JMEPEG (2022) 31:4084–4097 The Author(s)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-021-06512-7 1059-9495/$19.00

TECHNICAL ARTICLE

Investigation on Impact of Heat Input on Microstructural,

Mechanical, and Intergranular Corrosion Properties
of Gas Tungsten Arc-Welded Ti-Stabilized 439 Ferritic
Stainless Steel
Santosh K. Gupta, Awanikumar P. Patil, Ramesh C. Rathod, Vipin Tandon, and Himanshu Vashishtha

Submitted: 12 September 2021 / Revised: 22 October 2021 / Accepted: 19 November 2021 / Published online: 23 December 2021

In the present study, gas tungsten arc welding was employed to weld Ti-stabilized 439 ferritic stainless steel
using 308L austenitic stainless steel filler electrode with varying heat input, i.e., low heat input (LHI) and
high heat input (HHI). The optical microstructure revealed the formation of retained austenite (RA) and
ferrite in the weld zone (WZ), whereas the peppery structure consisting of chromium-rich carbides were
observed in the heat-affected zone for both the weldments. The volumetric fraction of RA was calculated
using X-ray diffraction analysis. The RAÕs content decreased, whereas grain size in WZ increased with an
increase in heat input. The local misorientation and grain boundary distribution in the welded region was
investigated by electron backscattered diffraction. The LHI weldment depicted the higher micro-hardness
and tensile strength attributed to the higher content of RA as compared to HHI; however, the opposite trend
was observed for the intergranular corrosion resistance.

and consequently reduced the mechanical strength as well as

Keywords 439 Ferritic stainless steel, electrochemical behavior,
gas tungsten arc welding, mechanical properties corrosion resistance. The grain coarsening can be minimized by
limiting the supplied heat input during fusion welding (Ref 1).
Moreover, the FSSs also suffers from sensitization during the
welding resulting in an intergranular corrosion (IGC) (Ref 5). It
is reported that the carbide precipitation occurs faster in FSSs
due to the lower solubility of carbon compared to ASSs (Ref 6).
1. Introduction Therefore, proper control on the addition of carbon content or
by adding titanium (Ti) and/or niobium (Nb) as stabilizing
In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the elements has proved to be the most viable option to reduce the
demand for ferritic stainless steels (FSSs) attributed to their IGC without compromising its ductility and corrosion resis-
economic advantage and a good combination of mechanical tance of FSSs weldments (Ref 7).
and corrosion properties as compared to austenitic stainless During fusion welding, the selection of the welding process
steels (ASSs) (Ref 1). The FSSs with chromium (11-30%) and and parameters plays a crucial role in producing the sound
little or no nickel content are used in corrosive environments joint. There have been various studies performed on the
such as vehicles, pressure vessels, and power generation. (Ref influence of welding processes and parameters on the
2). The FSSs also possesses good oxidation resistance at higher microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion properties of FSSs.
temperature, and therefore, these steels are majorly used in Mohandas et al. (Ref 8) studied the effect of welding processes
automobile exhaust systems (Ref 3). on 430 FSS and reported that gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
Fusion welding is the most widely adopted technique to join welds showed higher ductility and strength as compared to
the FSSs at an industrial scale. However, the major problems of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). The authors attributed
FSSs welding are grain coarsening in weld zone (WZ) and heat- this to the formation of equiaxed grains in the fusion zone and
affected zone (HAZ) as grain refinement restricted due to the the restricted entry of atmospheric gases by protecting the weld
absence of phase transformation from liquid to solid (Ref 4) pool via shielding gases. Silva et al. (Ref 9) investigated the
microstructural characterization of HAZ of 444 FSS by SMAW
Santosh K. Gupta, Awanikumar P. Patil, and Ramesh C. Rathod,
process. They observed the presence of carbides, nitrides,
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Visvesvaraya carbonitrides and some secondary precipitates such as chi and
National Institute of Technology, Nagpur 440010, India; sigma and needle-like laves phase precipitate near the partially
Vipin Tandon, Centre of Sustainable Built Environment, Manipal melted zone. Alizadeh-Sh et al. (Ref 10) investigated the effect
School of Architecture and Planning, Manipal Academy of Higher of phase transformation and mechanical properties of similar
Education, Manipal 576104, India; and Himanshu Vashishtha, welded 430 FSS by resistance spot welding. They stated that
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of
the grain coarsening and grain refinement in high-, medium-,
Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India. Contact e-mails:
[email protected] and vashishtha.himanshu100593@ and low-temperature HAZ depend on the solidification and
gmail.com. cooling rate. Lakshminarayanan et al. (Ref 11) examined the

4084—Volume 31(5) May 2022 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

effect of different welding processes, namely GTAW, SMAW, understand microstructural evolutions and their subsequent
and gas metal arc welding (GMAW), on the microstructural and effect on mechanical properties and intergranular corrosion
mechanical properties of 409M FSS. The authors reported that resistance of welded 439 FSS. Therefore, the present study
the lower heat input associated with the GTAW process resulted focuses on the impact of heat input on the similar welding of
in a faster cooling rate and enhanced mechanical properties. Ti-stabilized 439 FSS by GTAW technique using a 308L filler
Kim et al. (Ref 12) investigated the IGC behavior of 409L FSS. electrode.
The authors reported that these types of steels suffer IGC when
used in a temperature range of 400–600C for a long time after
exposure to high temperatures such as arc welding. Lakshmi-
narayanan et al. (Ref 13) compared the sensitization kinetics of
2. Materials and Method
409M FSS welded by GTAW, friction stir welding, laser beam
welding, and electron beam welding and reported that friction The BM, 439 FSS sheets was procured commercially with
stir welding exhibited lower sensitization attributed to the an initial thickness of 3 mm. The rolled or milled sheets were
formation of more refined grains. solution annealed at 850 C for 1 h in the furnace (carbolite
In welding of FSSs, the use of filler material with same gero) followed by water quenching to eliminate the prior
chemical composition to base metal (BM) results grain thermal effects (Ref 19). The sheets were cut in the dimension
coarsening in WZ, and subsequently, results in the reduced of 75 mm 9 100 mm using a wire-cut electro-discharge
mechanical and corrosion properties of the weldments (Ref 14). machine. The oxide layer was cleaned by an acid pickling
Therefore, the selection of filler electrodes plays an essential solution of 100 ml consisting of 15 ml HNO3, 5 ml HF and
role in imparting better mechanical and corrosion properties in water.
FSSs. Shojaati et al. (Ref 15) investigated the effect of different The chemical composition of BM and filler electrode is
fillers (austenitic, duplex, and nichrome) on dissimilar welding given in Table 1. The GTAW technique was employed to
of 304 ASS and 409 FSS by GTAW technique. The authors perform the butt welding of 439 FSS plates using a 308L filler
reported that the mixed microstructure (ferrite and austenite) electrode. The welding was performed with two different heat
was observed in WZ in austenitic and duplex fillers, and some inputs, i.e., low heat input (LHI) and high heat input (HHI) in a
iron-based precipitates was observed in nichrome filler and single pass with a root gap of 1.2 mm. The welding parameters
concluded that the superior mechanical properties were are summarized in Table 2. The heat input was then calculated
observed in austenitic filler weld joint. Moreover, Lippold using the welding parameters by Eq 1 (Ref 20):
and Kotecki (Ref 16) reported that the use of ASS filler gVI
electrodes for welding of FSSs result in the formation of mixed HI ¼ ðEq 1Þ
v
microstructure (austenite and ferrite) in WZ, which subse-
quently improves the mechanical strength and ductility of the where ‘‘v’’ is the welding speed in (mm/s), ‘‘I’’ is the welding
weldments. current in amperes (A), ‘‘V’’ is the arc voltage in volts (V), and
Few researchers have attempted to investigate the weldabil- g is the welding efficiency which is considered as 60% for
ity of Ti-stabilized 439 FSS. Lopez et al. (Ref 17) investigated GTAW technique (Ref 20).
the microstructural and mechanical properties of 439 FSS with The edges of the plates were discarded after welding; 10 mm
different heat inputs by pulse current GTAW technique without from both top and bottom side of the weldments to account for
filler electrode. Silva et al. (Ref 18) studied the effect of heat the possible non-uniformity during welding. And then, samples
input on the microstructural characterization of HAZ of 439 for metallography, mechanical and corrosion studies were
FSS, welded by manual GMAW using 308L-Si filler electrode obtained. The schematic diagram of weld joints and represen-
and observed that carbide and nitride precipitates in HAZ and tation of samples are shown in Fig. 1. The samples were then
width of HAZ and grain size increased with increasing heat polished by a series of polishing papers (200, 400, 800, 1200,
input. However, the systematic investigation on the weldability 1500, 2000 grit size) followed by velvet cloth polishing using
of Ti-stabilized 439 FSS is still scanty. Hence, there is a need to 0.75 lm alumina slurry. The samples were then cleaned

Table 1 Chemical composition of base metal (439 FSS) and filler metal (308L ASS) in (wt.%)
Material and electrode C Mn Si S Ti Cr Ni Fe

439 FSS 0.024 0.29 0.35 0.05 0.25 17.35 0.18 Bal.
308L ASS 0.03 1.69 0.75 0.03 … 18.31 8.28 Bal.

Table 2 Welding parameters used in the present study

S. No. Current, A Voltage, V Welding speed, mm/s Heat input, J/mm

1 110 11.1 2.9 252.62

2 80 10.6 1.5 339.2

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Fig. 1 Schematic representation of specimens obtained from similar welded joints for metallographic, mechanical and corrosion studies

ultrasonically in distilled water for 5 min. An electrochemical 3. Results and Discussion

etching method was performed in potentiostat (solartron 1285)
to reveal the microstructural evolutions in the weldments. A 3.1 Microstructural Evolution
potential of 6 V is applied for 30 s in a chemical solution
comprising of 90-ml ethanol and 10-ml HCL. 3.1.1 Optical and Scanning Electron Microscope Anal-
The optical microstructure of WZ, HAZ and BM was ysis. Figure 2(a) depicts an optical micrograph of BM, 439
observed in optical microscope (OM, Leica DMi8 C), and the FSS with a fine-grained and homogeneous structure. The
presence of different phases in BM and WZ was studied by X- Kaltenhauser (Ref 22) developed an equation to estimate the
ray diffraction (XRD—XÕPert PRO PANanalytical). The scan- formation of martensite in FSS, which is known as Kal-
ning electron microscope (SEM - JEOL 6380A, JAPAN) tenhauser factor or K-factor and is given by:
coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was
K factor ¼ Cr þ 6Si þ 8Ti þ 4Mo þ 2Al
employed to study the microstructural characteristics and
chemical composition of secondary phases in the different þ 40ðC þ NÞ  2Mn  4Ni ðEq 2Þ
zones. The electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD, oxford The K factor has a critical value of 13 and 17 for low and
instruments) was employed to analyze the grain orientation and medium chromium FSS to prevent the formation of martensite
secondary phase formation. The micro-hardness of the welded in FSS, respectively. In the present study, the medium
samples was obtained using Vickers micro-hardness tester chromium 439 FSS is used, and the calculated value of K-
(Simadzu Micro-hardness tester). The 300 g load was applied factor is 20.55, which is higher than the critical value, and
for 10 s to estimate the micro-hardness values of different therefore, no martensite is observed in the BM in the optical
zones. The tensile test specimens were prepared according to microstructure. Moreover, the XRD graph (Fig. 2(b)) of BM
ASTM E8M-04 and tested using an Instron-4467 universal further confirms the presence of a single-phase body-centered
testing machine, followed by fractographic investigation using cubic ferritic structure.
SEM. The double-loop electrochemical potentiokinetic reacti- In stainless steels (SSs), the chemical composition of BM
vation (DLEPR) test was performed to examine the suscepti- and filler electrode plays a significant role in determining the
bility of IGC. The conventional three-electrode cell, i.e., solidification mode in the WZ, which can be determined
welded samples as a working electrode, platinum electrode as through the WRC 1992 diagram by calculating the ratio of
a counter electrode and saturated calomel electrode (SCE) as a chromium equivalent (Creq) to nickel equivalent (Nieq) (Ref
reference electrode, was used for the IGC test. The test was 23). The Creq is calculated using the weight (%) of ferrite
carried out in a solution of 0.5 M H2SO4 + 0.01 M NH4SCN at stabilizing element (Eq 3), and Nieq is calculated using the
room temperature (27 ± 1 C). The potential range of -500 weight (%) of austenite stabilizing elements (Eq 4). In the
mVSCE to +300 mVSCE was used for the forward scan, and the present study, the ratio of Creq/Nieq is found out to be 2.63.
same potential range was used for the reverse scan (+300
mVSCE to -500 mVSCE) at a scan rate of 1.67 mV/s (Ref 21).

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Fig. 2 (a) Optical microstructure, and (b) XRD pattern of 439 FSS base metal

Hence, according to Eq 5 (Ref 24), the solidification mode is

where I is integrated intensity, R is material scattering factor,
ferritic (F).
and n is the number of peaks of different phases. The R values
Creq ¼ Cr þ Mo þ 0:7 Nb ðEq 3Þ are taken from Tandon et al. (Ref 25). The estimated volumetric
fraction of RA phase in WZ of LHI and HHI weldments are
Nieq ¼ Ni þ 35C þ 20N þ 0:25Cu ðEq 4Þ 33.33% and 20.42%, respectively. This further confirms that the
volumetric fraction of RA decreased substantially on increasing
heat input.
Ferrite ðFÞ mode : L ! ðL þ dÞ ! d
Lippold and Kotecki (Ref 16) stated that the initial
! ðc þ dÞ; Creq =Nieq > 1:95 ðEq 5Þ
solidification in FSS welds occurs as primary ferrite; however,
Figure 3 depicts the microstructural and XRD analysis of the microstructure in WZ can be either fully ferritic, or the
WZ for both the weldments. Figure 3(a-b) shows that the mixed microstructure of ferrite and RA and RA is located at the
microstructures of WZ exhibit the evolution of mixed ferrite grain boundaries. The authors (Ref 16) reported the three
microstructures during GTAW with varying heat input. In both different type of solidification mode in FSS welds.
the weldments, the microstructure illustrates the formation of L ! L þd ! d ðEq 7Þ
mixed microstructure, i.e., retained austenite (RA) in the grain
boundary and ferrite in the grain matrix. Hence, it can be stated L ! L þd ! d ! dþc ! dþa ðEq 8Þ
that during the solidification of 439 FSS weldments, the
solidification mode is F, and ferrite solidifies upon cooling and
L ! L þd ! L þdþc ! dþc ! dþa ðEq 9Þ
transforms to d fi c + d in WZ. However, it can be noticed
from Fig. 3(b) that the volumetric fraction of RA decreased for The authors (Ref 16) stated that the solidification mode
the HHI weldment. This may be attributed to the slower cooling would occur via Eq 7 if the ferrite promoting elements are
rate in the HHI process. The slower cooling rate in the HHI dominant than that of the austenite promoting elements and
process offers sufficient time for the transformation of the RA austenite formation is suppressed entirely. However, when the
phase to the ferrite phase. austenite-promoting elements are present, the evolution of
The XRD spectrums of WZ are shown in Fig. 3(c). It can be microstructure is a mixed-mode (ferrite and RA), and the
noticed that in WZ of LHI and HHI weldments, the formation solidification will occur via Eq 8 or 9. This solidification path
of austenite (c) can be observed with respect to the single ferrite promotes the nucleation of austenite at ferrite grain boundary at
phase (a peaks—Fig. 2(b)). This further confirms the formation elevated temperature, which restricts the formation of a single
of RA in the WZ of weldments. Also, it can be observed that ferrite phase. However, the authors (Ref 16) further stated that
the intensity of peak c decreased for HHI weldment as the solidification mode would occur via Eq 9 for high carbon
compared to LHI weldment, indicating that the volumetric FSS (the carbon content in more than 0.15%) or the content of
fraction of RA decreased with an increase in heat input, as austenite-promoting elements are present in high quantity.
evidenced in the optical microstructures (Fig. 3a-b). The Therefore, in our present study, the solidification may have
volumetric fraction of RA is estimated according to Eq 6 occurred via Eq 8, as the BM and filler electrode used in the
(Ref 25): present study has low carbon content and the content of
1 Pj j j austenite promoting elements (Ni and Mn) is not very high.
n i¼1 ðIa =Ra Þ Hence, it can be stated that during the solidification of 439 FSS
V ¼ 1 Pj   P j
ðEq 6Þ
ðnÞ i¼1 ðIjc =Rjc Þ þ 1n j j
i¼1 ðIa =Ra Þ weldments, the ferrite solidifies upon cooling and transforms to
d fi c + d in WZ. Moreover, the face-centered cubic (FCC)

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Fig. 3 Optical microstructures of WZ of (a) LHI, (b) HHI weldments (c) XRD pattern

structure of 308L filler material will promote the mixed-mode next to the CGHAZ is named FGHAZ. The temperature during
microstructure. welding in FGHAZ is comparatively low and has a faster
Figure 4(a, b) shows the SEM micrographs of WZs having cooling rate compared to the CGHAZ area, resulting in finer
precipitates coupled with EDX spectra, and the variation in the grains (Ref 27). Also, some precipitates can be observed inside
chemical composition of different elements in the grain area the grains, called ‘‘peppery structures’’ (Ref 28). Figure 5(a-d)
and grain boundary regime is shown in Fig. 4(c, d). It can be shows that the precipitates formed are far from the grain
observed from Fig. 4(c, d) that the grain boundary has higher boundary, and the area near to the grain boundaries are free
Ni and Mn content and lower Cr content, whereas inside the from carbides in all the HAZ of weldments and is called a
grain, vice versa followed. It is well-defined that Ni and Mn are precipitate free zone (PFZ) (Ref 10). The peppery structure
austenite promoting elements, and Cr is ferrite promoting represents the carbides that may have formed during cooling
elements (Ref 16). This further confirms the formation of mixed due to the lower solubility of carbon in the ferrite phase (Ref 6).
microstructure, i.e., RA at the grain boundary and ferritic The measured grain size of WZ and HAZ (average of 10
structure within the grain boundaries in WZ of both the readings are taken) and the width of the different zone in HAZ
weldments, and the results are consistent with the XRD are shown in Fig. 5(e, f). Figure 5(e) shows that the LHI
analysis (Fig. 3c). Similar results are obtained by the other weldment exhibits a smaller grain size in WZ and HAZ as
researchers (Ref 8, 26). compared to HHI weldment. The grain size in WZ during
The optical microstructures of the HAZ region for both the welding of FSS is greatly affected by the formation of austenite
weldments are shown in Fig. 5(a-d). The HAZ region is divided at elevated temperatures during solidification. It is reported that
into two parts, namely (i) coarse-grain heat-affected zone once the austenite forms along the grain boundaries at elevated
(CGHAZ) and (ii) fine-grain heat-affected zone (FGHAZ) for temperatures, it restricts the grain growth of the ferrite (Ref 29).
both the weldments. The area near the fusion boundary In the present study, it is observed that the WZ of LHI
possesses the coarse grains attributed to elevated temperature weldment exhibited a higher volumetric fraction of RA as
and slower cooling rate and is termed as CGHAZ. The area compared to WZ of HHI weldment, hence, resulting in smaller

4088—Volume 31(5) May 2022 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

grain size. Moreover, a significant difference in the width in increased with an increase in heat input. This can be ascribed to
different zones of HAZ is shown in Fig. 5(f). It can be seen that the slower cooling rate for the HHI weldment, which resulted in
the width of HAZ (combined width of CGHAZ and FGHAZ) the higher width of HAZ (Ref 30).

Fig. 4 EDX analysis and of WZ of (a) LHI, and (b) HHI weldments and their element variation estimated from EDX analysis in the WZ of (c)
LHI and (d) HHI

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Fig. 5 Optical microstructures of HAZ (a-b) LHI and (c-d) HHI (e) grain size variation in WZ and HAZ (f) HAZ width variation of LHI and
HHI weldments

The SEM-EDX analysis of the carbide precipitates in the diffusion and formation of Cr-rich precipitates. Figure 5(e)
HAZ of weldments is shown in Fig. 6(a-b). The variation in shows that the grain size of HAZ of LHI weldment is
the chemical composition of different elements in the grain significantly smaller than the HHI weldment, and the smaller
area and grain boundary regime is shown in Fig. 6(c, d). It can grain size resulted in the formation of a higher number of grain
be observed from Fig. 6(c, d) that the peppery structure are Cr- boundaries. These grain boundaries are mainly responsible for
rich carbides as the higher content of Cr and C can be more short-distance diffusion of C, which caused the formation
observed in the peppery structure than the ferrite grain of more amount of precipitates. Hence, it can be stated that the
boundaries. Also, it can be observed that the Cr-rich carbide heat input plays an important role in the formation of a higher
precipitation is higher in the HAZ of LHI weldment and its concentration of Cr-rich precipitate inside the ferrite grain
concentration decreases with an increase in heat input. boundaries of HAZ of LHI weldment. Moreover, no precip-
Khorrami et al. (Ref 5) reported that the number of grain itation is observed in the ferrite grain boundary of HAZ for
boundaries is majorly responsible for the short distance both the weldments.

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Fig. 6 EDX analysis and of HAZ of (a) LHI, and (b) HHI weldments and their element variation estimated from EDX analysis in the HAZ of
(c) LHI and (d) HHI

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Fig. 7 Inverse pole figure of (a) LHI weldment, (b) HHI weldment (c) misorientation distribution (BCC—ferrite), and (d) misorientation
distribution (FCC—RA). Grain boundary distribution in (e) LHI weldment (f) HHI weldment. Variation in fraction of grain boundary distribution
in LHI and HHI weldments (g) BBC—ferrite (h) FCC—RA

4092—Volume 31(5) May 2022 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 8 (a) Micro-hardness profile (b) variation in micro-hardness values of the different heat input weldments

3.1.2 Electron Backscattered Diffraction Analysis. The contrast, low fraction HAGB is not capable of restricting the
EBSD analysis was used to study the micro-texture (orientation dislocation piles-ups. Figure 7(g, h) shows that a higher fraction
of crystallographic plane) of the weldments. The area from the of HAGB is observed for LHI weldment as compared to its
WZ to HAZ of the weldments was scanned for analysis, and the counterpart. Therefore, in the present study, a lesser grain size
inverse pole figure (IPF) map in the Z direction is shown in Fig is observed in the WZ and HAZ of the LHI as compared to its
7. In Fig. 7(a), the IPF of LHI WZ shows the finer ferrite grains, counterpart (Fig. 5e).
whereas HHI WZ illustrates a coarser structure, as shown in
Fig. 7(b). This is attributed to the increased heat input and 3.2 Mechanical Properties
slower cooling rate. The average local misorientation (LAM)
3.2.1 Micro-Hardness Analysis. The micro-hardness
method was used to quantify the strain generated during the
varies with heat input and the variation is greatly affected by
thermal weld cycle and is shown in Fig. 7(c, d). Figure 7(c)
the formation of different phases during solidification as shown
shows the graph of LAM distribution for BCC structure
in Fig. 8(a) and the variation in average micro-hardness values
(ferrite), and Fig. 7(d) shows the LAM distribution for FCC
of various regions is shown in Fig. 8(b). The higher micro-
structure RA for both the weldments. The misorientation
hardness values of LHI weldment as compared to HHI
distribution of ferrite and RA phase is shown in Fig. 7(c, d).
weldment is ascribed to the formation of a higher amount of
Figure 7(c) shows that the BCC structure in the LHI weldment
volumetric fraction of RA in the WZ of LHI weldment. The
shows a broader region than the HHI weldment. Moreover, it
formation of RA at grain boundary restricts the grain growth,
can be noticed that the peak of the BCC structure in the LHI
and consequently resulting in a higher number of grains and
weldment is shifted slightly toward the right side (Ref 31). This
grain boundaries, which act as a barrier for the movement of
can be attributed to the higher accumulation of strain generated
dislocation. Therefore, the presence of higher volumetric
in the LHI weldment during the solidification due to the
fraction of RA and lesser grain size (Fig. 5(e)) in the WZ of
presence of a higher volumetric fraction of RA. The peaks of
LHI weldment resulted in higher micro-hardness values as
FCC structure (Fig. 7d) in both the weldments showed no
compared to HHI weldment. Furthermore, it can be noticed that
appreciable difference. This may be due to the lower concen-
the average micro-hardness values of WZ decreased by 10.53
tration of FCC structure in the weldment as compared to the
% for the HHI weldment. A similar trend is also observed in the
BCC structure.
HAZ of the weldments. The formation of intragranular
Figure 7(e-h) shows the variation in different types of grain
precipitate in HAZ resulted in a decrease in 4.89% average
boundary for both the weldments, which consists of low angle
micro-hardness values for the HHI weldment. In HAZ,
grain boundary (LAGB, h <50), mean angle grain boundary
variation in micro-hardness values in CGHAZ and FGHAZ
(50-150), and high angle grain boundary (HAGB, h>150) (Ref
can be ascribed to the variation in grain size (Fig. 5e).
32). Figure 7(e-f) depicts the grain boundary distribution for
The formation of a higher fraction of HAGB restricts the
LHI and HHI weldments, and Fig. 7(g-h) illustrates the
dislocation motion across the grain boundary (Ref 34), and it is
variation in grain boundary fraction for BCC (ferrite) and
observed that the higher fraction of HAGB is observed across
FCC (RA) structure. The fraction of grain boundary variation
the WZ to HAZ for the LHI weldment (Fig. 7(e, h)). Therefore,
depends on welding parameters, and the fraction of LAGB is
the micro-hardness values are higher for LHI as compared to its
opposite to the fraction of HAGB. Saha et al. (Ref 33) stated
counterpart across the WZ to HAZ. Hence, the results are in
that the higher fraction of HAGB restricts the motion of
consistent with the result obtained from the grain boundary
dislocation across the grain boundary area and the dislocation
EBSD analysis.
pile-ups restrict the grain growth during solidification. In

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Fig. 9 (a) Tensile properties UTS—ultimate tensile strength, YS—yield strength, % EL—% elongation (b) fractography of LHI weldment (c)
fractography of HHI weldment

3.2.2 Tensile Test Analysis. The tensile test results are Table 3 DLEPR result of test samples
shown in Fig. 9(a). Figure 9(a) shows that the LHI weldment
illustrates 1.60% higher ultimate strength, 7.80% higher yield Sample Ia, 10-3, A/cm2 Ir, 10-3, A/cm2 DOS, Ir/Ia*100
strength, and better ductility as compared to the HHI weld joint.
The location of fracture is BM for both the weldments, which BM 103.15 4.31 4.17
clearly shows that the strength of WZ is higher than the BM. As LHI 2.25 0.36 16
HHI 4.61 0.25 5.42
compared to single ferritic phase BM, the strength of WZ was
significantly improved due to the formation of mixed
microstructure (ferrite and RA) in the WZ (Fig. 3a, b) (Ref
26). From Fig. 5(a-d), it is observed that carbide precipitates are 3.3 Corrosion Behavior—Double-Loop Potentiokinetic
distributed over a wide area within the grains of HAZ for both Reactivation (DLEPR) Test Analysis
weld joints, which significantly contributed to strengthening the The DLEPR test was performed to evaluate the susceptibil-
HAZ (Ref 26). Hence, it can be stated that the strength of all the ity of different welded samples toward IGC. The formation of
weldments is significantly enhanced by the presence of chromium-rich carbides or any other precipitates influences the
different phases in the WZ and by the presence of carbides in depletion of chromium in nearby regions during welding of
HAZ. stainless steels. This depletion of chromium generates the
The fractographs of different weldments are shown in potential difference between grain and grain boundary, accel-
Fig. 9(b, c). From the micrographs, dimples with planar facets erating the grain boundary attack, which further depends on the
can be observed in both the weldments, indicating the fracture availability of anodic sites near the grain boundary (Ref 21). In
occurred in ductile as well as in brittle mode. The tensile the DLEPR test, two scans were performed, i.e., forward and
properties of the weldment (shown in Fig. 9(a)) show that the reverse scan. In forward scan, the whole surface of the test
ductility and strength decreased with an increase in heat input, sample gets passivated, and the maximum current density
resulting in more planar facets in HHI weldments. sample takes for passivation is taken as Ia. In reverse scan,
depassivation starts, and passive layer breaks in the anodic sites

4094—Volume 31(5) May 2022 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 10 DLEPR curves of (a) BM (b) LHI (c) HHI and (d) Variation of RA (%) and DOS (%) of base metal and weldments

or chromium-depleted areas because passive film dissolves very 4. Conclusions

easily in these areas with decreasing potential, and the
maximum current density during depassivation is taken as Ir. 1. In the present work, GTAW technique was employed for
Then, the value of these two peak current densities gives the welding of 439 Ti-stabilized FSS using 308L filler mate-
quantitative data about degree of sensitization (DOS), and it rial with varying heat input.
was calculated by the ratio of (Ir/Ia*100) (Ref 34). 2. The microstructural evolution for both the weldments
The DLEPR test results are shown in Table 3. The DLEPR consists of mixed microstructure (ferrite + RA) and varia-
curves of WZ for LHI and HHI weld joints, and BM are shown tion in grain size with varying heat input. The RA
in Fig. 10(a-c), and the DOS and its correlation with the formed at ferrite grain boundary and the volumetric frac-
volumetric fraction of RA are shown in Fig. 10(d). The BM tion of RA decreased with increase in heat input, and the
shows the lower DOS due to single-phase ferrite microstructure estimated volumetric fraction of RA calculated using
and no carbides and/or precipitates were found in optical XRD analysis is 33.33% and 20.42% in the WZ of LHI
microstructure or XRD peaks (Fig. (2)). In WZ of different heat and HHI weldments, respectively.
inputs, DOS is higher of both the weldments as compared to the 3. The HAZ area can be divided into CGHAZ and FGHAZ
BM attributed to the formation of mixed microstructure. The attributed to the variation in temperature gradient, and
presence of RA at the grain boundary resulted in the depletion width of HAZ is higher for HHI weldment. The peppery
of chromium at the grain boundary (as can be observed by the structure was in HAZ of both the weldments; however,
EDS analysis (Fig. 4) of both the weldments). The WZ of LHI the concentration was higher in LHI HAZ.
weldment has a higher volumetric fraction of RA, resulting in 4. The local misorientation distribution is higher for LHI
higher number grain boundaries, consequently higher sensiti- weldment than HHI weldment attributed to the higher
zation sites. Hence, it can be stated that the DOS is proportional volumetric fraction of RA.
to the volumetric fraction RA, and therefore, a higher DOS is 5. The micro-hardness results depicted the higher micro-
observed in LHI weldment as compared to the HHI weldment. hardness values for LHI weldment and is ascribed to the
With the increase in heat input, the DOS deceased from 16% presence of higher volumetric fraction of RA at grain
for the WZ of LHI weldment to 5.42% for the WZ of HHI boundary which restricts the grain growth and act as a
weldment. barrier for dislocation movements.

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 31(5) May 2022—4095

6. The WZ of LHI weldment showed higher % DOS due to 10. M. Alizadeh-Sh, S.P.H. Marashi and M. Pouranvari, Resistance Spot
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32. H. Mostaan, M. Shmanian, R. Moradi, F. Nematzadeh, A. Sonboli and 34. J. Verma and R.V. Taiwade, Dissimilar Welding Behavior of 22% Cr
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1139 tions.

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