UNIT 12 BASICS OF INTERNET

Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction

12.2 History of Internet

12.3 Internet Management

12.4 Definitions of Internet

12.5 Growth of Internet

12.5.1 Internet 2

12.5.2 Internet 3

12.6 Internet Architecture

12.6.1 Peer-to-Peer Communication

12.6.2 Client Server Architecture

12.7 Accessing the Internet

12.7.1 Analog Dial-up Connection

12.7.2 Digital Subscribers Line (DSL)

12.7.3 Dedicated Leased Line

12.7.4 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

12.7.5 Cable Connection to the Internet

12.7.6 Internet through Mobile Telephone

12.7.7 Shell vIs TCPITPAccounts

12.8 Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

12.8.1 Choosing ISP

12.8.2 Internet Service Providers in India

12.9 Hardware and Software Required for the Internet

12.9.1 Server-side Hardware Components

12.9.2 Server-side Software Components

12.9.3 Client-side Hardware and Software Components

12.10 Internet Standards and Protocols

12.10.1 Internet Protocols

12.10.2 Transmission Control Protocol I Internet Protocol (TCP lIP)

12.10.3 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

12.10.4 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

12.10.5 Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

12.10.6 Z39.50
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12.10.7 Dublin Core or Z39.85
Internet Resources 12.11 Organisation of Internet
and Services
12.11.1 Internet Addressing

12.1l.2 IP Addresses

12.11.3 DornainName

12.11.4 , Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

12.12 Internet Security

12.12.1 User Authentication

12.12.2 Fire Walls

12.12.3 Proxy Servers

12.12.4 Data Encryption

12.12.5 Digital Certification

12.12.6 Intrusion Detection System (rnS)

12.12.7 Computer Viruses

12.12.8 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

12.12.9 Extranet

12.13 Summary

12.14 Answers to Self Check Exercises

12.15 Keywords

12.16 References and Further Reading

12.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to acquire knowledge on the following components
of Internet:
•. Internet history, growth and development and its management;
• Internet architecture, methods of accessing Internet and software and hardware
requirement for Internet for accessing Internet;
• Internet standards and protocols and organisation of Internet; and
• Internet security.

12.1 INTRODUCTION
The Internet has emerged as one of the most powerful media of commbnication. The
Internet and associated technologies have created a global environment that has
transformed the world into a global village defying the limitations of geographical boundaries.
About two decades ago, most of the world knew very little or nothing about the Internet.
Originating from a network owned by the US Defence project, the Internet, till 1970s
connected a limited number Of computers accessible only to computer scientists and
researchers in USA and allied countries for the purpose of defence research. Initially, it
became accessible to universities and research institutions to facilitate easier and faster
communication between scientists and researchers. With winding of operations of
ARPANET in 1990, the combined infrastructure of ARPANET and NSFNET became
available coriunercially. The Internet, since then, is growing at leaps and bounds around
the world and broadband is rapidly becoming a large part of the growth. The number of
292 hosts is considered an accurate measure of the size of the Internet. The Domain Survey,
sponsored by the Internet Systems Consortium that discovers every server on the Internet Basics of Internet

reports that Internet host count has reached over 233 million and has grown by 35 percent
in the past year. The InternetWorldStats.com reports that there are more than 745 million
Internet users worldwide, with an average of 3.2 users per host. With the high quality of
service in the United States there are approximately 2,4 Internet users per host, whereas
in some developing countries such as China and India, there are more than 100 Internet
users per host. the Internet statistics can be used as a barometer of the global economy.
For example, in case of India, the total number of users increased from 5 million in the
year 2000 to 16.58 million in the beginning of 2004. This 231.6% increase in the growth
of number of users in four years is an indication of Internet-based economic activity in
India as well as overall economic changes in the country.

The Internet has completely revolutionised the modes and methods of the computer and
communications world like never before. The Internet is an integration of several functions
and services rolled into one. It is a world-wide broadcasting facility, a mechanism for
information storage and dissemination, a media for electronic publishing of scholarly
literature and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their
computers without barriers of geographic location. The Internet represents one of the
most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to
research and development in information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research
in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving
and deploying this exciting new technology.

12.2 HISTORY OF INTERNET

The history of Internet can be traced back to 1957 when erstwhile Soviet Union launched
its first satellite, Sputnik I, prompting US President Dwight Eisenhower to launch Defence
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to regain the lead in the technological
race. DARPA's mission was to advance science and technology for military applications.
The DARPA developed its first successful satellite in 18 months. By the end of 1960, it
began to focus on computer networking and communication technology essentially to
. establish communication links between research centres and universities established across
the country as part of its overall mission. ARPANET was commissioned in 1969 and by
1971 it had 15 nodes and 23 hosts. The e-mail was invented in 1972 by Ray Torplinson to
send messages across a distributed network. In 1973, the first international connection to
the evolving Internet was established at the University College of London and the Royal
Radar Establishment (Norway). In the same year, DARPA initiated a research program
to investigate techniques and technologies for interlinking packet networks of various
kinds. The objective was to develop communication protocols based o~ 'packet-switching'
that would allow networked computers to communicate searnlessly across multiple,
geographically dispersed locations. The 'packet-switching' would split the data to be
transmitted into tiny packets that can take different routes to their destination -.Such a
network would withstand partial nuclear attack feared during cold war. Moreover,
interception of data travelling on the net in packets would be difficult. This was called the
(

Internetting project and the system of networks that emerged from the research was
known as the 'Internet'. The system of protocols which was developed over the course
of this research effort became known as the TCPIIP Protocol Suite, after the two initial
protocols developed: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).

The operation management of the emerging Internet was handed over to Defence
Communication Agency (DCA) in1975. The Unix to Unix Copy Program (UUCP) was
developed at the Bell Labs (AT & T) in the year 1976. The year 1977 witnessed the
development of mail specifications (RFC 733). Usenet was established in the same year
using UUCP (Unix to Unix Copy Program) between Duke and the University of North
Carolina (UNC). DARPA also established the Internet Configuration Control Board
(ICCB) in the year 1977.
293
Internet Resources In 1981, CSNET (Computer Science Network) was built with collaboration of a number
and Services
of universities and industries in USA. The National Science Foundation gave financial
support to the CSNET to provide networking services. CSNET used the Phonenet MMDF
protocol for telephone-based electronic mail relaying and, in addition, pioneered the first
use of TCPIIP over X.2S using commercial public data networks. The CSNET server
provided an early example of white pages directory service and this software is still in use
at ,numerous sites. At its peak, CSNET had approximately 200 participating sites and
international connections to approximately fifteen countries. Another important development
in the same year was the creation of BITNET (Because it's time network). The BITNET
was started as a cooperative network at the City University of New York with first
connection to University of Yale. BITNET adopted t"e IBM RSCS protocol suite that
connected participating sites through leased lines ~"-:-,stof the original BITNET connections
linked IBM mainframes in university data centres. From the beginning, BITNET has
been multi-disciplinary in nature with users in all academic areas. It has also provided a
number of unique services to its users (e.g., LISTSERV). Today, BITNET and its parallel
networks in other parts of the world (e.g., EARN in Europe) have several thousand
participating sites. In recent years, BITNET has established <:J I). .kbone, which uses the
TCPIIP protocols with RSCS-based applications running abov c -rCP

The year 1982 was a year of great significance in the growth and development of Internet.
Defence Communication Agency (DCA) and DARPA adopted Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (lP) suite (commonly known as TCPIIP) as the
official protocol suite for ARPANET. This led to one of the first definition of Internet as
connected set of networks using TCPIIP. In the same year, the Eunet (European UNIX
Network) was created to provide e-rnail and Use net services in Europe. The External
Gateway Protocol (EGP) was also developed in the same year, which defines protocols
for connecting networks that were not based on TCP/IP with the Internet. The University
of Wisconsin developed 'Name Server' in 1982 that facilitated translation of names into
strings of numbers. This development led to the practice of assigning domain names for
the sites that is being practiced even now. Other significant development that took place
in 1982 included splitting of ARPANET into ARPANET and MILNET. The MlLNET
was later integrated with the Defence Data Network created in 1981.

Launch of desktop computers in 1982 led to major shift from having a single, large main
frame computer connected to the Internet on each site to the entire local areas network
connected to the Internet. In the same year, the Internet Activities Board (lAB) replaced
ICCB with a primary mission to guide evolution of the TCP / IP protocol suite and to
provide research advice to the Internet community.

Domain Name 'Servers as distributed databases were introduced in 1984 to facilitate

translation from domain names to IP addresses. Transition to naming standards from
numeric addresses proved to be very helpful in popularisation of the Internet. For example,
it is much easy to remember www.yahoo.com than its numerical equivalent. .

In 1986, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) initiated the development of the
NSFNET, which today provides a major backbone communication service for the Internet.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) arid the U.S. Department
of Energy contributed additional backbone facilities in the form of the NSFNET and
ESNET. respectively. The Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) was designed to
enhance news performance over TCPIIP.

In 1987, the NSF signed a cooperative agreement to manage the NSFNet backbone with
Merit Networks, Inc. Merit, IBM and MCI later founded Advanced Network and Services,
Inc. (ANS). In the same year, BITNET and CSNET merged to form the Corporation for
Research and Educational Networking (CREN). In the fall of 1991, CSNET service was
discontinued having fulfilled its important early role in the provision of academic networking
service. A key feature of CREN is that its operational costs were fully met through dues
294
paid by its member organisations.
A computer virus fo,"the first time affected approximately 6,000 of total 60,000 hosts on Basics of Internet
the Internet in the year 1988. The vulnerability of Internet and the need for more security
was realised for the first time. DARPA formed the Computer Emergency Response.
Team (CERT) in response. In the same year, .Department of Defence adopted Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI).

The total number of hosts on the Internet rose to 100,000 in 1989. The year also witnessed
first relays between a commercial electronic mail carrier and the Internet. MCI Mail
connected through the Corporation for the National Research Initiative (CNRI) and'
CompuServe connected through Ohio State University. The Corporation for Research
and Education Networking (CREN) was formed with the merger of CSNET and BITNET.
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
also came into existence under the lAB in the year 1989. In the same year, several other
countries got connected to the NSFNet including Australia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan"
Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Puerto Rico and the United Kingdom. In Europe,
major international backbones such as NORDUNET and others provide connectivity to
over one hundred thousand computers on a large number of networks. During the course
of its evolution, particularly after 1989, the Internet system began to integrate support for
other protocol suites into its basic networking architecture. The present emphasis in the
system is on multi-protocol internetworking, and in paiticular, with the integration of the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols into the architecture.

During the early 1990's, OSI protocol implementations also became available and, by the
end of 1991, the Internet has grown to include some 5,000 networks in over three dozen
countries, serving over 700,000 host computers used by over 4,000,000 people. The
ARPANET ceased to exist in 1990. Commercial network providers in the U.S. and
, Europe began to offer Internet backbone and access support on a competitive basis to
interested parties. Access to Internet was first offered on commercial basis by 'World'
(world.std.com), thus it became the first Internet Service Provider (ISP) of Internet dial-
up access. Several other countries got connected to the Internet in 1990 including Argentina,
Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Greece, India, Ireland, South Korea, Spain and Switzerland.

Wide Area Information Servers (WAISs) were invented in 1991 by Brewster Kahle and
released by the Thinking Machines Corporation, These servers became the basis of
indices to information available on the Internet. The indexing and search techniques
implemented by these engines allow Internet users to find information using keywords,
across vast resources available on the net.

The most significant development in the history of Internet was the invention of World
Wide Web (WWW) by Tim Bemers-Lee at the CERN Laboratory in 1991. The first
web browser called 'Mosaic' was released in 1993 that took the Internet by storm.
Several other countries got connected to the Internet in the year 1993. The InterNIC
was created tu 1993 to provide specific Internet services including i) Directory of database
services; ii) Registration services; and iii) Information services.

In 1994, the Internet (ARPANET) celebrated its 25th anniversary. Internet shopping and
e-commerce commenced its operation on the net. Growth on the Internet traffic became
geometric, i.e., NSFNet traffic passed 10 trillion bytes/month during 1994. WWW became
the second most popular service on the net (behind FTP) leaving Telnet at third place. In
March 1995, the WWW surpassed FTP as the service with greatest traffic on NSFNet
based on packet count.

Several traditional dial-up systems in USA including CompuServe, America Online, Prodigy
began to provide Internet access for services other than e-mail, i.e., WWW, Gopher, FTP
and so on.

The technologies of the decade were WWW and search engines. New technologies
emergedin late 1990s including client-based code loaded from web servers such as Java,
295

I
Internet Resources JavaScript and ActiveX, etc. The research and development on the Internet and related
and Services
technologies continues even today.

A great deal of support for the Internet community has come from the U.S. Federal
Government, since the Internet was originally part of a federally-funded research program
and, subsequently, has become a major part of the U.S. research infrastructure. During
the late 1980's, however, the population ofInternet users and network constituents expanded
internationally and began to include commercial facilities. Indeed, the bulk of the system
today is made up of private networking facilities in educational and research institutions,
businesses and in government organisations across the globe.

Self Check Exercise

J) What role did DARPA and NSF played in the growth and development of Internet?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

12.3 INTERNET MANAGEMENT

It is often stated that the Internet does not have a central authority to control its activities.
Although, true, there are several well-known organisations that work together in a relatively
wen-structured and roughly democratic environment to collectively participate in the
research, development, and management of the Internet.

The Internet has functioned as a collaborative effort among cooperating parties. The key
function of this collaborative effort is to develop and evolve specifications for TCP / IP
protocol that was originally developed in the DARPA research program mentioned above.
In the last five or six years, this work has been undertaken on a wider basis with support
from Government agencies in many countries, industry and the academic community.
T~e Internet Activities Board (lAB) was created in 1983 to guide the evolution of the :
TCPIIP Protocol Suite and to provide research advice to the Internet community.

During the course of its existence, the lAB has been reorganised several times. It now
, has two primary components: the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet
Research Task Force (IRTF). The IETF is primarily responsible for further evolution of
the TCP/IP protocol suite, its standardisation with the concurrence of the lAB, and the
integration of other protocols into Internet operation (e.g. the Open Systems Interconnection
Protocols). The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) continues to organize and explore
advancedconcepts in networking under the guidance of the Internet Activities Board and
.
with , support from various government agencies.

The Internet Activities Board and Internet Engineering Task Force have a secretariat to
manage its day-to-day functions, Two other functions that are critical to lAB operation
are publication of documents describing the Internet and the assignment and recording of
various identifiers needed for protocol operation, Throughout the development of the
Internet, its protocols and other aspects of its operation have been documented first in a
296 series of documents called Internet Experiment Notes and, later; in a series of documents

I
 called Requests for Comment (RFCs). The latter were used initially to document the Basics. of Internet
protocols of the first packet switching network developed by DARPA, the ARPANET,
beginning in 1969, and have become the principal archive of information about the Internet.
At present, the publication function is provided by an RFC editor.

The recording of identifiers is provided by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
who has delegated one part of this responsibility to an Internet Registrywhich acts as a
central repository for Internet information and which provides central allocation of network
and autonomous system identifiers, in some cases to subsidiary registries located in various
countries. The Internet Registry (IR) also provides central maintenance of the Domain .
Name System (DNS) root database which points to subsidiary distributed DNS servers
replicated throughout the Internet. The DNS distributed database is used, inter alia, to
associate host and network names with. their Internet addresses and is critical to the
operation of the higher level TCP/IP protocols including electronic maiL

There are a number of Network Information Centers (NICs) located throughout the Internet
to serve its users with documentation, guidance, advice and assistance. As the Internet
continues to grow internationally, the need for high quality NIC functions increases. Although
• the initial community of users of the Internet were drawn from the ranks of computer
science and engineering, its users now comprise of a wide range of disciplines in the
sciences, arts, business, military and government administration.

I The htane:
I
I
ht~ ('.:)ceti Irtemd Colp::nti:n ror
(ISOC) ,Il.ssigotid Names & 1Unb:r:::
(ID.NN)

I I

hti:om..t Arrt-itt> •..:illn:> Prom PrntlY:n AMn:>"" n:::.n

r •..•. H=.r",
I~B) wJ:PJrt Organ m en S4=Pcri CrgTrimien SLp:at Ctg::niz:ti en
(FSO) (ASO) (Dt1SO)
[I!;;TF, \.I1J3::, rru, !;;Tsg· l-'\Pt~I::, MIN, RIP;;; NCq

I I
lrterret l:rglneen n;; hterrrel h'ese:rc1"1 hta-rEt ,ll,ss g-ed lEt'l.4::!rK ::id uiors
Task Force Task Forc~ 'lmttlr::: Au1h:fit}l . Dman [tt;t.ase
UHF) [IRTF) ·~r·UJ.) • Root Sao.Er ~.~
PESG] [liSG]

I',c;;edte:t
Re;i:Stf<j1S

Fig. 12.1.: Internet Management (Source: www.livinginternet.com)

Self Check Exercise

2) How is Internet managed?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

...................................................... ································t~··············.·····
.

................................................................................ - ..................•.................... 297

I
Internet Resources
and Services 12.4 DEFINITIONS OF INTERNET·
The term Internet.has been coined from two terms, i.e., interconnection and network. A
network is simply a group of computers that are connected together for sharing informa-
tion and resources. Several such networks have been joined together across the world to
form what is called as the Internet. The Internet is thus a network of networks. It refers
to the vast collection of interconnected networks that use the TCPIIP protocols and that
evolved from the ARPANET of the late 60's and early 70's (http://1001resources.com/
hostinglglossary.html).
The Internet is the world's largest computet network that enables computers of all kinds
to share services and communicate directly with each other, as if they were part of one
giant seamless global computing machine. It is vast and sprawling network reaching into
computer sites world-wide. The Internet comprises thousands of local area networks,
groups of computers including government supercomputers, campus-wide information
systems; local area networks and individual workstations. Each of these different computers,
connected on Internet running on different platforms or operating systems, follows certain
standards or rules of communication called protocols. The standard protocol used for
Internet communication is called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol or
TCPIIP. Standardised communication protocols allow similar, dissimilar, near and distant
computers to communicate with one another,
The Federation National Council (FNC) in 1995 referred the Internet as Global Information
System that - (i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on
the Internet Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions; (ii) is able to support communications
using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCPIIP) suite or its subsequent
extensions, and/ or other lP-compatible protocols; and (iii) provides, uses or makes
accessible, either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the communications
and related infrastructure described herein. It may be seen that FNC has described the
Internet as a global information system. The definition not only includes the underlying
concepts of communications technology, but also higher-level protocols and end-user
applications, the associated data structures and the means by which the information may
be processed, manifested, or otherwise used. In many ways, this definition supports the
characterisation of the Internet as an 'Information Superhighway'.
Internet Society (ISOC) defines Internet as a 'global network of networks' enabling
computers of all kinds 'to directly and transparently communicate and share services
throughout the world using a common .communication protocol. It should not be seen as
merely a collection of networks and computers. The Internet is an architecture that provides
for both communications capabilities and information services. Because the Internet is an
enormously valuable, enabling facility for so many people and organisations, it also
constitutes a shared global resource of information, know ledge, and means of collaboration,
and cooperation among countless diverse communities.
Self Check Exercise
3) Define Internet. How are different platforms or operating systems connected to the
Internet?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

7
•......••••••..••••••••• 1•••••••••••••••••••• - .

298
 Basics of Internet
12.5 GROWTH OF INTERNET
The Internet was initially set up with 4 hosts. In early 1980s there were only 213 registered
hosts on Internet. By 1986, the number had risen to 5089 hosts connected throughout the
world. It was by 1989, the number of networks connected to the Internet rose to five
hundred. The Network Information Centre of the Defence Data Network Information
Centre found 2,218 networks connected as of January 1990. By June 1991, the National
Science Foundation Network Information Centre pegged it at close to four thousand.
The number of networks connected to the Internet by the end of 2003 was more than
60,000 .

. This high levels of connectivity has resulted in an unparalleled degree of communication,

collaboration, resource sharing, and information access. The number of hosts on Internet
has been doubling every year since 1981. What has driven this growth more than anything
is the openness of the academic community. That openness shows up in the technology
of Internet, its economics and its culture. Internet has become a forum for human
communication in wide variety of disciplines ranging from computers, medicine, biosciences
and social sciences etc. to art, music, sports and other recreations.

The number of hosts accessible on the Internet is considered as a fair measure of its
growth. Since the early 80s, when the USA government began to share their network
technology with the world, there has been growth on a scale that is hard to imagine. To
put it into better perspective, the number of hosts on the Internet grew from 4 in 1969 to
213 in 1981 and 233 million in early 2004. Table 1 provides growth in number of servers
from 1969 to 2004.

According to the Internet Society, a non-profit society that studies and promotes the use
of the Internet, 134 countries had full Internet connection and an additional 5 countries
had limited access in 1996. Surveys performed by International Data Corporation and
Matrix Information and Directory Services found that as of September 1997 there were
between 53 and 57 million users of the Internet worldwide. By January 1999 there were
about 50 million Internet connections worldwide and have grown to 200 million users in
200 countries and territories by the year 2001.

The technologies of past two decades are WWW and search engines. While the number
of web pages available on the Net reached 800 million, the number of search engines
grew to a several hundreds.

250,000,000
Internet Domain Survey Host Count
200,000,000

. 50,000,000

. 00,000,000

so.noe.ooo

Lt) r--.. eo en o
cr.o enI enI enI o
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~ c c C
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-:0
16
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Source: Internet Software Consortium (w"",.isc.org)

Fig. 12.2: Internet Domain Survey Host Count

Source: http://www.InternetWorldStats.com 299 -

Internet Resources
and Services
l' a bl e 12 ..
1 'nota I PI'
opu W
ation VIs G rowt h .\ Nurn ber 0fin ternet Users

World Regions Population Internet Interriet User Penet- %

( 2004 Est.) Usage Usage Growth(%) ration (%) of
(Year 2000) Latest Data ( 2000~ Popu- Table
2004 ) lation)

Africa 905,954,600 4,514,400 10,095,200 123.6 1.1 1.4

Asia 3,654,644,200 114,303,000 235,080,254 105.7 6.4 31.5

Europe 728,857,380 100,993,993 204,557,409 102.5 28.1 27.4

Middle East 2.59,166,000 5,272,300 14,472,500 174.5 5.6 1.9

North America 326,695,500 108,096,800 215,988,656 99.8 66.1 29.0

Latin America!
Caribbean 546, I00,900 18,068,919 49,504,287 174.0 9.1 6.6
Oceania 31,892,487 7,619,500 15,654,792 105.5 49.1 2.1
India 1,088,056,200 5,000,000 16,580,000 231.6 1.5 7.2

World Total 6,453,31] ,067 358,871,012 745,353,098 106.3 11.5 100.0

12.5.1 Internet 2
Building on the tremendous success ofInternet and associated technologies for academic
needs, the university community has joined together with government and the i'loustry to
accelerate the next stage of Internet development in academia called Internet2 or 1-2.
The transition from government-supported backbones to a totally privatised system in the
U.S. has led to the development of a new system of backbones called Internet 2, the Next
Generation Internet. Proponents of Internet2 believe that privatisation of the Internet has
shifted the focus of Internet development more towards business profits and less on
academics, research and teaching needs.
Internet2 is a research and development consortium led by over 206 US universities working
in partnership with industry and government to develop and deploy advanced network
applications and technologies, accelerating the creation of tomorrow's Internet. Internet2
is recreating the partnership among academia, industry and government that fostered
today's Internet in its infancy.
In addition to university members, the Internet2 community includes over 70 companies
and more than 40 affiliated organisations, including US government research laboratories.
Internet2 members are working with more than 30 other similar research and education
networking organisations in countries around the world. Supported by a core central staff,
Internet2 activities are led by its members. Tnternet2 members work in concert with national,
state and regional initiatives in the United States, and are coordinated with international
organisations such as the Internet Engineering Task Force. Internet2 efforts are focused
on the following activities:
• Advanced network applications to enable collaboration among people and provide
interactive access to information and resources in ways not possible on today's
commercial Internet. Interactive distance learning, remote access to unique scientific
instruments, real-time access to large databases, and streaming high-definition video
are all possible with high-performance networks.
• New network capabilities such as quality of service and multicasting are being
aggressively tested and deployed in the networ.ks used by Internet2 members. These
capabilities support advanced network applications today, and will enable tomorrow's
commercial Internet to provide the reliable performance advanced applications
required.
.• Middleware, the behind-the-scenes software, is providing security, directories and other
services required by advanced network applications. In today's Internet, applications
usually have to provide these services themselves, which leads to competing and
incompatible standards. By promoting standardisation and interoperability, middleware
will make advanced network applications much easier to use.
300
• High-performance networks are linking the campuses and Laboratories of over 206 Basics of Internet
Internet member institutions. The high-performance networks participating in the
Internet2 project provide the environment in which new network applications and
capabilities can be deployed and tested.
The greatest benefit of Internet2 is the large bandwidth. The Internet2 is already
operational. It connects 206 participating universities and institutioris in US enabling transfer
of large volumes of video and audio and other applications used for research purposes.
12.5.2 Internet 3
Similar to the origin of Internet, the root of the emerging Internet 3 also lies with the US
government and academics. These include the USA government's Next Generation
Internet (NGI) initiative (http://www.ngi.gov/). the National Science Foundation (NFS)
and Very High Bandwidth Network Service (VBNS). As computer and communication
corporate grants such as IBM, CISCO and Intel will eventually benefit with the development
of Internet 3, they too are active participants in this new Internet project.
Initiated in October 1996, NGI aimed to foster partnership between academia, industry
and governmentto develop technologies that will be essential to sustain USA's technological
leadership in computing and communications and enhance the country's economic
competitiveness. The NGI aimed to demonstrate the new inter-network with a capacity
of 1 Terra-bps and over 10 advanced applications to leverage this bandwidth. The Internet
3 promised a large number of new applications on a very high-speed network. The Next
Generation Internet (NGI) Program has been successfully completed and the Federal
agencies are currently coordinating advanced networking research programs under the
Large Scale Networking (LSN) Coordinating Group. The NGI Program met all of its
goals except for its goal of Terabit per second networking in 2002 that is expected to
meet by the current LSN research activities.

12.6 "INTERNETARCIDTECTURE
The Internet uses client / server model. A server is a computer system that is accessed
by other computers and / or workstations at remote locations. Usually, a server contains
data, datasets, databases and programs. The server computers are also called 'host'
since these computers are configured to host datasets, files and databases, receive requests
for it from the client machines and serve it. The term 'host' means any computer that has
full two-way access to other computers on the Internet. All computers that host web
sites are host computers or servers since they 'host' information and 'serve' client
machines. For example, a computer that hosts a website for 'GoogJe' (http://
www.google.com/) is a host or a server computer. There are millions of host computers
that are linked on Internet for communicating with each other. The connectivity from one
computer to another computer is being provided using some standard mode of linkages
called Internet Protocols. A protocol can be defined as special set of rules governing
connectivity for telecommunication connections. Protocols may exist at several levels
and in order to communicate both end points must recognise and observe standard protocols.
Peer to Peer and client/server are two popular systems of communication.
12.6.1 Peer to Peer Communication
Peer-to-peer is a communications model in which each party has the same capabilities and
either party can initiate a communication session. In some cases, peer-to-peer
communication is implemented by giving each communication node both server and client
capabilities.
On the Internet, peer-to-peer (referred to as P2P) is a type of transient Internet network
that allows a group of computer users with the same networking program to connect with
each other and directly access files from one another's hard drives. Napster and Gnutella
are examples of this kind of peer-to-peer software. Corporations are looking at the
advantages of using P2P as a way for employees to share files without the expense
involved in maintaining a centralized server and as a way for businesses to exchange
information with each other directly. These are usually operated in small offices. IBM's 301
Internet Resources Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking (APPN) and Gnutellanet are the examples of
and Services
products that support peer-to-peer communication model.
12.6.2 Client Server Architecture
The Client-Server Architecture is based on the principle where 'client' program installed
on the user's computer (called client) communicates with the 'server' program installed
on the host computer to exchange information through the network. The client -server
model involves two separate but related programs, i.e., client and server. The client
program is loaded on the PCs of users hooked to the Internet where as the server program
is loaded on to the 'host' (usually a PC with large storage capacity and RAM, a mini-
computer or a main-frame computer) that may be located at a remote place. The concept
of client I server computing has particular importance on the Internet because most of
the programs are built using this design, A server is a program that 'serves' (or delivers)
something, usually information, to a client program. A server usually runs on a computer
that is connected to network. The size of that network is not important in the client I
server concept - it could be a small local area network or the global Internet. The advantage
of this type of design is that a server has to store the information in one format, which
could be accessed by various clients working on multiple platforms, and located at different
places. In the client I server model multiple client programs share the services of a
common server program. Both client programs and server programs are often part of a
larger program or application. For example, Internet Explorer (web browser) is a part of
Windows Operating System, Internet Information Server (lIS) is a part of Windows 2000
I Windows NT and 'Apache' (web server) comes integrated with Linex Operating System. /
In case of World Wide Web (WWW) services, the web browser (Internet Explorer or
Netscape Navigator) is a client program that resides on a PC of a user. The web browser
requests services from a web server loaded on to a host machine. The 'server' program
is designed to interact with 'client' programs so that a user can determine whether the
information they want is available on a server, and if so, the server is programmed to
serve it to the client.

Software tools in a client-server environment work in pair. For every application in client
server environment, there is a client program that is responsible for facilitating users to
interact with 'server' program and explore information hosted on it. The client application
works as an interface between ,the user and the host, collecting information about the
requirement of user, translating the request into agreed language of communication
between the client and the server and sending it to the relevant server computer. The
server program is responsible for hosting the data and accompanied programs, receiving
the request from clients, finding the information requested by client and returning it to the
client. A 'server' is generally programmed to organise information stored on it, create
indices and search information. The responses or data sent by the server machines are
received by the client machines that decode it and convert it for appropriate display on
the user's machine.

Client Server
Network
Internet
Or
Intranet

Communication
Client Software Protocol Server Software

(HTTP, ftp ... )

302 Fig. 12.3: Thematic Representation of Client I Server Model

The client -server model is most suitable for packet switching as mode of communication Basics of Internet
used by the Internet. The client-server model d~es not need continuous communication
between client and the server. Once a request from the client machine is sent to the
server that contains not only the request but also the. address of client machine, the client
machine can use its resources for something else while it waits for response from the
server. Likewise, once a request is received from a client, the server machine performs a
search for resources requested by the client and sends it to the client's address. The
process does not require continuous communication between client and the server. This
asynchronous form of communication is not only suitable for packet switching but it also
ensures that resources of client and host machines as well as communication channels
are used most optimally.
The client-server model facilitates development of different clients and servers for various
applications.
The model can be extended virtually to any application. In a mailing system for example,
while a mail server is configured to 'receive' and 'send' mails for mail accounts created
on it for various users. The mail server program can be accessed by the users having mail
accounts using mail client applications such as 'Outlook Express', 'Eudora' and 'Netscape
Communicator'. The LibSys Software Package also works on client-server model. The
LibSys server application resides on host computer with database of books, journals,
patron, transaction records, etc. The LibSys client application resides on the machines
used by the staff and the users. The client machines are configured to access OPAC for
the Library users and all other modules (acquisition, technical processing, circulation,
etc.) for the library staff.
Table 12.2: Functions of Server and Client Programs

Functions of a Client Program Functions of a Server Program

• Serves as a user interface for user • Host data and information

• Translates requests from the user • Organizes data and contents, develop
into desired protocol indices to facilitates search
• Sends request to the server • Receives requests from clients
encoded in packets
• Processes requests from various
• Receives response from the server users
• Decodes response from user and • Returns results to respective clients
format it for presentation on accompanied addresses

Table 12.3: Client-Server Programs for Various Applications

Applications

.
I~

1~•
Server Software
,
•-
Client Software

World Wide Web (WWW) NCSA HTTPD; Apache; Internet Explorer

Jigsaw; Netra, ITS Netscape Navigator
Gopher Gopher Server Gopher Client
E-Mail E-mail Server Email Clients (Outlook
Express, Eudora,
Netscape Communicator)
FTP FTP Server FTP Client (WS_FTP,
Bullet FTP)
LibSys LibSys Server LibSys Client
303

I
 Internet Resources
and Services
Self Check Exercise

4) What is client-server model? How is it different from host-terminal model?

5) What is packet switching? How is it different from circuit switching?

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

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12.7 . ACCESSING THE INTERNET

The most common method of accessing Internet for most users is through the
telephone lines. A user dials the service provider from his / her residence or from office
and the service provider puts them on to the Internet service network. This arrangement
allows a user to connect to telephones almost anywhere in the world. Now that more and
more service providers have started offering faster and faster options for Internet
connections, users looking for faster-than-dialup connection have several options to
choose from.

The connections to the Internet fall under two basic categories: dial-up access and
direct or dedicated access. There are two categories of dial-up access, i.e., analogue
and digital. Regular telephone lines support analogue mode of data transmission that uses
a continuous wave form to transmit data. Analogue connections use modems to convert
digital signals [0 analogue signals and then analogue signals back to the digital signals.
Digital transmissions such as fibre optic devices pass data along using discrete, on / off
pulses. Unlike analogue connections, digital connections do not require a modem at each
end of the connection.

12.7.1 Analog Dial-up Connection

Dial-up access to the Internet is the most common way that is used by individuals and
small organisations to connect to the Internet. A user connects to the Internet by dialling
to the Internet service provider via a modem and a regular telephone line, i.e., Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Dial-up connections to the Internet are not
permanent connections.

Dial-up connections are less expensive as compared to the dedicated leased connection.
It is the least expensive means of accessing the Internet. In India, dial-up connection
from a typical Internet Service Provider costs anywhere between Rs. 300 to Rs. 1,000
per month for 100 to 500 hours. Dial-up connection requires very modest and low-cost
hardware and software.

Although least expensive, dial-up connections to the Internet have certain disadvantages.
Dial-up connection suffers from the disadvantage of low speed and less reliability. The
speed of an analog dial-up connection is determined by the speed of the modem. Regular
telephone lines used for accessing Internet may be slow, unreliable and busy during peek-
hours. There are two types of accounts that one can establish with an analog dial-up
304 connection: SLIPIPPP and shell accounts.
Hardware Requirements Basics of Internet

The hardware requirements common for all types of connections for user (client) and
server are dealt separately. Dial-up connection to Internet specifically requires a Modem
(Modulator / Demodulator).

A MODEM is a device that enables a computer to transmit data over telephone lines.
Modulator converts the discrete stream of digital 'on-off' electric pulses used by the
computers into the analog wave patterns used for transmission of human voice.
Demodulator recovers the digital data from the transmitted analog signal. A modem can
be fixed internally into PCs or it can also be bought as external device.

A reliable and high-quality Modem is a critical requirement to ensure quality and reliability
of transmitted information. The Modem should incorporate error-correction protocols
and should be supported by local telecommunication facilities. It should work in
asynchronous mode with a speed of 33.6 to 56 KBPS.

Software Requirements

The software requirements common for all types of connections for user (client) and
server are dealt separately. Dialup connection specifically requires communication
software.

Communication software is a program, which establishes contact between a computer

and the Internet Service Provider (ISP) using modem. Such softwares have built-in
functionality of automatic dialling and automatic logon procedures including dialling to the
ISP, supplying User ID and Password, etc. Communication software is built into operating
systems. Windows Operating System incorporates 'Hyper Terminal' as communication
software. ISPs may also provide their own communication software.

12.7.2 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) refers to technology that works on the existing copper
telephone line, also known as a 'twisted pair'. It uses sophisticated digital coding to utilise
more of the existing space on the wire, without interfering with the normal phone
conversations. This technology dramatically increases the digital capacity of ordinary
telephone lines. It skips the analog- digital-analog conversions and sends data directly in
digital format. New equipment must be installed at the phone company's office as well as
at the user's home or office. The DSL speeds are tied to the distance between the
customer and the telecommunication central office. The user generally must be located
within 3.5 miles of a phone company switching office. The DSL offers data download
rates up to 6 Mbps, depending on the variant supplied and distance from the nearest DSL
service provider's exchange. Besides, Internet, the DSL-enabled lines are capable of
supporting services such as fast Internet access and video or TV on demand. For DSL
subscribers through the MTNL, charges for Internet access are based on hourly usage or
data transfer.

The DSL technology has several variants such as ADSL, SDSL, VDSL, HDSL, SHDSL
and RADSL. A brief description of these variants are given below:

• Asymmetric DSL (ADSL): This technology facilitates use of the whole bandwidth
of a standard telephone copper cabling. It allows a subscriber to receive data
(down load) at speeds of up to 1.544 Megabits per second, and to send (upload) data
at speeds of 128 kilobits per second. Thus, the speeds of upload and down load are
'asymmetric'. While the POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) uses the frequencies
between 300 and 3100Hz, the higher frequencies normally remain unused. ADSL
uses the frequencies between 30KHz and 1.1 MHz to transport data, leaving the
telephone connection, as crystal and pure as ever. ADSL can be easily and seamlessly
combined with the existing ISDN lines. 305
Internet Resources • Symmetric DSL (SDSL): This connection, used mainly by small businesses, does
and Services
not allow simultaneous use of telephone at the same time, but the speed of receiving
and sending data is the same.

• VDSL (Very high bit-rate DSL): This is a fast connection, but works only over a
short distance.

• HDSL (High data rate DSL): HDSL is the earliest variation of DSL. The main
characteristic of HDSL is that it is symmetrical or in other words an equal amount of
bandwidth is available in both directions.

• SHDSL (Single-pair High-speed Digital Subscriber Line): SHDSL was

developed as a meltdown of several symmetric DSL technologies (HDSL, SDSL,
HDSL- 2) producing as a result one single internationally recognised industry standard.
Unlike ADSL, which is fine-tuned to the needs of a home user and can download
enormous amounts of data but has limitation when large amount of data is to be
uploaded. SHDSL has no problems with 'two-way' Internet traffic. With the transfer
rates of up to 2.3 Mbps, this makes it a perfect high-speed solution for medium to big
enterprises, branch offices, as well as high-end residential users.

• Rate Adaptive DSL (RADSL): This is a variation of ADSL, but the modem can
adjust the speed of the connection depending on the length and quality of the line.

• IDSL (ISDN Digital Subscriber Line): IDSL provides up to 144-Kbps transfer

rates in each direction and can be provisioned on any ISDN capable phone line.
Unlike ADSL and other DSL technologies, IDSL can be deployed regardless of the
distance the user is from the central office.

Some of the specific advantages of DSL connections are:

• Internet connection and telephone work simultaneously.

• The speed is much higher than a regular modem (1.5 Mbps Vis 56 Kbps).

• DSL does not necessarily require new wiring; it can work on the existing phone
lines.

• The companies that offer DSL usually provide the modem as part of the installation.

Some of the disadvantages of DSL connections are:

• A DSL connection works better when it is closer to the provider's central office.

• The connection is faster for receiving data than it is for sending data over the Internet.

• The DSL is available only in metropolitan cities.

Hardware Requirements
The hardware requirements common for all types of connections for user (client) and
server are dealt separately later. A DSL connection to Internet specifically requires DSL
modem or network terminators.

DSL modems or network terminators are digital devices that are used to connect a computer
or network to a larger network via telephone wiring using DSL techniques. Modem is a
misnomer in this case since there is no conversion from digital to analog. The DSL
technologies use sophisticated modulation schemes to pack data onto copper wires. They
are sometimes referred to as last-mile technologies because they are used only for
connections from a telephone switching station to a home or office, not between switching
stations.

Most DSL devices connect to USB-port on desktop or notebook computer. It does not
require any additional network interface card. Most DSL devices support multiple operating
306 systems.

I
 Basics of Internet

Fig.12.4: DSL Modem or Network Terminators

Software Requirements
The software requirements common for all types of connections for user (client) and
server are dealt separately later. DSL connection to Internet specifically requires DSL
Installation Software. Ho v:;:. er, since both telephone and ADSL service are
simultaneously available from the same copper pair, a central splitter or distributed filters
is required at the exchange for decoupling ADSL and telephone signals.

Since the Internet connection in DSL is available virtually, the DSL connection does not
require a communication package.

12.7.3 Dedicated Leased Line

A leased circuit is a dedicated link provided between two fixed locations for exclusive
use by the customer. A leased circuit may be a speech circuit, a data circuit or a telegraph
circuit. Dedicated leased line can be achieved by twisted pair of telephone lines, through
VSAT or radio link. Leased line charges are generally uniform for all cases and are
same as applicable for point-to-point leased circuits.

Dedicated leased lines have many advantages. The major advantage is the high speed
and better reliability. With a dedicated single leased line, an organisation can have many
users of a local area network connected to the Internet. Being a dedicated leased line,
users need not dial to connect to the Internet. All computers on a local area network
using a dedicated leased line are always connected to the Internet. This type of connection
is appropriate for organisations that transfer large amounts of data and have many users
and workstations that must be connected to the Internet. This option requires that
dedicated lines be leased through a network provider (such as Department of
Telecommunication or VSNL in India) and special network hardware be installed on
site, making this a complicated operation. The only disadvantage of dedicated leased line
is high cost of communication and difficulties involved in its maintenance.

Hardware and Software Requirements

The hardware requirements common for all types of connections for user (client) and
server are dealt separately later in section 12.9. Besides a dedicated leased line, no
other hardware or software is required except pes and local area network along with (
.switches or routers in the organisation for its effective usage. Dedicated connection
through radio link requires radio antenna installed at the user's premises. Dedicated
telephone line in India is provided by the MTNL or Department of Telecommunication .
. MTNL is also an Internet Service Provider.

12.7.4 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (lSDN) is a state-of-the-art Public Switched Digital
Network that facilitates voice, data and image transmission over the telephone line through
the telephone network. ISDN is a set of protocols defining how data is transmitted over
digital networks. Unlike dial-up analog service, ISDN offers a higher bandwidth and is. 307
 Internet Resources
and Services capable of transmitting voice and data simultaneously on the same connection. ISDN is
currently the fastest and most reliable method of connecting small computers to the Internet.
Complete end-to-end solutions are now available at a very affordable price. While the
data transfer rates of fastest modems that can connect to the Internet are typically 14,400
or maximum 56,000 bits per second (bps) or baud, the ISDN allows up to 128,000 bps.
ISDN service can be delivered over the same two copper wires that provide telephone
service. Therefore, no additional wiring is required. ISDN service is available by and
large in all major cities of India. Moreover, it has overseas connectivity with most of the
countries. Major benefits of ISDN are as follows:

• Single connection can support voice, data and images. An ISDN subscriber can
establish two simultaneous independent calls which could be voice, data, image or
combination of any two whereas only one call is possible on ordinary telephone lines.

• High quality services being digital right from premises of subscribers (end to end)
are available.

• Eight terminals can be connected on a single line.

• High-speed data transfer from PC to PC is possible - 64 Kbps against existing 9.6

Kbps (6 times faster).

• The call set time is very short (1-2 seconds).

• ISDN supports a number of supplementary services.

Hardware Requirements

The hardware requirements common for all types of connections for user (client) and
server are dealt separately later. Hardware required for an ISDN connection to Internet
are given below:

The ISDN telephone line is terminated on a common box called the Network Termination
(NT) that is installed at the subscriber's premises. The Network Termination unit along
with accessories is generally provided by the Internet Service Provider or can be procured
by the subscriber. The terminal equipment has to be procured by the subscriber.

ISDN supports voice, data and image transmission over the telephone line. As such, its
application is not restricted to Internet access. The hardware required for an ISDN
connection would therefore depend on the applications that a user wants to run on an
ISDN connection. Some of the ISDN equipment may be:

• ISDN feature phone: this is a simplest type of ISDN phone which has an LCD
display and some additional keys

• Terminal adapter

• PC add-on ISDN card

• Video phone

• G4 fax

12.7.5 Cable Connection to the Internet

Internet can also be accessed through the cable that brings TV channels to our homes
using a cable modem. Cable modem separates digital and analog signals travelling on the
cable and enables a PC to send and receive data using coaxial cable on the same
frequencies used by the cable TV channels. The primary advantage of cable is the large
bandwidth it offers. ISDN and DSL cannot match the bandwidth and speed offered by
the cable. PSTN (dial-up) offers maximum of 56 kbps, ISDN offers a maximum of 128
Kbps whereas cable starts with 64 kbps and can go upto 38 Mbps. Internet through cable
308 is, therefore, suitable for downloading multimedia such as movies, animation, etc.
 Basics of Internet
The Internet through cable uses the existing cable that already connects TV in our home.
This cable is capable of carrying both video signals and data signals at the same time.
Neither television nor data signals are affected by simultaneous use. Internet through
cable is right solution for bandwidth intensive applications and corporate customers. Though
cable has immense potentials as an access technology, it has a long way to go in terms of
infrastructure, quality of service, cost factor, security, etc. Siti Cable, Ice Network Pvt.
Ltd., Innomedia Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Mantra Online, BPL, Aptech Internet Ltd. and
Zeenext offer Internet through cable TV in India.
Hardware Requirements

The hardware requirements common for all types of connections for user (client) and
server are dealt separately later. Cable connection to Internet specifically requires a
cable modem.

A cable modem is an external device that hooks up to the Pc. It interacts with a Cable
Modem Termination System (CMTS) installed at a central location. Cable modems use
various technologies like TDMA based DOCSIS standard or more robust and modern
SCDMA based TERAYON proprietary technology.

Installing cable TV also involves modification and upgradation of existing cable TV network
to handle two-way data. The process involves adding signal amplifiers and coaxial cable
by the local cable provider.

12.7.6 Internet through Mobile Telephone

Internet can also be accessed through mobile telephone where the mobile functions as a
high-speed modem to connect a user's mobile, PC or laptop to the Internet. Reliance
India Mobile uses Code Division Multiple Access (CD MA) technology with superior
voice quality and high-speed data capabilities. It offers speeds up to 144 Kbps. A data
cable called 'R Connect Data Cable' is required to connect Reliance Mobile to the Pc.
The Data Cable is to be plugged into PC and the mobile. Software has to be installed in
the PC for activating the Internet connectivity. Before start using R Connect, a user is
required to subscribe to the service and activate his or her phone for R Connect.

Other mobile telephone services in India like Tata Mobile also offer such features .

•• •
~"'Uj· Of ••••, ~l
•

I
DI.I.up
••• •••

•t;'U'_'f

....- __ ESL
181)'"
•••
•
•, ~ CabIOConn.,tlOn
ft •••
QA TEWAY: WNL &
ERNET (NeST)
Clitnb·

Establishing an Internet Connection

Fig, 12.5: Various Methods of Internet Connectivity 309

 Internet Resources
and Services
12.7.7 Shell VIs TCPIIP Accounts
A user requires an account with an Internet Service Provider (lSP) in order to access
Internet services. The Internet account can either be a shell account or a TCP / IP
account.

Shell Account
In case of shell account, a user logs on to an intermediary computer (host) to access the
Internet. The host computer that is connected to the Internet provides connectivity to the
user. There may be several shell accounts on a host computer. The primary disadvantage
of a shell account is that it limits access to the Internet applications running on the service
-, provider's computer. Moreover, a user has to learn to use the operating commands on the
host computer. Moreover, shell accounts support only text-based access to the Internet.

Transferring information to or from the Internet using shell account, is a two-step process.
In the first step, the file is transferred from a remote machine on the Internet to the host
machine and then from host machine to the personal computer of user in the second step.
Shell accounts are cheaper as compared to the TCP / IP accounts. With cheaper availability
of Internet connections and popularity of graphic browsers, most users do not prefer shell
accounts.

TCP / IP account
The TCP / IP account facilitates a user to configure his system as a host machine. It
supports graphical interface for surfing the net. TCP lIP accounts cost more than plain
shell accounts.

Self Check Exercise

6) Describe various methods of accessing Internet. What is the most common method
of accessing Internet?

7) What is the limitation of Digital Subscribers Line (DSL)?

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

12.8 INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS (ISPs)

Internet Service Providers are companies that provide access to the Internet. The preceding
section describes options for communication that a user can choose for getting an Internet
connection. Various charging levels exist, but a popular method for home users is flat rate
(per month unlimited time and data amount). Traditionally, the Internet was purely a text
based global pool of information and access was either limited or required a certain
specialised knowledge. The development of the Internet today has ensured that information
now comes in other formats such as graphical, audio and animated images, and the interface
for such information is now a lot more dynamic and user friendly.

To get on to the Internet, a user needs to establish a connection through an Internet

310 Service Provider (lSP). Individuals connect their computers through the above-mentioned
communication lines through Internet service providers for accessing Internet. An ISP Basics of Internet
can be based in a small town, city or metropolitan. The small Internet Service Providers
(ISPs) hook into regional ISPs, which themselves link major backbones that traverse the
whole country connecting major metropolitan areas. While local ISPs may offer services
only within their country, regional providers often span across state lines.

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) gives software, specialised hardware and technical
help to connect to the Internet. Many ISPs provide electronic-mail account, host customers'
Web pages, and offer other services as a package deal to their customers.

12.8.1 Choosing ISP

There is no reliable way fit for all to choose the best Internet Service Provider. Different
people have different priorities: for some it is price, for others it is range of access numbers,
for others it is speed. A user has to carefully examine which ISP addresses his or her
priority in a better way.

12.8.2 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) in India

There are about 390 Internet Service Providers (ISP) in India who have been issued
license by the Department of Telecommunication to set-up their ISP and tariffs. Some of
them even have their own International Gateways. About 200 ISPs are already providing
service to about 2.5 million users around the country. A list of selected major ISPs along
with their Web site address is given below. The Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd (VSNL),
Mahanager Telephone Nigam Ltd. and ERNET Society are amongst the biggest Internet
Service Providers in India.

Table 12.4: Selected National ISPs of India

Company Web Page Address

Bharti Broadband Ltd. www.mantraonline.com
BSES Telecom www.powersufer.com
BSNL www.bsnl.co.in, www.sancharnet.in
Caltiger www.caltiger.com
. Cyberwave www.www.cyberwaveindia.com
Data Access India Ltd. www.now-india.com
Dishnet DSL Limited www.ddsl.net
Dishnet DSL www.eth.net
Freedialin www.freedialin
Glide www.glidemart.com
Global Online www.gol.net.in
HCL InfiNet Ltd. www.hclinfinet.com
Hughes Escorts www.hughes-ecom.com
Kushagra Online www.kushtel.net.in
Mantra Online www.mantraonline.com
Millennium Internet www.mol.net.in
MTNL www.mtnl.net.in
Nanda Netcom www.net4india.com
Nets4India www.net4india.com
Only Smart www.onlysmart.com
Opto Connect www.optoconnect.net.in 311

I
Internet Resources Pacific Internet www.pacific.net.in
and Services
Pioneer Online www.pol.net.in
Pionet Onlien www.pionetindia.com
Reliance Infocom Ltd. www.onlysmart.com
Roltanet www.roltanet.com
Sampark Online www.samparkonline.com
Satyam Online www.satyamonline.com
Sigma Online www.sigmaonline.com
Southern Online www.sol.net.in
Sify Ltd. www.sifycorp.com
Spectra Net limited www.spectranet.com
Software_ Tech.Parks www.stpi.soft.net
SIT! Cable Network Ltd. www.zeenext.com
Tata Internet www.tatanova.com
VSNL www.vsnl.net.in
W3C www.w3c.com
Weikfield www.wmi.net.in
ZeeNext www.zeenet.com

12.9 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIRED

FOR THE INTERNET
12.9.1 Server-side Hardware Components
Servers
Servers are the heart of Internet and services offered on the Internet. Server machines
need to be computation ally powerful, have adequate main memory (RAM) to handle
requests from client machines, have large amount of secure disc storage for the database( s)
and related files. It is important that the server is scalable (such as Sun Enterprise Server)
so that additional storage, processing power or networking capabilities can be added
wherever required.

Input Devices

Image-based web sites require input devices like scanners, digital cameras, video cameras
and PhotoCD systems. A large range of choices are available for these image capturing
devices. Scanners are available in all sizes and shapes. Flatbed scanners or digital cameras
mounted on book cradle are more suitable for libraries.

Storage Devices

Servers hosting large web sites may require large amounts ofstorage; particular attention
needs to be given to the storage solution. Intelligent storage networks and snapservers
-are now available in which the physical storage devices are intelligently controlled and
made available to a number of servers. Although harddisc (fixed and removable) solutions
are increasingly available at an affordable cost, optical storage devices including WORM,
CD-R, CD ROM, DVD ROM or opto-magnetic devices in stand alone or networked
mode, are attractive alternatives for long-term storage of digital information. Optical drives
record information by writing data onto the disc with a laser beam. The media offers
312 enormous storage capabilities. A number of RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive
 Basics of Internet
Disks) models are also available for greater security and performance. The RAID
technology distributes the data across a number of disks in a way that even if one or
more disks fail, the system would still function while the failed component is replaced.

12.9.2 Server-side Software Components

Setting-up a Web site may require a number of softwares which may be obtained as a
single integrated package from a single vendor or it may be a system with components
added onto an open architecture framework.

Image Capturing or Scanning Software

The process of converting a paper document into a computer-processible digital image is
done using a software variably called document imaging system, electronic filing system
or document management system, etc. A simple scanning software also comes with the
scanners. Two important document imaging software from India are:

OmniDoc ver.l (Newgen Software) http://www.newgensoft.com!

Data Scan (Stacks Software Pvt. Ltd.) http:/www.stex.com!

Image Enhancement and Manipulation

The captured images may need manipulation to enhance their quality. Some of the image
enhancement features include: filters, tonal reproduction, colour management, touch, crop,
image sharpening, contrast, transparent background, etc. A few important image
enhancement packages are listed below:

Adobe's Photoshop 9.0 http://www.adobe.com!

Jasc Inc. 's Paintshop Pro 6.02 http://www.jasc.com!

Eastmari Software, Inc. http://www.eastmansoftware.com!

Corel Corporation http://www.core1.com!

Alchemy Mindworks http://www.a1chemy.com!

Web Servers
Setting-up a web server requires a web server program. Many server programs are
available for different platforms, each with different features and cost varying from free
to very expensive. Some of the important web server programs are listed below:

Servers for Unix Systems

NCSA HTTPD http://www.ncsa.uiuc.edul

Apache http://www.apache.org/

Jigsaw 2.1.1 http://www. w3 .org/jigsaw /

Netra (for Sun Solaris) http://sun.com!

Servers for Windows NT

Internet Information Server (nS) http://www.microsoft.com!iis/

Database Management Software

The database management software provide structured storage and retrieval facilities to
the contents of a web site. A variety of database management systems ranging from
relational and extended relational database management systems to object-oriented
database systems can be used for a database-driven web site. Relational DB MS are
most often used for the storage of metadata and indices with attributes that contain 313
Internet Resources pointers to files in a file system. The relational DBMS software listed below can be
and Services
accessed by using SQL (Structured Query Language):
Oracle http://www.oracle.com/
Informix http://www.informix.com!
Sybase httpt//www.sybase.com/
SQL Server http://www.microsoft.com!

12.9.3 Client-side Hardware and Software Components

A user needs a computer with necessary hardware and software devices to connect to
the Internet. In order to have proper connectivity one needs a right mix of hardware and
software. Depending on the need one can select hardware based on Pentium processor
(Intel based) or Macintosh, preferably with latest configuration equipped with sufficient
RAM, video memory, hard disc and a colour monitor, which is a basic requirement for
accessing Internet.

These computers can further run on Windows, Unix, Linux or such other operating systems.
All these popular operating systems now have built-in support for connecting to the Internet.
In order to access the data from server computers a large number of client software are
available to suite various operating systems.

The hardware devices attached to client computer also play a role in providing proper
Internet connectivity. These can be either a modem or network connection. In order to
connect on a Local Area Network, normally used in offices or universities/ colleges,
there is a need to have Network Interface Card (NIC). These cards are designed to
handle different speeds and network architecture. In order to connect from home or a
small office a modem is connected to a computer. A modem can be an external device or
fitted inside the computer i.e internal modem. The modems come with different speeds
i.e., 14,400 bits per second (bps), 28,800 bps or 58,600 bps, etc. A modem provides
connectivity to external world through various types of communication lines.

A user also requires multimedia PC (or Macintosh) equipped with an Internet Browser
like Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator to access Internet and its services. Web
browsers are computer programs that facilitate a user to access the World Wide Web.
They provide a graphical interface that facilitates users to click buttons, icons, and menu
options to view and navigate web pages. By using web browsers, a user can locate
servers of Internet, send a query, process the query results, and display them. Web
browser, as a client application, is designed for a particular computing platform (for example,
Windows, Macintosh, UNIX) to take advantage of the strengths of the platform. Netscape
Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer are popular Web browsers. The client-side
PCs may also require the following software packages (plug-ins) to download format-
specific deliverables from the Internet:
Table 12.5: Format Specific Deliverables

Software Used For Web Site

Internet Explorer 5.0 Internet Browser http://www.microsoft.com!

Netscape Nevigator 4.7 Internet Browser http://home.netscape.com!
Acrobat Reader 4.0 (Adobe) PDP files http://www.adobe.com!
Microsoft Office For display and printing http://www.microsoft.com!
of MS Word, MS Access,
MS Excel files and
Power Point presentations,
Real Player 7.0 Audio and Video http://www.real.com!
TIFF Surfer 1.0 TIFF Images http://www. visionshape.com!
314 WS_FTP Pro 6.0 File Transfer Client http://www.ipswitch.com!
 Basics of Internet
12.10 INTERNET STANDARDS AND PROTOCOLS
12.10.1 Internet Protocols
A protocol can be defined as formal description of formats and rules that two or more
computers must follow to exchange data. These can be low-level details of computer-to-
computer interfaces (for example the order in which bits from a byte are set across a
wire) or high-level exchange between application programmes (for example the way in
which two programs transfer a file across network). In simple terms, protocols are set of
technical specifications that let computers exchange information.

Internet protocols are sets of rules or standard procedures that are followed to interconnect
and communicate between computers in a network. The Internet Protocol allows dissimilar
hosts to connect to each other through the Internet and transport information across the
Internet in packets of data using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This protocol
also determines how to move messages and handle errors. The protocol allows creation
of standards independent of hardware system. The data on Internet is transmitted from
one computer to another using standard protocols.

12.10.2 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCPIIP)

The- two protocols pre-dominantly used by Internet are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) and are popularly referred to as TCP/IP. These Protocols
are so common for Internet that the Internet itself is defined as a "TCP/IP bound network
of networks to access resources from one computer to another." These protocols were
developed in 1974 by Robert Kahn of ARPANET and computer scientist Vinton G. Gerf.
The greatest strength of TCP/IP is that it easily enables computers of different
architectures and operating systems to communicate with each other.

TCP/IP is a two-layer program. The higher layer, Transmission Control Protocol, manages
the disassembling of a message or file into smaller packets that are transmitted over the
Internet and received by a TCP layer that reassembles the packets into the original
message. The lower layer, Internet Protocol, handles the address part of each packet so
that it gets to the right destination. Each gateway computer on the nett.rork checks this
address to see where to forward the message. Even though some packets from the same
message are routed differently than others, they will be reassembled at the destination.

TCP/IP uses the client/server model of communication in which a computer user (a

client) requests and is provided a service (such as sending a web page) by another
computer (a server) in the network. TCP/IP communication is primarily point-to-point,
meaning each communication is from one point (or host computer) in the network to
another point or host computer. TCP/IP and the higher-level applications that use it are
collectively said to be 'stateless' because each client request is considered a new request
unrelated to any previous one (unlike ordinary phone conversations that require a dedicated
connection for the call duration). Being stateless free network paths, everyone can use
them continuously. (Note that the TCP layer itself is not stateless as far as anyone
message is concerned. Its connection remains in place until all packets in a message
have been received.)

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one
computer to another on the Internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the Internet
has at least one IP address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the
Internet. When a user sends or receives data (for example, an e-rnail note or a web
page), the message gets divided into little chunks called packets. Each of these packets
contains both the sender's Internet address and the receiver's address. Packets are sent
first to a gateway computer that understands a small part. of the Internet. The gateway
computer reads the destination address and forwards the packet to an adjacent gateway
that in turn reads the destination address and so forth across the Internet until one gateway
315
Internet Resources recognizes the packet as belonging to a computer within its immediate neighbourhood or
and Services
domain. That gateway then forwards the packet directly to the computer whose address
is specified.

Because a message is divided into a number of packets, each packet can, if necessary, be
sent by a different route across the Internet. Packets can arrive in a different order than
the order they were sent in. The Internet Protocol just delivers them. It's up to another
protocol, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to put them back in the right order.

IP is a connectionless protocol, which means that there is no continuing connection between

the two end points that are communicating. Each packet that travels through the Internet
is treated as an independent unit of data without any relation to any other unit of data.
(The packets do get put in the right order because ofTCP, the connection-oriented protocol
that keeps track of the packet sequence in a message.) In .the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) communication model, IP is in layer 3, the Networking Layer.

Another advantage of TCPIIP is that it is not bound in any way to the physical medium.
Whether its wireless, token-ring, ordinary phone lines LAN or other network, one can
transmit data using TCPIIP.

12.10.3 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a set of rules for exchanging files (text,
graphic images, sound, video, and other multimedia files) on the World Wide Web. As its
name implies, essential concept of HTTP is the idea that files can contain links or references
to other files whose selection would lead to transfer of requests from one file to another.
Any web server machine contains, in addition to the HTML and other files it can serve, an
HTTP daemon, a program that is designed to wait for HTTP requests and handle them
when they arrive. The web browser is an HTTP client, sending requests to server machines ..
When a user requests for a file through browser by either 'opening' a web file (typing in
a Uniform Resource Locator) or clicking on a hypertext link, the browser builds an HTTP
request and sends it to the Internet Protocol address indicated by the URL. The HTTP
daemon in the destination server machine receives the request and, after any necessary
processing, the requested file is transmitted.

The Hypcrrext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol designed for a

distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information system. HTTP is a client-server protocol
by which two machines can communicate over a TCPIIP connection. An HTIP server is
a program that waits for requests to come on a machine's port dedicated to HTIP. An
HTTPclient(web browser) opens a TCPIIP connection to the server via a socket, transmits
a request for a document, and then waits for a reply from the server. HTTP protocol is
used for document exchange in the World Wide Web. Everything that happens on the web
happens over HTTP transactions.

A web page (also called a document) consists of objects. An object may be a HTML file,
an image, a Java applet, a video clip, etc. that is addressable by a single URL. Most web
pages consist of HTML files and several referenced objects or links.

HTTP defines how browsers request web pages from servers and how servers transfer
web pages to clients i.e., in essence it defines the interaction between the web client and
the web server. When a user requests a web page (for example, clicks on a hyperlink), the
browser sends HTTP request messages for the objects in the page to the server. The
server receives the requests and responds with HTTP response messages .that contain
the objects.

316
 Basics of Internet

Fig. 12.6: HTTP Protocol used in the Browser to Browse Web Pages

Self Check Exercise

8) What are protocols? Why are protocols important for functioning of Internet?
9) What is TCP / IP? How is it important to Internet?
10) Describe HTTP protocol. How does it work?

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

12.10.4 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FrP is a standard Internet protocol. It is the simplest way to exchange files between
computers orrthe Internet. Like the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which transfers
displayable web pages and related files, and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
which transfers e-mail, FrP is an application protocol that uses the Internet's TCP/lP
protocols. FrP is commonly used to transfer web page files from their creator to the
computer that acts as their server for everyone on the Internet. It's also commonly used
to download programs and other files to client machines from servers.
As a user, one can use FrP with a simple command line interface (for example, from the
.Windows, MS-DOS Prompt window) or with a commercial program that offers a graphical
user interface. The web browser can also make FrP requests to download programs
selected from a web page. Using FrP, one can also update (delete, rename, move and
copy) files at a server. Normally, one would be required to logon to an FrP server.
However, publicly available files are easily accessed using anonymous FrP.
Basic FrP support is usually provided as part of a suite of programs that come with TCPI
IP. However, any FrP client program with a graphical user interface usually must be
downloaded from the company that makes it. 317
Internet Resources
and Services

Dir ect ory of a

Dir ectory of a FoldB' on
Folder on ServB'
Client's PC

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Model of Transfer:
ASCI Binary
andAuto

Fig.12.7: WS_FTP Client:Window Client used for Transferring Files from Client to
Server and from Server to Client

12.10.5 Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to-Point

Protocol (PPP)
Personal computer users usually get to the Internet through the Serial Line Internet Protocol
(SLIP) or the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). These protocols encapsulate the IP packets
so that they can be sent over a dial-up phone connection to an access provider's modem.
. ,

SLIP is a TCP/IP protocol used for communication between two machines that are
previously configured for communication with each other. For example, your Internet server
provider may provide you with a SLIP connection so that the provider's server can respond
to your requests, pass them on to the Internet, and forward ..your requested Internet
responses back to you. Your dial-up connection to the server is typically on a slower serial
line rather than on the parallel or multiplex lines such as a line of the network you are
hooking up to.

PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is a protocol for communication between two computers

using a serial interface, typically a personal computer connected by phsne line to a server.
For example, your Internet server provider may provide you with a PPP connection so
that the provider's server can respond to your requests, pass them on to the Internet, and
forward your requested Internet responses back to you. PPP uses the Internet protocol
(IP) (and is designed to handle others). It is sometimes considered a member of the TCPI
IP suite of protocols. Relative to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model,
318

I
PPP provides layer 2 (data-link layer) service. Essentially, it packages your computer's Basics (If Internet
TCP/IP packets and forwards them to the server where they can actually be put on the
Internet. PPP is a full-duplex protocol that can be used on various physical media, including
twisted pair or fibre optic lines or satellite transmission. It uses a variation of High Speed
Data Link Control (HDLC) for packet encapsulation.

PPP is usually preferred over the earlier de facto standard Serial Line Internet Protocol
(SLIP) because it can handle synchronous as well as asynchronous communication.
PPP can share a line with other users and it has error detection that SLIP lacks. Where
a choice is possible, PPP is preferred.

12.10.6 Z39.50
.
Z39.50 is an American National Standard for Information Retrieval (IR). Prepared by
the National Information Standards Organisation (NISO), Z39.50 defines how one system
can cooperate with other systems for the purpose of searching databases and receiving
records. ANSIINISO Z39.50-1995 (ISO 23950) is one of a set of standards produced to
facilitate the interconnection of computer systems. As a network protocol, the Z39.50
standard provides a set of rules that govern the formats and procedure used by computers
to interact with one another. The Standard establishes the permissible sequences of events
at each of the two computers. Systems specify the content and structure of information
parcels that are exchanged between systems.

The standard specifies formats and procedures governing the exchange of messages
between a client and a server,enabling the user to search remote databases, identify
records which meet specified criteria, and to retrieve some or all of the identified records.
It is concerned, in particular, with the search and retrieval of information in databases.
This protocol is not used by the Internet search engines (they use http). It is more complex
and more comprehensive and powerful than http.

One of the major advantages of using Z39.50 is that it enables uniform access to a large
number of diverse and heterogeneous information sources. Z39.50 does offer one true
interface to a variety of databases. Some of these products are starting to shift to office
Unicode support, which will become increasingly important as we move into multi-
lingual record displiys. They are functionally rich because this \kind of product can
support simultaneous searching of multiple databases. This is a very valuable feature in
that it greatly compresses the amount of time required to sequentially query multiple
databases.

The name Z39 came from the ANSI committee on libraries, publishing and information -
services which was named Z39. NISO standards are numbered sequentially and Z39 is
the 50th standard developed by the NISO. The current version of Z39.50 was adopted in
1995 superceding earlier versions adopted in 1992 and 1988.

12.10.7 Dublin Core or Z39.85

The Dublin Core refers to a set of metadata elements that may be assigned to web pages
so as to facilitate discovery of electronic resources. Originally conceived for author-
generated description of web resources at the OCLC/NCSA Metadata Workshop held
at Dublin, Ohio in 1995, it has attracted the attention of formal resource description
communities such as museums, libraries, government agencies, and commercial
organisations. The Dublin Core Workshop Series has gathered experts from the library
world, the networking and digital library research communities, and a variety of content
specialists in a series of invitational workshops. The building of an interdisciplinary,
international consensus around a core element set is the central feature of the Dublin
Core. A set of 15 core elements in Dublin Core include: Title, Creator, Subject, Keywords,
Description, Publisher, Contributor, Date, Resource Type, Format, Resource Identifier,
Source, Language, Relation, Coverage and Rights Management.Dublin Core has now
been approved as NISO standard Z39.85 (Dublin Core Metadata).
319
 Internet Resources Self Check Exercise
and Services

11) What is Z39.50 protocol? What application does it have in a library environment?

Note : i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

....................................................................................................................
•• 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 01 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

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12.11 ORGANISATION OF INTERNET

As mentioned above, Internet links millions of computers for communicating data from
one computer to another. There are millions of host computers that communicate with
each other by using standard Internet Protocols described in the last section. The data to
be moved from one host to another host is broken into small pieces called packets. Each
packet has a header with address of destination host. The packets of different sizes move
on various networks before reaching the destination. Various packets of one file may
take different routes to reach a destination. The different networks on Internet are
connected with special purpose computers called routers. These routers look for destination
address given on each packet and direct the packet to take best route for destination.
Routers make decisions based on information that is constantly reaching them from all
over the Internet. They also know from other routers about the links that are down or
congested / slow, or about routers that are no longer accepting packets for certain
destinations. Each packet's destination and proposed route is evaluated individually, in the
blink of an eye, and sent off along the best route for that particular packet at that particular
moment.

The same sort of decision-making is made for all packets that traverse the Internet. Each
time a packet reaches a router, its address is examined and the packet is forwarded either
to another router nearer its ultimate destination or to that destination if the router is the
final router on the path. The destination computer is/the one that unpacks and merges all
the packets, strip away the distribution and routing addresses and pass the data.

12.11.1 Internet Addressing

Each host computer on the Internet has its own unique address. To identify a host on the
Internet, three addressing systems have been evolved: A numerical system called IP
addressing, a hierarchical naming system called the Domain Name System, and an
addressing system called URLs, which are used for identifying sites on the web.

JP address: Each computer has a unique numerical address, such as 202.54.26.82

Domain name: Each computer must have a unique name, such as www.iitd.ac.in

Uniform Resource Locator: Address of file(s) to be accessible from a host computer

12.11.2 IP Addresses
Every host on the Internet is assigned a unique identifier called an IP address or Internet
Protocol address. The JP address is a numerical address consisting of four numbers
separated by periods. An IP address looks like this: 202.54.26.82 and is read as, '"202 dot
320 54 dot 26 dot 82."
The IP address is a set of numbers that expresses the exact physical connection between Basics of Internet
a computer and the network on the Internet. They are unique and can be equated to
telephone numbers in a way: a phone number uniquely describes a user's connection to
the telephone network. IP addresses work somewhat similarly but are more complex than
phone numbers because there are literally millions of network connections possible and
because IP addresses are intended for use by computers rather than people.

An IP address consists of a 32-bit integer that's represented by four 8-bit numbers,

written in base 10, separated by periods. IP' addresses are organised from left to right
with the left-hand octet describing the largest network organisation and the rightmost
octet describing the actual network connection. IP addresses are unique on the network
and allow it to know specifically which computer is to receive which electronic packet as
well as from which specific computer the electronic packet came. IP address of lIT Delhi
web server is 202.54.26.82. As it may be quite difficult to remember such long IP addresses,
a system to translate it in domain names has been developed. The Domain Name System
(DNS) serves as directory program for IP addresses and it takes care of translating IP
addresses in simpler English names. The DNS for above mentioned IP address is
www.iitd.ac.in.

12.11.3 Domain Names

A domain name locates an organisation or other entity on the Internet. For example, the
domain name www.nic.in or www.hindustantimes.com

The domains names have been designed in such a way that they broadly describe
organisational or geographic realities. They indicate what country the network connection
is in, what kind of organisation owns it, and sometimes further details. Servers or host
computers have special names for each country. All countries in the world have a country
suffix, except the USA. The UAE uses ae, New Zealand uses .nz, while Canada's is ea.
The domain name of a host computer looks like

• Host computer name

• Organisation name

• Type of organisation

• Country name

IETF who designed the addressing system have planned a system, which looks like
words. These words roughly map to a parallel system of numerical addresses called IP
Addresses. Every computer on the Internet has both a domain name and an IP address,
and when you use a domain name, the computers translate that name to the corresponding
IP address.

The server ~.iitd.ac.in means

• a host computer called www

• an organisation called IITD
• an academic institution (ac stands for academic)
• located in India (in stands for India)
Similarly, the server www.yahoo.com means a host called www, belonging to an organization
called yahoo, which is a commercial organisation (com means commercial) located in the
United States (if there is no country code then it is in the United States).

In actuality, a host computer uses only numbers, turning all domain name addresses into
numbers. This translation process is taken care of behind the scenes by software. The
reason domain names exist in the first place is because names are more convenient for
people to use and easier to remember than numbers. Domain names are used for addressing
hosts rather than IP addresses. 321
 s
Internet Resources A third level can be defined to identify a particular host server at the Internet address. In
and Services
our example, 'www' is the name of the server that handles Internet requests. (A second
server might be called 'www2'.) A third level of domain name is not required. For
example, the fully qualified domain name could have been "totalbaseball.com" and the
server assumed.
Second-level domain names must be unique on the Internet and registered with one ofthe
ICANN-accredited registrars for the CaM, NET and ORG top-level domains. Where
appropriate, a top-level domain name can be geographic. (Currently, most non-U.S. domain
names use a top-level domain name based on the country the server is in.) To register a
U. S. geographic domain name or a domain name under a country code, contact an
appropriate registrar.
More than one domain name can be mapped to the same Internet address. This allows
multiple individuals, businesses, and organisations to have separate Internet identities while
sharing the same Internet server.
Top-level Domain Names:- On the Internet, a Top-Level domain (TLD) identifies the
most general part of the domain name in an Internet address. A TLD is either a Generic
Top-Level Domain (gTLD), such as 'corn' for 'commercial,' 'edu' for 'educational,' and
so forth, or a Country Code Top-Level Domain (ccTLD), such as 'fr' for France or 'is'
for Iceland.
A second-level domain (SLD) is the portion of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) that
identifies the specific and unique administative owner associated with an JP address.
The second-level domain name includes the top-level domain name. For example, in:
whatis.com, 'whatis' is a second-level domain. "whatis.corn" is a second-level domain
name (and includes the top-level domain name of 'com'). Second-level domains canbe
divided into· further domain levels. These sub domains sometimes represent different
computer servers within different departments. More than one second-level domain name
can be used for the same IP address.
The top level domain names include country names and are known as Geographic Domains
and type of organisations known as Non-Geographic Domains. The geographically based
top-level domains use two-letter country designations. For example, .us is used for the
United States, .ca for Canada (not California), .uk for the United Kingdom or Great
Britain, and .il for Israel. Each domain-has a number of hosts. A few more examples are
given in the following table.

Abbreviation Meaning
au Australia
be Belgium
ge Germany
jp Japan
rnx Mexico
nz New Zealand
uk United kingdom
Non-Geographic Domains
There are six common top-level domain types that are non-geographical:
.com for commercial organisations such as netcom.com, apple.com, sun.com,etc .
.net for network organisations, such as internic.net
.gov for parts of governments within the United States, such as nasa.gov,
Oklahoma.~ov, etc .
.edu for organisations of higher education, such as harvard.edu, ucdavis.edu, rnit.edu,
etc.
322
 Basics of Internet
.mil for nonclassified military networks, such as army.mil,etc. (The classified
networks are not connected to the wider Internet).
.org for organisations that do not otherwise fit the commercial or educational
designations.
.int international organisation
The lowest level in the domain name system is the host name. Host names identify a
computer on the Internet. For example, in the URL www.cse.iitd.ac.in, cse is the name
of computer, iitd is the host name in the ac domain.
Host Name: In some instances, there are second-level domains delegated to
organizations such as K-12 schools, community colleges, private schools, libraries,
museums, as well as city and country governments. Examples of second-level domains
are shown here:
CC - Community colleges
TEC - Technical colleges .
LIB - Libraries
K12 _ Kindergarten through 12th grade schools and districts
STATE - State Government
MUS - Museums

12.11.4 Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the address of a file (resource) accessible on
the Internet. The type of resource depends on the Internet application protocol. Using
the World Wide Web's protocol, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the resource
can be an HTML page, an image file, a program such as a common gateway interface
application or Java applet, or any other file supported by HTTP. The URL contains the
name of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain name that identifies a
specific computer on the Internet, and a hierarchical description of a file location on the
computer.
On the web (which uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol), an example of a URL is:

http://www.iitd.ac.inlacadllibrary/index.html
which describes a web page that can be accessed with an HTTP (web browser)
application that is located on a computer named www.iitd.ac.in. The specific file is in the
director- named lacad and subdirectory !library and is the default page in that directory
(which, on this computer, is named as index.htrnl).
An HTTP URL can be for any web page (not just a home page) or any individual file.

Self Check Exercise

12) Define IP address, Domain name and URL?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

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...................................................................................................................... 323
Internet Resources
and Services 12.12 INTERNET SECURITY
The security of computer and data transmitted on Internet is recognised as having a major
threat. In fact, threat to security is the biggest hurdle to expansion of e-commerce on the
Internet. Internet security is recognised as methods used by an organisation to protect its
institutional network from intrusion. A system administrator has to ensure that intruders or
hackers do not reach and manipulate data kept on the servers. The best way to keep an
intruder from entering the network is to provide a security wall between the intruder and
the institutional network. Most often, an intruder enters the network through a software
program (such as a virus, trojan horse or a worm) or through a direct connection. Methods
such as firewalls, data encryption and user authentication are used to check a hacker from
entering the network.

12.12.1 User Authentication

User authentication is the first level of security mechanism to protect a computer system
from unauthorised users. A user must enter a password as a digital key to enter the
computer system. User authentication can be incorporated into firewall, a particular
application, a document, or a network operating system such as Linux, Windows NT or
Windows 2000.
Passwords are an important line of defence against intruders and it is in best interest to
use this principal mode of protection at all levels. If an intruder can break into host's
system using password, he or she may then be able to find other security holes in that
system or use it as a means of entry into other systems on the Internet.
Password should be chosen carefully so that it cannot be guessed easily. The following
principles can be considered while creating and using password:
i) Do not use your name or a modification of your name as your password;
ii) Do not use a word or modification of a word that occurs in a dictionary;
iii) Do not use an acronym;
iv) Once you have created an account password, don't share it with anyone;
v) Change your password often, at least every three months;
vi) Do not leave your machine unattended when you are logged in; and
vii) Do not write your ID and password on a piece of paper or send it to your friend via
e-mail.

12.12.2 Fire Walls

Firewalls are the first line of defence for an institutional network. A firewall is a combination
of hardware and software that separates a local area network (LAN) into two or more
parts for security purpose. It is a set of related programs, locattd at a network gateway
server that protects the resources of a private network from users of other networks. All
network connections to and from the institutional network pass through the firewall, which
acts as a gatekeeper to give access to valid requests and blocks out invalid and unauthorised
requests and transmissions. An enterprise with an intranet that allows its users to access
the Internet installs a firewall to prevent outsiders from accessing its own private data
resources and for controlling what outside resources its own users have access to.

A firewall refers to the concept of a security interface or gateway between a closed

system or network and the outside Internet that blocks or manages communications in and
out of the system. Basically, a firewall, working closely with a.router program, examines
each network packet to determine whether to forward it towards its destination. A firewall
also includes or works with a proxy server that makes network requests on behalf of
workstation users. The firewall is often installed in a specially designated computer separate
from the rest of the network so that no incoming request can get directly at private Basics of Internet
network resources. A number of companies make firewall products. The firewall
facilitates features such as logging and reporting, automatic alarms at given thresholds of
attack, and a graphical user interface for controlling the firewall. The following are the
popular firewall software programs, which can be installed:

Personal computer fire wall - Black ICE Agent, e-safe Desktop, McAfee Internet
Guard Dog, Norton Internet Security and Zone Alarm.

Office firewalls - D-Link Residential Gateway, Linksys Eatherfort cable, Netgear and
Sonic wall.

Corporate fire wall - Check Point, CISCO Secure PIX Firewall, e-Soft-Interceptor
and Sonic Wall Pro.

12.12.3 Proxy Servers

In an enterprise that uses the Internet, a proxy server is a server that acts as an
intermediary between a workstation user and the Internet so that the enterprise can
ensure security, administrative control and caching service. A proxy server is associated
with or part of a gateway server that separates the enterprise network from outside
intrusion.

A proxy server receives a request for an Internet service (such as a web page request)
from a user. If it passes filtering requirements, the proxy server, assuming it is also a
cache server, looks in its local cache of previously down loaded web pages. If it finds the
page, it returns it to the user with out forwarding it to the Internet. If the page is not in the
cache, the proxy server, acting as a client on behalf of the user, ~ses one of its own IP
addresses to request the page from the server out on the Internet. When the page is
returned, the proxy server relates it to the original request and forwards it on to the user.

When a firewall is used to stop company workers from accessing the Internet, a proxy
server is used to provide access. It also acts as a security device by providing buffer
between inside and outside (on Internet) computers. The steps in the functioning of a
typical proxy server are given below:

i) Request for a file from a client is sent to the proxy server;

ii) The proxy server contacts the web server to get the file;

iii) The proxy server keeps a copy of the file in its cache; and

iv) Forwards a copy of file to the client.

The functions of proxy server, firewall and caching can be segregated on to separate
programs or combined in a single package. These programs can be hosted on to different
servers or on a single server. For example, a proxy server may be in the same machine
with a firewall server or it may be on a separate server and forward requests through the
firewall. To the user, the proxy server is invisible; all Internet requests and returned
responses appear to be directly coming to the Internet server.

12.12.4 Data Encryption

Techniques of data encryption can be used to avoid its misuse if intercepted in transit.
Data encryption is a method of scrambling the data into an unreadable form before it
leaves the client's machine. When the data reaches its destination. a key decodes the
encrypted data into readable information. The following are the three elements associated
with encryption system:

i) A method of changing the data into code (algorithm);

ii) A hidden place to start the algorithm(key);

ill) Control of the key (Key management). 325

I
Internet Resources 12.12.5 Digital Certification
and Services
Digital certificate is an electronic credit card that establishes credentials for doing business
or other transaction on the net. Digital certificates are issued by a government agency
called "certification authority". This certificate contains user's name, a serial number,
expiration date, a copy of the certificate holder's public key and the digital signature of
the certificate-issuing authority. Digital certificates are similar to watermarks on a bank
note. Digital certificates not only substantiate the authenticity of a message and its sender
but also alert the recipient if the message was altered while in transit.

12.12.6 Intrusion Detection System (IDS)

A specialised software termed as intrusion detection system can be deployed to monitor
and detect any malicious activity on the network generated from the organisation. There
are two types of intrusion detection systems currently being used, i.e., scanners and
monitors. Both of these systems can be deployed onto a network or individual computers.
Scanners are static IDS systems that keep a watch over a network system, like a security
guard. Scanners check for things like wrong passwords, security holes and misconfigured
computers. Some scanners take snapshots of the current state of the network and compare
it with the snapshot taken at a later date to see if there were any changes in the system
that are unwarranted. If the scanner senses such changes, it may sound an alarm or act
proactively by replacing changed files with clean copies. The monitors lDS, on the other
hand, are dynamic systems that look for attacks on the network while in progress. Monitor
IDS are also known as threat monitors.

12.12.7 Computer Viruses

Viruses represent the single biggest threat to the computer and network security. A
computer virus is a computer program that infects the computer applications or system
files. When the virus becomes active, it can destroy the data on any computer. The virus
does this by getting into computer's memory and from there it can copy itself to its hard
disk or floppy disks.

The computer virus is a piece of programming code usually disguised as something else,
which causes unexpected and usually undesirable events. A virus is often designed so
that it automatically spreads to other computer users. Viruses can be transmitted as
attachments to e-mail note, as downloads, or they can be present on a diskette or CD.
The source of the e-mail note, downloaded file, or diskette is often the source of viruses.
Some viruses wreak their effect as soon as their code is executed; others lie dormant
until circumstances cause their code to be executed by the computer. Some viruses are
playful in intent and effect ("Happy Birthday, Ludwig!") and some can be quite harmful,
erasing data or infecting hard disk to require reformatting.

Viruses are inactive until infected applications are executed. A virus can also get activated
when a computer is booted with a floppy disk that is infected by a boot sector virus.
There are three main classes of virus:

File Infeetors: Some file infector viruses attach themselves to program files, usually
selected .COM or .EXE files. Some can infect any program for which execution is
requested, including .SYS, .OYL, .PRG, and .MNV files. When the program is loaded,
the virus is sent as an attachment to an e-mail note.

System or boot-record infectors: These viruses infect executable code found in certain
system areas on a disk. They attach to the DOS boot sector on diskettes or the Master
Boot Record on hard disks. A typical scenario is to receive a diskette from an innocent
source that contains a boot disk virus. When the operating system is running, files on the
diskette can be read without triggering the boot disk virus. However, if the diskette is left
in the drive, and then the computer is turned-off or reload the operating system, the
computer will look first in the A drive, find the diskette with its boot virus, load it, and
make it temporarily impossible to use the hard disk.
 Basics of Internet
Macro Viruses: These are among the most common viruses, and they tend to do the
least damage. Macro viruses infect Microsoft Word application and typically insert
unwanted words or phrases.

The best protection against a virus is to know the origin of each program or file that
loaded into the computer or opened from the e-rnail program. Since this is difficult, anti-
virus software can be bought that can screen e-rnail attachments and also check all the
files periodically and remove any viruses that are found.

Anti-Virus Software

Anti-virus software greatly reduces chances of experiencing a viral infection in a

computer. MS AV (Microsoft Anti-Virus) comes with DOS 6.22 and there are standalone
products available like the Norton Anti- Virus program. Most of these programs scan all
of the files currently on the hard disk to see whether they contain any viruses. They also
install memory - resident programs that keep a continuous lookout for any suspicious
activity that would indicate a virus.

Along with commercial products, there are a few and shareware products that are
available, too. Windows and DOS users can check out the virus products offered by
MCAfee by either going to their FTP site at ftp.mcafee.corn or their web site at http://
www.mcafee.com. Another product that offers protection against viruses is called
F_PROT. F-Prot is available for Windows 3.x, Windows 95/ NT, DOS, Netware and
OS/2 (16-bit and 32-bit). Grisoft also offers its anti-virus programs free of charge from
its site http://www.grisoft.com.

The virus protection software should be updated periodically for protection against new
viruses that keep coming. Most anti -vuus programs release their updates from their web
sites.

How to Avoid Viruses

If floppies are shared with others or files are down loaded from the online services. there
is no guarantee of protection against viruses. To help reduce the risk of your computer
being infected, follow these tips:
i) Run an anti-virus program and keep it updated often.

ii) Scan floppies that are suspected to be infected.

iii) Do not copy programs from one computer to another. Use the original distribution
diskettes to install programs.

iv) Scan your system regularly with the full scanning engine.

v) Avoid using floppies from unknown sources.

vi) Write-protect floppies by sliding the little tab to expose the hole on 3.5-inch disks.

vii) Never boot computer from unknown diskettes. If it happens by accident and virus
is suspected on the diskette, shut down the computer, boot up from a clean system
diskette and check the system with an anti-virus program.

viii) Utilise your anti-virus program's memory resident scanners to check all files as
they are accessed, even from the Internet.

12.12.8 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A Virtual Private Network (VPN) can be used by organisations as a means of protection
from the outside attack. A VPN is a private data network that uses public networks
(such as Internet), tunnelling protocols, and security procedures to tunnel data from one
network to another. The data sent on a VPN is usually encrypted before it is transmitted
on the net. 327
Internet Resources
and Services
12.12.9 Extranet
Extranets are also deployed as a popular means to achieve Internet security. An Extranet,
or extended Intranet, can be defined as a private network of linking branch offices or
several cooperating organisations located outside the walls of any organisation. An Extranet
service uses existing Intranet interactive infrastructure, including standard servers, email
clients and web browsers. This makes Extranet far more economical than the creation
and maintenance of a proprietary network. It enables trading partners, suppliers and
customers with common interests to form a tight business relationship and a strong
communication bond.

The Extranet can be defined as "a network that links business partners to one another
over the Internet by tying together their corporate intranets". Extranets may be used to
allow inventory database searches. for example. or to transmit information on the status
of an order. They are being used by businesses of all types such as banks, airlines, railways,
large corporate offices having several branches, etc.

Self Check Exercise

13) What are computer viruses and anti-virus software?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

12.13 SUMMARY
The Unit introduces Internet as one of the most powerful media of communication that
has completely revolutionized the modes and methods of computer and communication.
It traces the history ofInternet from 1957 when erstwhile Soviet Union launched its first
satellite, Sputnik I, prompting US President Dwight Eisenhower to launch Defence
Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA). With the collapse of erstwhile Soviet
Union in 1990, the ARPANET ceased to exist and the Internet was made available
commercially to anyone for asking. The Internet is defined as a network of networks
that use TCPIIP protocols and that was evolved from the ARPANET. The Unit elaborates
upon management of Internet through well-known organisation, i.e., Internet Activities
Board (JAB) and its components that work together in a relatively well-structured and
roughly democratic environment to collectively participate in the research. development
and management of the Internet.

The Unit traces growth of Internet in terms of the number of hosts accessible on the
Internet as a fair measure of it~ grov.th. The Internet grew from 4 hosts in 1962 to 233
million hosts in early 2004 spread over in 200 countries. The number of users of Internet
has grown to 200 million. It highlights developments in Internet 2 and Internet 3 projects.

The Unit explains Internet architecture as a client-server model in contrast to the terminal-
host model and peer-to-peer communications vis-a-vis the client server architecture. Client-
server model and functions of client and server as pieces of interdependent software is
328 described. Taking examples from various applications. the Unit reiterates that software

I
tools in client-server environment work in pairs. For every application in client-server Basics of Internet

environment, there is a client pro~ram responsible for facilitating users to interact with
server programs and a server program that is responsible for hosting data and serving the
client.

The Unit describes the following six methods for accessing the Internet:

i) Dial-up access

ii) Digital Subscribers Line (DSL)

ill) Dedicated Leased Line

iv) Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN)

v) Internet through Cable

vi) Internet through the Mobile

It describes two types of accounts i.e., shell account vis IP account and their advantages
and disadvantages. With graphic-based applications coming in a big way, shell accounts
are not being preferred.

The Unit describes Internet Service Providers (ISP) as companies that provide access to
the Internet and the Internet Service Providers (ISPs) in India. There are around 200
ISPs that are providing services to 2.5 million users in the country. Important ISPs in
India are enlisted. The Unit provides hardware and' software requirements both at the
server end as well as at the client's end.

The protocols are described as a formal description of formats and rules that two or
more computers must follow to exchange data. The Unit elaborates upon the number of
protocols including: TCP I lP, HTTP, FTP, SLIP, PPP, X39.50 and Z39.85.

It describes JP address, domain name and Universal Resource Locator (URL) as

addressing systems used for the Internet. Lastly, the Unit describes security of computers
over the Internet. It elaborates a number of measures to secure computers over the
Internet, namely, use of: user authentication, fire walls, proxy servers, data encryption,
digital certification, Intrusion Detection Systems (lDS), anti-virus software, Virtual Private
Networks (VPN) and Extranets.

12.14 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) DARPA and NSF played an important role in the growth and development ofInternet
especially for infrastructure development and for supporting various networking-
related research programmes. NSF provided funds for developing a wide area
network infrastructure to support the general academic and research community.
DARPA's ARPANET was initially made accessible to universities and research
institutions to facilitate easier and faster communication among scientists and
researchers. With winding of operations of ARPANET in 1990, the combined
infrastructure of ARPANET and NSFNET became available commercially.

2) The Internet does not have a central authority to control its activities. There are,
however, several well-known organizations that work together in a relatively well-
structured and roughly democratic environment to collectively participate in the
research, development. and management of the Internet. The Internet Activities
Board (lAB) was created in 1983 to guide the evolution of the TCP/IP Protocol
suite and to provide research advice to the Internet community. lAB has two primary
components: 'the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Research
Task Force ({RTF). While the IETF is primarily responsible for further evolution of
the TCPIIP protocol suite. the Internet Research Task Force (lRTF) continues to 329
Internet Resources organize and explore advanced concepts in networking under the guidance of the
and Services
Internet Activities Board.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (!ANA) and Internet Registry (IR) facilitate
central allocation of network and autonomous system identifiers. The Internet Registry
also provides central maintenance of the Domain Name System (DNS) root database
which points to subsidiary distributed DNS servers replicated throughout the Internet.
Besides, there are a number of Network Information Centers (NICs) located
throughout the Internet to serve its users with documentation, guidance, advice and
assistance.
3) The term Internet has been coined from two terms, i.e., interconnection and network.
A network is simply a group of computers that are connected together for sharing
information and resources. Several such networks have been joined together across
the world to form what is called as the Internet. The Internet is thus a network of
networks. It refers to the vast collection of interconnected networks that »se the
TCPIIP protocols and that evolved from the ARPANET of the late 1960's and early
1970's. Use of the common protocol called TCP lIP makes it possible for different
platforms and operating systems to be a part of the Internet.
4) Client-server model distributes the processing of a computer application between
two computers, the client and the server. The client is normally a PC. The application
program accesses data and performs processing on the server and using the data
obtained via the server more processing tasks are performed at the client. In a host-
terminal model, a server computer does all the work and terminals give each user
access to the contents on the server. The advantage of a host-terminal model is that
all the maintenance is performed at one place, i.e .. on the server. As computers
became more powerful and readily available, the client-server model became popular.

5) Packet switching is a switching system that uses a physical communication connection

only for the period of transmission of data. Data are disassembled into packets and
reassembled at the receiving end of the communications link; packets may travel
over many diverse communications links to get to the common end point. Circuit
switching, in contrast, is a type of communication in which a dedicated channel (or
circuit) is established for the duration of a transmission. The telephone system is a
circuit-switching network because it consists of wire segments linked together to
create a single unbroken line for each telephone call.
6) One of the six methods mentioned here can be used for accessing the Internet: i)
Dial-up access; ii) Digital Subscribers Line (DSL); iii) Dedicated Leased Line; iv)
Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN); v) Internet through Cable; and vi) Internet
through the Mobile. Dial-up access is most common way to access the Internet.
7) A Digital Subscribers Line (DSL) connection works better when it is closer to the
Internet provider's central office. The connection is faster for receiving data than it
is for sending data over the Internet. The DSL is available only in metropolitan cities.
8) A protocol is a standardized means of communication among machines across a
network. Protocols allow data to be taken apart for faster transmission, transmitted,
and then reassembled at the destination in the correct order. The protocol used
determines the way errors ale checked, the type of compression, the way the sender
indicates the end of the transmission, and the way the receiver indicates that the
message has been received. Protocols car, describe low-level details of machine-to-
machine interfaces (e.g., the order in which bits and bytes are sent across a wire) or
high-level exchanges between allocation programs, e.g., the way in which two
programs transfer a file across the Internet. Standard protocols makes the Internet
work.

9) TCPIIP (Transmission Control Protocol I Internet Protocol) Tills is the suite of protocols
that defines the Internet. TCP/IP is a standard format for transmitting data from one
330
DNS Short for Domain Name Server, used to map names to IP addresses Basics of Internet
and vice versa. Domain Name Servers maintain central lists of
domain name / IP addresses.

DSL Short for Digital Subscriber Line. A method for moving data over
regular phone lines. A DSL circuit is much faster than a regular
phone connection, and the wires coming into the subscriber's
premises are the same (copper) wires used for regular phone
service.

Data Eneryption : It is a security procedure that encodes data so that it cannot easily
be understood. To be usable, data must be decrypted into its original
form by reversing the procedure that was used to encrypt it.

Dublin Core A metadata element set intended to facilitate discovery of electronic

resources. Dublin Core is intended to be usable by both non-
cataloguers and specialists alike, to provide an economic alternative
to more elaborate descriptive models such as full MARC
cataloguing. The Dublin Core can be mapped to the MARC record
and a variety of output structures can be generated.

Fire Wall A combination of hardware and software that separates a LAN

into two or more parts for security purposes. Fire walls are often
used by institutions which house their web site on a server located
in the institute. The Fire wall provides a measure of security that
those accessing the company's web site will not be able to access
private data that is housed on the same network.

IDS Stands for Intrusion Detection System, designed to protect 'a specific
portal, volume or area, using technologies designed to sense
movement, sound or a specific act such as opening a door. This
security alarm system consists of various types of sensors (vibration,
capacitance, volumetric, etc.) to detect the unauthorized intrusion
into a facility. Typical systems include ultrasonic, infrared,
microwave sensors, and door switches. IDS systems can be local
or connected to a central station.

ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network is a system of digital phone

connections that allows voice and data to be transmitted
simultaneously across the world using end-to-end digital connectivity.
There are two basic types of ISDN service: Basic Rate Interface
(BRI) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI). BRI is a basic service
and is intended to meet the needs of most individual users. PRI is
intended for users with greater capacity requirements.

ISP : Internet Service Provider, a company that provides access to the

Internet. Typically these service providers also offer web hosting
services to their users.

Internet A global network of networks connecting millions of computers

using TCP/IP protocol suite to support a number of applications
for information sharing and retrieval including the World Wide Web.
Each Internet computer, called a host, is independent. Its operators
can choose which Internet services to provide to its local users and
which local services to make available to the global Internet
community. Unlike online services, which are centrally controlled,
the Internet is decentralised by design.

Modem Modulator / demodulator, a device that allows computers to

communicate over telephone lines by converting digital signals to 333
Internet Resources analogue, and vice versa. Modems can be either external, outside
and Services
your computer, or internal, inside your computer.
OSI Stands for Open Systems Interconnection. OSI is a seven-layer
architecture model for communications systems developed by the
ISO for the interconnection of data communications systems. Each
layer uses and builds on the services provided by those below it.
PSTN Short for Public Switched Telephone Network, this is the standard
telephone service that most homes use. It is also referred to as
POTS, or Plain Old Telephone Service.

Packet Switching: A data transmission method whereby data is transmitted in packets

through a network to a remote location. The packet switch sends
packets from different data conversations along the best route
available in any order. At the other end, the packets are reassembled
to form the original message which is then sent to the receiving
computer. Because packets need not be sent in a particular order,
and they go through any route:as long as they reach their destination,
packet switching networkscan choose the most efficient route and
send the most efficient number of packets down that route before
switching to another route.
Prodigy Prodigy is one of the providers of online services in USA. In addition
to providing access to the Internet and World Wide Web, it offers
news, weather, sports, computing support, popular publications, email,
financial resources, as well as other resources.
Proxy server A proxy server is a server that acts as an intermediary between a
computer and the Internet. It ensures security, administrative
control, and caching. Caching speeds up Internet access. If one or
more Internet sites are frequently requested, they are kept in the
proxy's cache, so that when a user requests them, they are
delivered directly from the proxy's cache instead of from the original
Internet site.
SLIPIPPP Serial Line Internet Protocol / Point-to-Point Protocol. Allows a
computer with a modem to connect to. the Internet using TCPIIP.
Commonly used to connect to an Internet Service Provider.
SMTP Stands for Simple Mail Transport Protocol. The main protocol used
to send electronic mail on the Internet. SMTP consists of a set of
rules for how a program sending mail and a program receiving mail
should interact.

TCP/lP Stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a

suite of protocols that defines the Internet. Originally designed for
the UNIX operating system, TCPIIP software is now available for
every major kind of computer operating system.
USB It is the abbreviation of Universal Serial Bus. USB is a standard
port that enables a user to connect external devices (such as digital
cameras, scanners, and mouse). The USB standard supports data
transfer rates of 12Mbps (million bits per second), a vast improvement
over the serial port standard. Aside from speed advantages, USB
devices can be connected or disconnected without the need to restart
the computer.
VPN .. A VPN, or Virtual Private Network, is a network that is constructed
by using public wires to connect nodes, set up solely for the users
334
of a single company or organization. These networks use ,encryption
 Basics of Internet
and other security mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users
can access the network and that data cannot be intercepted.

WAIS : Stands for Wide Area Information Server, WAIS is a commercial

software package that allows indexing of huge quantities of
information and then making their indices searchable across
networks such as the Internet A prominent feature of WAIS is that
the search results are ranked (scored) according to how relevant
the hits are to the search topic.
Z39.S0 Z39.S0 is a national standard defining a protocol for computer-to-
computer information retrieval. Z39.S0 makes it possible for a user
of one system to search and retrieve information from other Z39.S0
computer systems without knowing the search syntax used by other
systems. Z39.S0 is an American National Standard that was originally
approved by the National Information Standards Organization
(NISO) in 1988.

12.16 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

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Dern, Daniel (1994). The Internet Guide for New Users. New York: McGraw Hill.

Ellsworth, JiII and Barron, Billy, let al.] (1997). The Internet 1997. Indianapolis: Sams.net
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Hahn, Harley (1997). Internet: Complete Reference. 2"d ed. New Delhi: Tata McGraw
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Internet Economy Indicator. (http://www.internetindicators.com/factfigure.html).

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Stats.com)

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Johnson,.Dave (1998). Internet Explorer 4: Browsing and Beyond. New Delhi: Tata
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Kane , Kevin. Choosing your ISP and Internet Connection Type. (http://
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Living Internet (http://www.livinginternet.coml).

McBride, P.K. (1999). Internet Made Simple. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heineman.

Mehta, Subhash. (1996). Understanding and Using Internet. Delhi: Global Business
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Nair, R. Raman.(2002). Accessing Information through Internet. New Delhi: Ess Ess
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Parekh, Harsha (1999). Internet in the Scholarly Communication Process. Mumbai:

Mukherjee Knowledgeware Association.

Randall, Neil. (2002). Teach Yourself the Internet in a Week. New Delhi: Prentice Hall
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Turpen, Aaron. Different Internet Connection Types and their Pros and Cons.
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updated on March 5, 2004

Whittaker, Jason (2002). Internet: Basics. London: Roultage.

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