the more electronegative atom of the two.
e.g., The electron pair forming the C-X bond is somewhat more attracted towards the atom X with the result –
it attains a partial negative charge (-δ) while the carbon atoms attain a partial positive charge (+δ).
Defination: Inductive effect is the permanent polarization (polarity produced, i.e.,+δ & -δ) of a single
covalent bond due to a difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms.
Or The effect of an electric dipole on the single covalent bond is called the Inductive effect.

Salient features:
i) It occurs in saturated compounds.
ii) It is a permanent effect.
iii) It involves the displacement or migration or transmission of the sigma electrons (bond).
iv) It is observed only when a single covalent bond joins the atoms with different electronegativity.
v) In this effect, the electron-shared pair is displaced within the shell (i.e., without leaving the octet
of the bonded atoms.
vi) Attacking reagents is not required.
vii) Due to this effect, partial opposite but equal charges (+δ & -δ) developed on the two atoms.
viii) The inductive effect decreases as we go away from the electron donating or withdrawing
group. i.e., C1 (+δ) > C2 (++δ) > C3 (+++δ) and after the third carbon, the charges are negligible.
ix) The inductive effect can be relayed from one atom to another in a chain of carbon atoms.
x) It is denoted by an arrow (→), which shows the direction of displacement of the electron-shared
pair.
xi) It is represented/designated by ‘I’.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 20
 xii) Examples or Representation:
+ + + + −
a) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 Cl
In this, the electronegativity of Chlorine is greater than Carbon.

− − − − +

b) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 Li
In this, the electronegativity of Carbon is greater than Lithium.

Types of Inductive effect:

The inductive effect is of two types, viz. positive inductive effect and negative inductive effect.
i) Positive inductive effect (+I effect):
Defination:
The atoms or group of atoms that donate (or release or repel or push) a shared pair of electrons (bonded pair)
from themselves and thus acquire partial positive charge (+δ), called positive inductive effect (+I effect).
Note: i) +I group: Electron donating, releasing, or repelling group show +I effect.
ii) Representation:
+
+
C D C CH3

Donar atom / group

iii) The + I effect of atoms or groups of atoms decreases as the number of α-hydrogen decreases.
iv) Decreasing order of +I effect of atoms or group of atoms is as,
O - > RCOOO - > (CH 3 ) 3 C- > (CH 3 ) 2 CH- > CH 3 CH 2 - > CH 3 - > -H, etc.
v) Examples:
Alkyl groups show +I effect: (CH 3 ) 3 C- > (CH 3 ) 2 CH- > CH 3 CH 2 - > CH 3 -
ii) Negative inductive effect (-I effect):
Defination:
The atoms or group of atoms that withdraw or attract a shared pair of electrons towards itself and
thus acquire partial negative charge (-δ), called negative inductive effect (-I effect).
Note: i) -I group: Electron attracting or withdrawing or accepting group show -I effect.
ii) Representation:
−
−
C W C Cl

Withdrawing atom / group

iii) The - I effect of atoms or groups of atoms decreases as the electronegativity of the atom or group
of atoms decreases. ( -F > -Cl > - B r > -I )
iv) Due to the – I effect, the basic nature of the compound is decreased.
v) The compound's acidic nature is increased due to the -I effect.
vi) In order of -I effect of atoms or group of atoms is as,
+
R 3 N - > - NO 2 > - C N > -S O 3 H > - CHO > - CO > -F > – C O O H > - CO C l > - C O NH 2 >
-C l >- Br > -I > - O H >- O C H 3 > - NH 2 > -C 6 H 5 > -C H =C H 2 > - H, e t c.
v) Examples: -O H, -O CH 3 , - Cl , - B r, -I , – CO O H , - C N, -N O 2 , e t c.
[Note that:
i)The terminology +I and –I am due to Ingold, while Robinson has suggested the opposite
sign.
ii) To avoid confusion, we shall use Ingold terminology throughout.]
-----*****-----
Applications of inductive effect:
Q.1) Discuss the application of the Inductive effect. (S-18, 4 Mark)
Q.2) Define the Inductive effect and discuss the applications of the Inductive effect. (S-19, 4 Mark)
Q.3) Why chloroacetic acid is stronger than acetic acid? (W-19, 4
Mark)
Q.4) Acetic acid is a weaker acid than formic acid. This is explained by _____
(a) Mesomeric effect (b) Inductive effect (c) Hyperconjugation (d) Electromeric effect
Applications of inductive effect:
(i) To determine the stability of free radicals, cations, and anions, the following relationships are
considered:
a) Stability of carbocation or free radical is directly proportional to the + I power of the group.
Thus, the stability order for carbonium ions and free radicals is 30 > 20 > 10
b) Stability of carbanions directly proportional to - I power of the group.
Thus, the stability order for carbanion is 10 > 20 > 30

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 21
(ii) In determining the strength of acids and bases anions, the following relations are considered:
a) The strength of the acid is directly proportional to the - I power of the group present in the acid.
(i.e., the Acidic nature of the compound is increased by the – I effect)

For example:
i) Relative strength of chloroacetic acid and acetic acid.
The strength of an acid depends on its tendency to release H+ ions in aqueous solution in the form of
H3O ions. The greater the tendency to release H+ ions in the aqueous solution in the form of H3O+ ions, the
+

greater the strength of an acid.

The strength of an acid is expressed in terms of pKa value—the lesser the pKa value, the more
significant the strength of an acid.
In chloroacetic acid, chlorine's electron-withdrawing effect (-I effect) facilitates proton release in the
form of H3O+ ion in an aqueous solution.
(Chloroacetic acid is stronger than acetic acid since Cl shows the (-I) effect, the electron density is decreased, and
the O-H bond is weakened, causing ionisation of -COOH to a greater extent than CH3COOH).
Hence, chloroacetic acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid.

ii) Relative strength of acetic acid and formic acid.

Q.4) Acetic acid is a weaker acid than formic acid. This is explained by _____
(a) Mesomeric effect (b) Inductive effect (c) Hyperconjugation (d) Electromeric effect

In acetic acid, the electron-donating methyl group (+I effect) opposes the release of proton in the form
of hydronium ion (H3O+) in an aqueous solution. Hence, formic acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid.

b) The strength of the base is directly proportional to the + I power of the group present in the base.
Q.1) Which of the following is the weakest base?
(a) NH3 (b) CH3NH2 (c) (CH3)2NH (d) (CH3)3N
For example:
Relative strength of methyl amine and ammonia:
The strength of the nitrogen-containing base depends on the availability of a nitrogen
lone pair for protonation. The greater the availability of nitrogen lone pair for protonation, the greater
the strength of the base.
In terms of pKb values, the lesser the pKb values, the greater the strength of the base.

Due to the electron donating inductive effect (+I effect) of the methyl group, there is
an increase in electron density on nitrogen, increasing the availability of nitrogen lone pair for
protonation/donation. Hence methyl amine is a stronger base than ammonia.
-----*****-----
Note that: NH3 is a base due to lone-pair on nitrogen. Phenyl group (-C6H5) is an electron-withdrawing. What happens to the electron
density of nitrogen in aniline?
Naturally, electron density is decreased on nitrogen. Hence aniline is a weaker base than NH3.
-----*****-----

Mobility or displacement of electrons in multiple bonds:

Introduction:
It is a temporary effect observed in compounds containing at least one π-bond or that
undergo an addition reaction.
In the electromeric effect, π-bonded electrons are completely transferred by leaving the octet of
one atom when exposed to a reagent.
This phenomenon is known as Electromerization.
Due to such electron transfer, one atom loses an electron and gets a positive charge (+), while
the other gains an electron and gets a negative charge (-). A curved arrow shows this electron
transfer ( ) whose head shows the position of the transfer of electrons.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 22
 (ii) Electromeric Effect:
(Mobility or Migration or displacement of electrons in the multiple covalent bond)
Q.1) Define Electromeric effect with suitable examples. (S-12, W-16 & S-18, 2 Mark)
Q.2) Explain Electromeric effect with suitable example. (S-13, W-13 & S-17, 4 Mark)
Q.3) What is electromeric effect? (S-16,1 Mark)
Q.4) Shifting of electrons of a multiple bond under the influence of a reagent is called_____.
(a) I-effect (b) M-effect (c) E-effect (d) T-effect
Q.5) Which of the following shows electromeric effect?
(a) Alkane (b) Alkyl amines (c) Alkyl halides (d) Aldehydes
Ans: Electromeric Effect:
Defination: The temporary complete transfer of π-bonded electron pair from one atom to another joined by
multiple bonds (double or triple bond) in the presence of a suitable attacking reagent (such as electrophile or
nucleophile) is called as Electromeric effect.
Or The shifting of electrons of multiple bonds under the influence of a reagent is called the Electromeric effect.
Salient features:
i) It occurs in unsaturated compounds (e.g. C=C or C≡C bond).
ii) It is a temporary effect. (W-12, ½ Mark)
iii) It is related to the migration or transfer of electrons in π-bond and observed only in the presence of attacking
suitable (proper) reagent.
iv) It is observed only when the atoms are joined by multiple (double or triple bond) covalent bonds with
the same or different electronegativity.
v) In this effect, the complete transfer of the electron-shared pair leaves the octet of one of the two atoms.
vi) It occurs in the presence of an attacking reagent.
vii) Due to this effect, one atom becomes negatively (-) charged, and another becomes positively charged (+).
viii) The electromeric effect falls off when the attacking reagent is removed (It may be called polarisability of
multiple bonds).
ix) The electromeric effect can be relayed from one atom to another if they alternate single and double bonds
present in the compounds.
x) A curved arrow denotes it ( ), which shows the direction in which electrons are shifted.
xi) It is represented/designated by ‘E’.
xii) Representation / Examples:
Attacking reagent A B
A B
Removal of reagent
a) Electromeric effect in alkene:

b) Electromeric effect in Carbon chain (Relayed of π-electrons from one atom to another):
Attacking reagent
C=C-C=C-C=C C-C=C-C=C-C
Removal of reagent
[ Note: As soon as the attacking reagent is removed, the normal electronic condition is restored.]
Types of Electromeric effect:
Electromeric effect is of two types.
(i) Positive electromeric effect (+E effect):
When the transfer of π-electrons occurs towards the atom where the attacking reagent
(electrophile) attaches, the effect is called the positive electromeric effect (+E effect).
For example: Addition of acids to alkenes:

C=C + H C C

H
(ii) Negative electromeric effect (-E effect)
When the transfer of π -electrons occurs away from the atom where the attacking reagent (nucleophile)
attaches, the effect is called the negative electromeric effect (-E effect).
For example: Addition of cyanide ion to carbonyl compounds.

C=O + CN C O
CN

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 23
 Applications of electromeric effect:
There are a number of organic reactions that involve the electromeric effect.
(i) Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes and alkynes.
(ii) Nucleophilic addition reactions of carbonyl compounds (e.g. aldehydes and ketones)
(iii) Electrophilic substitution reactions of aromatic compounds.
Keep in mind:
i) When inductive and electromeric effects operate in the same molecule but in the opposite direction, the electromeric
effect overcomes the inductive effect.
ii) The electromeric effect is temporary and not reflected in the physical properties of the concerned molecule.
-----*****-----
Resonance or Mesomerism:
It occurs in conjugated systems.
Sometimes, all the properties of a molecule or an ion cannot be explained on the basis of a single valence-
bond structure but two or more structures. Under such conditions, it is assumed that the actual structure of a molecule
or an ion is the hybrid of all possible valence bond structures—called resonance structures. This actual
structure is called a ‘resonance hybrid,' and the molecule or an ion is said to show resonance.
Definition: The double bond keeps on changing its positions, and this is called Resonance.
Resonance is also called mesomerism.
Note that:
I) Bond length of C-C bond = 1.54 Ao
II) Bond length of C=C bond = 1.34 Ao
I II III) Bond length of all C-C bonds in Benzene = 1.39 Ao
Resonance structure of Benzene Resonance hybrid

The alternative structures (I) and (II) are referred to as the resonance structures or Canonical forms.
The actual structure of the molecule may be represented as a resonance hybrid of these two
structures or by the single structural formula (III).
Important Note:
Experimentally that Bond Length (B. L.) of all C-C bonds in benzene are identical, i.e, B.L.= 1.39Ao.
Example-2) Allyl carbocation can be represented as a resonance hybrid of two resonance structures
I and II.

H2C CH CH2 CH2 CH CH2  CH2 CH CH2

I II Resonance hybrid
Resonance structures are also called cannonical structures.
A double-headed arrow ( ) is used to indicate the possible valence bond structures.
During the hybridization of resonance structures, resonance energy is released, stabilising
the molecule or an ion. The resonance hybrid possesses less energy than any of the resonance
structures.
The difference in energy between a compound's most stable resonance structure and
resonance hybrid is called Resonance energy.
Resonance Energy = Energy of Resonating structures - Energy of Resonance hybrid
i.e., Resonance Energy = Calculated value - Actual value
Resonance Energy = - 86 - ( - 50 )
Resonance Energy = - 36 Kcal/mol
The greater the resonance energy, the greater the stability of a molecule or an ion due to resonance.
Necessary conditions for resonance:
• 1) All the resonating structures must have the same arrangement of atomic nuclei.
• 2) The resonating structures must have the same number of paired and unpaired electrons. However, they
• differ in the way of distribution of electrons.
• 3) The energies of the various limiting structures must be the same or nearly the same.
• 4) Resonating structures must be planar.
5) All the resonating structures do not contribute equal to the real molecule and hence only the major
contributing forms are used while representing a resonance hybrid.
▪ A molecule can have resonance structures when it has a lone pair or a double bond on the
atom next to a double bond.
(iii) Resonance Effect or Mesomeric effect:
Q.1) Explain the term: Resonance effect with suitable example. (S-16, 2 Mark)
Q.2) Define Mesomeric effect with suitable examples. (S-18, 2 Mark)
Q.3) What is mesomeric effect? Explain in detail. (W-22, 4 Mark)
Q.4) Which of the following ions exhibit resonance?

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 24
Q.5) Mesomeric effect is a permanent effect in which π electrons are transferred from a _____.
(a) Multiple bond to an atom (b) Multiple bond to a single covalent bond (c) Both (a) & (b) (d) None
Q.6) Benzyl cation is stabilized by ____.
(a) Resonance (b) Hyperconjugation (c) Both (a) & (b) (d) Inductive effect
Q.7) Mesomeric effect (Resonance effect) involves the delocalization of ______.
(a) Protons (b) σ electrons (c) π electrons (d) None of these
Q.8) The group which exhibits -M effect is
(a) -CHO (b) -CΞN (c) -NO2 (d) All
The effect caused by the phenomenon of resonance (or mesomerism) in molecules is called the resonance
effect or mesomeric effect.
Definition:
Resonance effects can either donate or withdraw electron density, depending on whether
they place a ‘+ve’ or ‘–ve’ charge on Carbon atoms of the benzene ring.
Resonance is a permanent effect observed only in the molecules or ions with a substituent
containing the conjugated system of π-bonds or conjugated system of π-bond & lone pair of electrons.
Thus, π-electrons are involved in the resonance effect.
OR
The polarity produced in a molecule as a result of interaction between two conjugated
π-bonds or π-bond and lone pair of electrons is called resonance effect or mesomeric effect.
Types of resonance effect:
Resonance effect (mesomeric effect) is of two types:
(i) Positive Resonance Effect (+ M or + R effect):
The atom or group of atoms donates electrons to the double bond or a conjugated π-bond system
called the + M or +R effect.

+ M or +R effect is electron donating when resonance structures place a ‘-ve’ charge on

carbon atoms of the benzene ring.
+R effect is observed when Z-atom has a lone pair of electrons except that alkyl group (R-)
is directly bonded to the benzene ring.
The atom of the group is directly attached to the benzene ring is called
as Key atom

Z = R / N /O/ X

e.g.
:

OH OH + OH
:
:

:OH OH

− −

Phenol I II III
−
Resonance structures of Phenol Resonance hybrid
Three R.S. place a -ve charge on C-atoms in the ring

Z= Cl , Br , I , OH , NH2 , etc.
OR ,
.. .. .. O
..
Examples: 1) NH2 2) : OH 3) : O-CH3 4) : O-C-CH3 5) CH3

(ii) Negative Resonance Effect (- R effect):

The atom or group of atoms that withdraw electrons from the double bond or a conjugated
system of π-bond towards itself is called the —M or -R effect.

-R effect is electron withdrawing when resonance structures place a ‘+ve’ charge on carbon
atoms of the benzene ring.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 25
–R effect is observed when π-bond between Y & Z and Z is more electronegative than Y.

The atom of the group is directly attached to the benzene ring is called as
Key atom.

C– atom is key atom

Z is more EN-atom than Y & N is more EN than C-atom
(i.e. Z > Y ) + 1.- e.g.

In these groups, the key atom (-Y=Z) is positively charged are joined to the more electronegative atom (Z) by
multiple bonds (double or triple bonds).

O O O
ll ll ll
For example: -NO2, -SO3H, -C≡N, − C − H , − C − OH , − C − Cl etc.
O O O OH O H
N C C

Note: Compounds' stability depends upon forming more resonating structures.

Applications of resonance effect:
Resonance effect is helpful to explain:
(i) Stabilities of molecules and ions, (ii) Unexpected bond lengths in molecules and ions.
(iii) Acidity of phenols and basicity of amines & (iv) Mechanism of reactions.
-----*****-----
(iv) Hyperconjugation or No Bond Resonance or Hyperconjugative effect:
Q.1) Explain the term: Hyperconjugation or No Bond Resonance or Hyperconjugative effect with a suitable example.
(W-12, S-14 & W-14, 4 Mark)
Q.2) Delocalization of σ-bond electrons with π-bond electron is called as: (W-17, ½ Mark)
(a) Inductive effect (b) Resonance effect (c) Hyperconjugative effect (d) Electromeric effect.
Q.3) Explain: Hyperconjugation (W-18, 2 Mark)
Q.4) Hypercongjugation effect is also called as ___________.
Q.5) What is mean by hyperconjugation effect?
Q.6) Which of the following has the maximum number of hyper conjugative structures?
(a) Isopropyl carbonium ion (b) Tertiary butyl carbonium ion (c) n-propyl carbonium ion (d) Benzyl carbonium
ion
Q.7) Hyperconjugation involves overlap of the following orbitals
(a) σ→σ (b) σ→p (c) p→p (d) π→π
Q.8) Hyperconjugation involves the _______.
(a) σ-bond (b) π-bond (c) Both σ and π bond (d) None these
Ans: Hyperconjugation or No Bond Resonance or Hyperconjugative effect or Baker-Nathan effect:
The idea of hyperconjugation was put forward by Baker and Nathan in 1935.
The number of hyperconjugation structures can explain the relative stability of carbonium ions or free radicals.
Such structures are obtained by shifting the bonding electrons from an adjacent C-H bond to the electron-deficient
carbon.
In this way, the positive charge originally on carbon is shifted (dispersed) to the hydrogen.
This manner of electron release, which assumes a no-bond character in the adjacent C-H bond, is called
hyperconjugation or no-bond resonance.
Defination:
1) The interaction of σ-electrons of C-H bond with π- electrons of the double bond is called
hyperconjugation.
Or 2) The electron release through σ →π conjugation is known as the Hyperconjugation effect.
Or 3) Delocalization of σ-bond electrons with π-bond electrons is called Hyperconjugation effect.

The more hyperconjugative (no-bond resonance) structures, the more stable the species.
Note: Number of hyperconjugative structures = number of α-Hydrogen.
Occurrence: Free radicals (saturated type) & Carbonium ion (saturated type)
Condition: Presence of π-H with respect to a double bond or triple bond carbon or carbon-containing positive
charge (in Carbonium ion) or unpaired electron (in Free radicals)
For example-1):
The ability of alkyl groups to release electrons via the hyperconjugative effect increases the stability of free
radicals.
In general, the more hyperconjugative structures, the greater the stability of free radicals.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 26
Hence, the decreasing order of stability of alkyl free radicals is,

.
CH2 H CH2 H

CH3 C
. CH3 C

CH3 CH3
0
3 butyl free radical 9 equivalent forms
.
CH2 H CH2 H

.. CH3 C
CH3 C

H H
0
2 -free radical 6- equivalent forms
.
CH2 H CH2 H

. H C
H C

H H
0
3- equivalent forms
1 -free radical
H
. No - equivalent forms
H C
H
0
1 - methyl free radical
The ability of alkyl groups to release electrons via the hyperconjugative effect increases the stability of
carbocation.
In general, the more hyperconjugative structures, the greater the stability of carbocation.
Hence, the decreasing order of stability of alkyl carbocations is,

CH2-H CH2 H

+
CH3 C CH3 C

CH3 CH3
0
3 -butyl carbonium ion 9 equivalent forms
+
CH2-H CH2 H

+
CH3 C CH3 C

H H
0
2 -carbonium ion 6- equivalent forms
+
CH2-H CH2 H

+
H C H C

H H
0
1 -carbonium ion 3- equivalent forms
H
+
H C No - equivalent forms

H
0
1 - methyl carbonium ion

Applications of hyperconjugation:
The concept of hyperconjugation is used to explain relative stabilities of alkenes, carbocations and free radicals. The greater
the number of hyper conjugative structures the greater is the stability of the molecule or ion.
a) Relative stabilities of alkenes: Propene is more stable than ethene. Hyperconjugative structures of
propene is given as

Thus propene has three hyperconjugative structures while ethene has no hyperconjugative structure (due to
absence of α-hydrogen atom) and hence propene is more stable than ethene.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 27
 Dipole Moment:
Q.1) Dipole moment decides the polar nature of the compound.
Q.2) What is a dipole moment?

Dipole Moment (Change in Dipole moment):

The degree of polarity of a molecule is usually expressed in terms of dipole moment.
Consider a polar molecule like AB, which has two atoms with different electronegativities
covalently bonded together. This molecule behaves as two centers of opposite charges, called
a dipole or electric dipole.
𝛿+ 𝛿−
___________
𝐴 𝐵
Dipole
Defination: Dipole moment is ‘the product of the magnitude of the charge on any one of the
atoms and the distance between them’.
A dipole moment, µ, is the charge value multiplied by the separation distance between positive
and negative charges.
There is a slight positive and negative charge on its component atoms, and changing the
distance between charged particles (atoms) is called a change in dipole moment.
It is denoted by ‘µ’
𝐴−−−−−− 𝐵
+𝑞 −𝑞
<________ r (or d)_______>
Mathematically, the dipole moment is given by
µ = q .r or µ = q .d (Unit: C.m) …………(1)
Where q = Charge on any one of the atoms
r (or d) = distance between the atoms.
In SI units, charge ‘q’ is expressed in coulomb (C) and distance is in meter (m). The SI unit of dipole
moment is coulomb.meter (C.m).
The conversion factor is 1 D = 3.33564 x 10-30 C.m
Application:
The dipole moment is used to determine or measure net molecular polarity, bond angle in molecules and the size
and shape of compounds.
-----*****-----

Organic Acids and Bases:

Acid Base
Taste Sour Bitter
Litmus Paper Blue turns into Red Red turns into Blue
The substance that gives hydrogen The substance that gives hydroxide
ions (H+) when dissolved in water is ions (OH-) when dissolved in water
Arrhenius Theory called an acid. is called a base.

Lowry-Bronsted Acid is a substance that tends to The base is a substance that tends
Theory donate an H+ ion or a proton to to accept an H+ ion or a proton
another substance. from another substance.
e.g.: HCl, HNO3, etc e.g.: NH3, OH-, Cl-, etc
Q.1) What are conjugate acid-base pairs? Explain with an example.
Ans: Conjugate acid-base pair:
According to this theory, every acid has its conjugate base, i.e., self-
generated base, and every base has its conjugate acid, i.e., self-generated
acid.
Definition:
A pair of acid and base, the members of which can be formed from one
another by either loss on a gain of a proton, is called a conjugate acid-base
pair. OR
A pair of an acid and a base that differ from one another by a proton only is
called a conjugate acid-base pair.
Explanation: Consider ionisation of HCI in water

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 28
 Lewis acid is any species Lewis base is any species
(molecules, atoms or ions) that can (molecules, atoms or ions) that can
accept a lone pair of electrons to donate a lone pair of electrons to
Lewis Theory
form a coordinate bond. form a coordinate bond.
Examples: H+, Ag+, Cu++, BF3, AlF3, Examples: NH3, H2O, OH-, CN-, etc
etc.

-----*****-----
Ionization Constant (Strength of acids and bases):
The strength of an acid is determined in terms of its ionization or dissociation constant or dissociation
constant, Ka and the dissociation of an acid HA is expressed by the following equation.
Let us consider the dissociation of the compound 'HA.'

Expressing acidity in terms of Ka can be inconvenient for practical purposes. Therefore, pka is used.
Note that:
Ka is a unitless quantity. The value of Ka refers to the extent of proton donation.
The larger the numerical value of Ka, the stronger the acid.
By using the negative logarithm of the dissociation constant as expressed below
pKa= - log10 Ka
The stronger an acid, the lower its pKa value; the stronger its base, the greater its pKa.
The following values demonstrate this point
Acid H2O C6H5OH C6H5COOH CH3COOH
pKa= - log10 Ka 14 10 6.6 4.76
In the above series as the strength of the acid increases, the pK a progressively decreases.
-----*****-----
Factors affecting on pKa values:
The various factors responsible for pKa values of the acidity and basicity of organic compounds.
The following are the main factors responsible for the acidity and basicity of organic
compounds:
a) Resonance effect, b) Inductive effect & c) Hybridization effect
a) Resonance Effect:
The following examples will demonstrate the effect of electron resonance in a molecule on its
acidity and basicity.

Both phenol and ethanol contain the -OH group and thus would be expected to be acidic.
Indeed, both are acidic. Phenol reacts with strong bases (NaOH), while alcohol forms salts with
electropositive metals (Na) only. But phenol (Ka=10-10) is much more acidic than alcohol (Ka-10-29).
This difference in acidity is explained by the fact that the phenoxide ion is stabilized by resonance,
while ethoxide (-OC2H5) is not.
The different resonance structures for phenoxide ions may be written as follows:
The phenoxide ion obtained by the loss of proton from phenol is found to be more stable by
resonance than phenol.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 29
 :
O:

:
O: O:

:
: O:

:
:O H
+ R-effect

-H
Phenol Phenoxide ion I II III
Resonance structures of Phenoxide ion
having only one -ve charge on C-atoms in the ring

In short, phenol is acidic, as reflected by its common name, carbolic acid, for the following two
reasons:-
i) O–H bond becomes weak due to resonance.
ii) Phenoxide ion obtained by proton (H+) loss is stabilized by resonance more than phenol.
Such a resonance is not possible in alcohols (aliphatic or aromatic), and therefore, they are neutral.
Although phenol is more acidic than alcohol, it is less so than carboxylic acids (Ka=105).
Resonance similarly influences the basicity of organic molecules. Aniline is less basic than
ammonia because the electron pair on the nitrogen atom in aniline is less available for donation due
to resonance with the ring.
+
H N H
NH2 NH2 NH2 NH2
− −

−
I II III IV V
Electron density on N is less Resonance hybrid
On the other hand, anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton can have only two resonating
structures (Kekule structure).
..
NH2 NH3 NH3
+ H
(from Acid)
Aniline
(Weak Base) I II
Aromatic Amine Two resonating structures

We know that the greater the resonating structures, the greater the stability. Thus aniline
(more resonating structures) is more stable than anilinium ion. Hence, the proton acceptability or
the basic nature of aniline or other aromatic amines would be less than ammonia. Hence, aromatic
amines are less basic than ammonia, which shows no resonance.

b) Inductive effects:
Besides resonance, there is an additional way for electrons to be transmitted. This is done in
the classical sense via the inductive effect, in which the electrical effects are propagated in a chain
by successive polarization of carbon-carbon σ-bonds.
Inductively, an electron-withdrawing group thus has an acid-strengthening effect, and an electron-
donating group has an acid-weakening effect.
In acetic acid, the electron-donating methyl group (+I effect) opposes the release of proton in
the form of hydronium ion (H3O+) in an aqueous solution. Hence formic acid is a stronger acid than
acetic acid.

The larger the electron-withdrawing inductive effect, the greater is the acidity.

As the above result shows, trifluoroacetic acid is stronger than bromoacetic acid because fluorine is
considerably more electronegative than bromine.
The strength of an acid is expressed in terms of pKa value. The lesser the pKa value, the
greater the strength of an acid.
In chloroacetic acid, the electron-withdrawing effect (-I effect) of chlorine facilitates the release
of proton in the form of H3O+ ion in an aqueous solution. (Chloroacetic acid is a stronger acid than acetic
acid since Cl shows (-I) effect, the electron density is decreased, and the O-H bond is weakened, causing
ionization of -COOH to a greater extent than CH3COOH).
Hence chloroacetic acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid.

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 30
 The inductive effects work in an opposite direction for bases in comparison to acids i.e. electron
donating groups increase while electron-withdrawing groups decrease basicity.

Relative strength of methyl amine and ammonia:

The strength of nitrogen containing base depends on the availability of nitrogen lone pair
for protonation. The greater the availability of nitrogen lone pair for protonation the greater the
strength of the base.
In terms of pKb values, the lesser the pKb values the greater the strength of the base.

Due to electron donating inductive effect (+I effect) of the methyl group, there is increase in
electron density on nitrogen which increases the availability of nitrogen lone pair for protonation
/ donation. Hence methyl amine is a stronger base than ammonia.

c) Hybridization effects:
Hybridization effects alter basicity as they affect electro-negativity and bond lengths.
An oxygen or nitrogen atom having multiple bonding is rendered less basic and more acidic.
This may be explained by comparing the basicity of piperidine and pyridine.
What's a stronger base, pyridine or piperidine?

In the aliphatic amine (Piperidine), the non-bonding pair of electrons are in a sp³ orbital, while in
a compound containing a double-bonded nitrogen (Pyridine), it is an sp² orbital.
The electrons in an s orbital are more firmly bonded than in a p orbital because the former is closer
to the nucleus. Since the amount of s character increases with unsaturation, the electrons in pyridine
(sp² hybridized) are more tightly bound and are not readily available for bonding.
Thus, pyridine is less basic than piperidine.
s-Character increases, acidity increases, and basicity decreases.

--------------------------------------------- Those who try, they fly ….. --------------------------------------------

Prepared by: Dr. Pramod R. Padole

Notes for B.Sc.-I (Sem-I) as per NEP-20 Unit No. – III (Session: 2025-2026) by Dr. P. R. Padole Page No. : 31