Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology East Port Said University of Technology

Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

Ship Handling & Maneuvering (MAR403)

Prepared By:
Dr. O. EL-Desouky
East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

CONTENT

1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SHIP MANOEUVRABILITY

2. CHAPTER 2: MANOEUVRING TRIALS
3. CHAPTER 3: HYDRODYNAMIC INTERACTION AND SQUAT
4. CHAPTER 4: SHIP HANDLING WITH TUGS

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION TO SHIP MANOEUVRABILITY

Ship maneuverability is the ability of a ship to keep or change its state of motion under the control
actions, i.e., to keep the straight-ahead course with constant speed, or to change the speed, the course
and/or the position of the ship, according to the intention of the helmsman.
1.1. Ship maneuverability includes the following contents:
1- Inherent dynamic stability, also called straight line stability
A ship is dynamically stable on a straight course if it can, after a small disturbance, soon settle
on a new straight course without any control actions, see Figure (1.1). The resultant deviation
from the original course will depend on the degree of inherent stability of the ship and on the
magnitude and duration of the disturbance. As shown in Figure (1.1), for a dynamically
unstable ship, it will ultimately enter into an arbitrary unsteady turning motion.

Figure (1.2) Inherent dynamic stability

2- Course-keeping ability, also called directional stability:
The course-keeping ability is the ability of the steered ship to maintain its original course
direction, see Figure (1.2). A ship which has inherent dynamic stability can only maintain its
original course direction under the control action. Also, a ship which is dynamically unstable
on straight course can maintain its original course direction by frequently applying the control
action.

Figure (1.2) Course-keeping ability

3- Initial turning/course-changing ability

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

The initial turning ability and course-changing ability are the ability of ship to change its
heading as response to a control action. A ship with good initial turning ability and/or course-
changing ability will quickly get into turning or change its original course after the control
action.
4- Turning ability
The turning ability is the ability of ship to turn under the hard-over rudder action.
5- Stopping ability
The stopping ability is the ability of ship to stop with engine stopped (inertia stop) or engine-
full astern (crash stop) after a steady approach at full speed.

1.2. Significance of Ship Maneuverability

Ship maneuverability is directly related to navigation safety and economy. For a ship maneuvering
under severe environmental conditions and/or in restricted water, marine disasters may occur if the
ship has not adequate maneuverability. For example, for a ship with poor initial turning ability or poor
turning ability, collision with obstacles in the waterway or with the bank of the narrow waterway may
not be avoided, as shown in Figure (1.3).

Figure (1.3) Relation between ship maneuverability and navigation safety

Actually, ship maneuverability itself is not the only factor which affects a safe navigation. Other two
factors, the environmental conditions such as wind, waves and current, and the human factor,
contribute a lot to navigation safety by influencing the ship maneuvering in different manner.
1.3. Turning Circle of Ship – Parts and Characteristics
The ship’s turning circle has it is own characteristics that influence maneuverability and must be taken
into account.

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

Maneuvering is the term used to describe the process by which a ship’s movement is controlled when
in close proximity to other ships and objects at sea or as it approaches or exits a country’s coastal
waters, or arrives at or departs from a port’s berth or dock.
All these maneuvers depend on the ship’s turning ability, which is a component of the turning circle
of a ship.
The turning circle of a ship, or the diameter of the smallest circle it can make at full speed, is a key
aspect of maritime navigation. It determines how long the ship will take to make a U-turn, turn around
in its own length, or change course and is, therefore, a measure of the ship’s ability to avoid immediate
danger.
1.3.1. Parts Of Turning Circle
A typical merchant ship turns in a circle, having a diameter of 3–4 times the length between
perpendiculars (LBP). The following maneuvering characteristics are obtained from the ship’s turning
circle see Figure (1.4.):

Figure (1.4a) Diagram of a full Turning Circle Maneuver##

1- Advance
Advance is the distance the ship surges forward once the rudder angle is applied till the ship
heading is 900 off course.
2- Transfer.

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

It is the distance between the ship’s original direction vector and the point at which it has fully
turned to starboard/port in its second phase of the turn.
3- Tactical Diameter.
This is a measurement of how much a vessel can turn. As a result, it is defined as the distance
between the ship’s original direction vector at a steady heading and that in the final phase of
its turn when a steady state is reached, i.e. the ship has changed its heading by 180 degrees.
4- Kick
Momentary movement, at the start of a turn, of the ship’s stern toward the side opposite the
direction of the turn.
5- Turning radius
Steady radius of turn after the vessel has swung through 180 degrees.
6- Final diameter
Diameter of the circle described after the vessel settles to a steady turn rate.
7- Initial turning ability
Having applied 10° rudder to port/starboard, the ship should not have travelled more than 2.5
ship lengths by the time the heading has changed by 10° from the original heading
8- Drift Angle
It is the angle between the ship fore and aft line and tangent drawn to the turning circle.
A large drift angle means the vessel has turned through a larger angle and will therefore
describe a smaller turning circle.
• A small drift angle means that some resistance is preventing the vessel from turning fully and
she will thus describe a larger turning circle.

Figure (1.4b) Diagram of a full Turning##

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

Figure (1.4c) Diagram of a full Turning##

Figure (1.4d) Diagram of a full Turning##

Figure (1. 4e) Effect of Drift Angle on Turning Circle

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

1.3.2. The factors affecting turning circle of ships are:

1- Ship Dimensions and Design
The size and shape of a ship play a crucial role in determining its turning characteristics. Larger
vessels tend to have a larger turning circle due to their increased momentum and inertia.
Additionally, the shape of the ship’s hull, particularly the bow and stern, influences the flow
of water around the vessel, impacting its maneuverability.

Figure (1.5) turning ability for tank vessels

2- Speed
The speed at which a ship navigates affects its turning circle. Generally, Ship at the slowest
speed has the largest turning circle .

Figure (1.5a) turning circles for different speeds##

3- Rudder and Propulsion System
The ship’s rudder and propulsion system significantly impact its ability to change direction. A
well-designed rudder and an efficient propulsion system contribute to better maneuverability
and a smaller turning circle.
4- Environmental Factors

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

The environment in which a ship operates affects its turning capabilities. Factors such as wind,
currents, and depth of water can influence a ship’s ability to turn efficiently. Strong currents
can exert additional forces on the ship, making it more challenging to execute a turn. Skilled
navigators must consider these factors and adapt their maneuvers accordingly.

Figure (1.6) Effect of Wind and Current on Turning Circle

5- Lateral Resistance
• When turning, a ship tends to angle sideways. With the pivot point lying toward the forward
part of the vessel, the greater effect of lateral resistance lies aft of the pivot point and tends to
limit the swing of the stern. This results in a smaller drift angle and a greater turning circle.
• Lesser lateral resistance will allow the stern to swing out more, resulting in a larger drift angle
and a smaller turning circle.

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

6- Shallow Water and deep water

Shallow water - greater lateral resistance – lesser drift angle – also interaction effect causes
increased squat and a larger list in shallow water – result is a much larger turning circle.
Deep water – less lateral resistance, less list while turning, larger drift angle – smaller turning
circle.

Effect of shallow water on Turning Circle

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

Comparison of turning characteristics of full and slender ship T tanker, full bodied ship, C B =
0.8 С - container ship, slender, С в = 0.6
1- Two ships of the same length have nearly the same transfer.
2- Tactical diamenter for both ships is almost the same
3- Drift angle is much larger for the tanker
4- Pivot point is closer to the bow in tanker

Figure (1.7) Comparison of turning characteristics of full##

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

1.4. Terms and descriptions of ship movements

1.4.1. Ship Motions

from the point-of-view of movement through the water, a ship can have longitudinal motion (forward
movement along the ship's fore-and-aft line), lateral (sideways) motion or rotational (turning) motion.
Three basic ship motions:
1. Longitudinal motion (forward or astern).
2. Lateral motion (sideways).
3. Rotational or turning motion.

Figure (1- 8a) basic ship motion

A ship at sea moves in six degrees of motion are three translations and three rotations as shown in
figure (1-8b):

Figure (1- 8b) ship motion##

1. Translation motion
• Heave: is the linear vertical (up/down) motion (along the vertical Z-axis).
• Sway: is the linear lateral (side-to-side) motion (along the transverse Y-axis).
• Surge: is the linear longitudinal (front/back) motion (along the longitudinal X-axis).

Figure (1- 8c) Translation motion##

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

2. Rotation motion
• Roll: is when the vessel rotates about the longitudinal (front/back) axis.
• Pitch: is when the vessel rotates about the transverse (side-to-side) axis.
• Yaw: is when the vessel rotates about the vertical (up-down) axis.

Figure (1- 8d) Rotation motion##

1.4.2. Active and passive control devices

All control devices could be divided in two main categories: active and passive.

1- Active control devices

are devices actively fed by external energy such as:
- Thrusters.
- Azimuting propellers.
- Voith-schneider propellers.
2- Passive control devices: are devices absorbing energy from ship speed and propeller race such
as:
- Rudders.
- Fins.

effectiveness of active control devices generally is reduced with increasing ship speed; effectiveness
of passive control devices is increasing with ship speed.

1.4.3. Rudders

The rudder is used to steer the ship. The turning action is largely dependent on the area of the rudder,

Properties of lifting foils

A common fluid device is a foil designed to produce a lifting force acting across the direction of the
incoming flow. The lifting action of the foil arises from the difference in the average pressure of the

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

fluid over the upper and lower surfaces of the lifting foil, Figure (1-9a). Typical applications of such
lifting foils are aircraft wings, hydrofoils, rudders, stabiliser fins, propeller blades and sails.

Following normal practice, the total force is resolved into a lift component perpendicular to the fluid
stream and a drag component parallel to UO.

Figure (1- 9a) Forces on a lifting foil

Rudder Geometric definitions, Figure (1.9b):

1- Chord : - Horizontal distance from leading to trailing edge

-Limited by propeller and edge of tern
2- Span : -Vertical distance from stock to tip
-Limited by local hull bottom and ship baseline
3- Root chord: length of chord at root
4- Tip chord: length of chord at tip
5- Mean chord: (Root chord+ Tip chord)/2
6- Aspect ratio : span/mean chord.

Figure (1- 9b) Rudder Geometric definitions##

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East Port Said University of Technology
Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

1.4.3.1. Rudders Types

Rudder consists of two parts: the blade (flat part) against which the water pressure acts and the stock
(shaft) which transmits motion of the steering gear to the blade

The type of rudder and its location and placement relative to the propeller have significant influence
on rudder effectiveness and ship controllability. Rudders should be located near the stern and should
be located in the propeller stream for good controllability.

Figure (1.10) and (1.11) shows the major rudder types available to the designer.

- Vertically aligned: "Fully Balanced"

- Rudder Stock at leading edge: "Unbalanced"
- Semi-Balanced: "Less operating torque than unbalanced "
1. Unbalanced rudder
The rudder stock is at the leading edge of the rudder.
2. Semi-balanced rudder
The rudder mounts on a "hom" protruding from the hull
- The top can be considered "unbalanced"
- The bottom can be considered "balanced"
3. Balanced rudder
The rudder stock is positioned toward the center of the rudder, requiring le force to turn the it

Figure (1- 10) Rudder types##

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

Figure (1- 11) Various Rudder-Fin Arrangements##

How the rudder works?

When a vessel turns the dynamics of the vessel change about the rudder which induces a change in the
path of the vessel, let us consider the following situation and subdivide in terms of different aspects,
assuming a starboard turn.

Figure (1-12a) Principle Behind the Operation Of The Ship Rudder##

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

• Forces and Moments

when the rudder changes its angle from its neutral position, due to the change in the flow of the water
around the rudder a lift force is generated. This lift force is directed in the direction opposite to which
the rudder is turned.

As you can see, this rudder force is applied to the ship in a transverse direction. In other words, the
rudder force is nothing more than a sway force towards the port side, this force will cause the ship to
achieve a sway velocity towards the port side.

Because of this, when the rudder is turned over to hard starboard, a ship will swing slightly to the port.
However, this wobble is so slight about the starboard that it hardly registers. But the sway does happen.

The ship is also affected by another aspect of the rudder force. It generates a moment around the
ship’s center of gravity in the direction in the below figure. The center of gravity of the ship is forward
of the rudder, so given the direction of the rudder force, a moment will be created as shown below

• Drift Angle

The ship’s orientation is somewhat altered by a drift angle when the rudder moment acts about its
center of gravity. The only thing a designer needs to do is ensure that the rudder moment is sufficient
to introduce a little drift angle into the ship’s movement. This moment is not large enough to turn the
ship to the desired heading angle.

With that drift angle, the ship is currently sailing in the original direction. However, this is no longer
a pure surge. If you follow, you’ll find that you may calculate the ship’s velocity in both the
longitudinal (surge) and transverse (sway) directions.

The rudder has given the ship a slight surge velocity by establishing a drift angle. Doesn’t this serve
to emphasize the cause of the slight port-side sway that occurs during a starboard turn?

The subsequent events are what cause the ship to turn. Let’s not concentrate on the surge velocity here
to unravel the riddle of the turning of a ship. The sway element should receive the majority of attention.
Because of the sway velocity component, the ship turns by altering the hydrodynamics around its hull.

The Impact Of The Sway Velocity And How It Affects The Ship

The hull sways with a sway velocity towards the side opposite to which the rudder is changed. When
it accomplishes this, it applies pressure to the water particles on the opposite side.

Due to their inherent inertia, the water particles in turn exert an opposing force on the ship’s hull. Since
inertia forces always oppose the motion, their direction is always the opposite of the sway velocity. As
a result, there is an inertia force acting in the opposite direction on the ship’s hull.

What’s crucial to understand in this case is that when the ship’s hull exerts a force on the water around
it during its sway velocity to the port, the inertia force that the water is exerting on the hull tries to
achieve equilibrium, meaning that its magnitude is on the order of the displacement of the ship.

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

Therefore, the magnitude of the resulting hydrodynamic moment when it acts on the ship is in the
order of the displacement of the ship. This moment can turn the ship, unlike the moment caused by the
rudder force alone.

As you can see, however, this hydrodynamic moment would not have been present if the ship had not
developed a drift angle or a sway velocity component, which was primarily caused by the rudder’s
action.

The inertial force mentioned above can now be divided into two categories. One is the portion that
affects the ship’s stern (inertia force at the stern), and the other portion affects the bow (inertia force
at the bow).

Inertia forces in the stern will produce an anticlockwise (towards port) moment about the center of
gravity, whereas inertia forces at the bow will produce a clockwise (towards starboard) moment about
the center of gravity.

The hull is constructed so that the sway inertia forces at the bow are greater than those at the stern. As
a result, the moment is generated toward the starboard.

Figure (1-12b) Moments acting on a ship during starboard turn##

What’s important to know here is that when the hull exerts force on the water around it, during its
sway velocity to the port, the inertia force exerted by the water on the hull tries to achieve an
equilibrium, which means, the magnitude of the inertia force is in the order of the ship’s displacement.
It is that large, a force. So, when the resultant hydrodynamic moment acts on the ship, its magnitude
is in the order of the ship’s displacement. This moment (unlike the moment cause by the rudder force
alone) is sufficient enough to turn the ship. But as you can see, this hydrodynamic moment wouldn’t
have come to play, had the ship not attained a drift angle or a sway velocity component, which was
mainly due to the action of the rudder. This, is enough to justify, that the rudder does not turn the ship.
It only initiates a drift angle in the ship, which results in a hydrodynamic moment, which is actually
the driving force behind the turning action.

Rudder Stall

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You will probably have noticed that a typical ship’s rudder is limited to a range of angles from about
± 35 degrees. This is because at greater angles than these the rudder is likely to stall. Figure (1.13)
shows the development of stall as rudder angle increases. At small angles, rudder lift is created due to
the difference in flow rate across the port and starboard sides of the rudder. However, as rudder angle
increases, the amount of flow separation increases until a full stall occurs at 45 degrees.

Figure (1- 13) Rudder Flow Patterns at Increasing Rudder Angle##

The amount of lift achieved by the rudder reduces significantly after a stall and is matched by a rapid
increase in drag. Consequently, rudder angle is limited to values less than the stall angle. Figure (1.13)
shows how rudder lift alters with rudder angle.

1.4.3.2. Rudder Forces and Moments

A rudder behind a ship acts as an airfoil or a wing; it produces lift and drag in a proper flow. A cross
section of a rudder (or a lifting surface) is such that at a rudder angle (or angle of attack of the flow) a
relatively large force perpendicular to the flow direction comes into existence.
When a rudder is turned from the centreline plane to any angle, the water flows round the rudder and
creates an additional resistance on that side of the centreline. The force (P) which acts on the rudder
parallel to the centreline has two components:
1- the force created by the formation of streamlines round the rudder. i.e. due to the change in
direction of the water.
2- the suction on the after side of the rudder caused by eddying.
This force (P) follows the laws of fluid friction and may be determined from the expression.
𝑃 = 𝑘𝐴𝑣 2 𝑁
where

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

k = a coefficient which depends upon the shape of the rudder, the rudder angle and the density of
the water. When the ship speed is expressed in m/s. average value of k for sea water vary
between about 570 and 610.
A = rudder area
v = ship speed.
𝐿×𝑑
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠
60
𝐿×𝑑
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠
70
If the rudder is turned to an angle (α), then the: component of force acting normal to the plane of the
rudder L , is given by:
𝐿 = 𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛α
𝐿 = 𝑘𝐴𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛α
Figure (1-14) shows the components of the force produced by the rudder. The rudder profile has been
placed with an angle of attack (α)in a homogeneous flow with a constant velocity (V). Practically, V
is defined as the velocity of the fluid far before the rudder. This force (P) can be decomposed in a lift
force(L) perpendicular to the flow and a drag force (D) in the direction of the flow.

Figure (1.14) Forces on a Rudder Section

This force N acts at the center of effort of the rudder The position of the center of effort varies with
the shape of the rudder and the rudder angle.
If the center of effort is (e-a) m from the center of the rudder stock. then at any angle (α).
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑁 × (e − a)
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑘𝐴𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛α (e − a) 𝑁𝑚
From the basic: torsion equation the diameter of the stock may be found for any given allowable Stress.
𝑇 𝑞
=
𝑗 𝑟
Where:
q = allowable stress in N/m2
T = radius of stock in m
𝜋 𝑟4
J == second moment of area about a polar axis in m4 = 2

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

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Faculty of Industry and Energy Technology Ship Operation and Maintenance Technology

Example
A rudder bas an area of 15 m2with its of center of effort 0.9 m from the center of stock. The
maximum rudder angle is 35° and it is designed for a service speed of 15 knots.
Calculate the diameter of the rudder stock if the maximum allowable stress in the stock is 55
MN/m: and the rudder force parallel to the: centerline of the ship.

1.4.4. The Pivot Point

A Pivot Point is a point in the ship’s axis about which turns or pivots. Its position and its mobility play
an important part in ship handling. The pivot point scribes the ship’s turning circle.
The pivot point is not (necessarily) amidship. It positions depends upon the shape of the hull and the
centre of pressure on the hull and other factor.
A Pivot Point is not a fixed point; it move forward or back depending upon forces acting on the ship.

Figure (1- 15a) pivot point

Figure (1- 15b) Path of a ship turning under rudder when moving ahead.

It is not static but moves about depending on whether:

1- When making headway at steady speed, it lies about 1/4 length from the bow.
2- When making headway and accelerating, it lies about 1/8 length from the bow.
3- When going astern at steady speed, it lies about 1/4 length from aft.
4- When going astern and accelerating, it lies about 1/8 length from aft.

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Figure (1- 16) Pivot Point positions##

1.4.4.1. Turning Levers and Moments

More important perhaps, than the position of the pivot point, is the effect its shifting nature has upon
the many turning forces that can influence a ship. These are rudder force, transverse thrust, bow thrust,
tug force, interactive forces and the forces of wind and tide.

1- Vessel Stopped

If we look at the ship used in our example, we can see that it has a length overall of 160 metres. It
is stopped in the water and two tugs are secure fore and aft, on long lines, through centre leads.

If the tugs apply the same bollard pull of say 15 tonnes each, it is to a position 80m fore and aft of
the pivot point. Thus, two equal turning levers and moments of 80 m x 15t (1200tm) are created
resulting in even lateral motion and no rate of turn.

2- Making Headway

With the ship making steady headway, however, the pivot point has shifted to a position 40m from
the bow. The forward tug is now working on a very poor turning lever of 40m x 15t(600tm), whilst
the after tug is working on an extremely good turning lever of 120m x 15 t (1800tm).

This results in a swing of the bow to starboard.

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3- Making Sternway

The efficiency of the tugs will change totally when the ship, by contrast, makes sternway. Now
the pivot point has moved aft to a position 40m from the stern. The forward tug is working on an
excellent turning lever of 120m x 15t(1800tm) whilst the after tug has lost its efficiency to a
reduced turning lever of 40m x 15t(600tm).

1.5. Ship factors that affect maneuvering

Ship Handling characteristics will vary from ship type to ship type and from ship to ship. Handling
qualities are determined by ship design, which in turn depends on the ship’s intended function.

1- Underwater hull geometry

Length to beam (L/B), beam to draught (B/T), block coefficient, prismatic coefficient and
location of longitudinal centre of buoyancy all give an indication of how a ship will handle.

1- High values of L/B are associated with good course directional stability.
harbour tugs, which need to be able to turn quickly and where course stability is not
required, have a value of 2.5 to 3.
2- High values of B/T increase leeway and the tendency for a ship in a beam wind to ‘skate
across the sea surface’.
3- Ships with large block and prismatic coefficients have poor course stability and a readiness
to turn.

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2- Lateral motion

Ships move laterally when turning because the pivot point is not located at the ship’s centre.
When moving forward and turning to starboard, the ship’s lateral movement is to port. When
moving astern and turning to starboard, lateral movement is to starboard. It is important to
understand where the pivot point lies and how lateral movement can cause sideways drift,
knowledge which is essential when maneuvering close to hazards.

3- Propeller and rudder

Rudders are placed at the stern of a ship for this reason and to take advantage of the forward
pivot point, which enhances the effect. Water flow is provided by the ship passing through the
water and by the propeller forcing water over the rudder in the process of driving the ship. The
optimum steerage force is provided by water flow generated by a turning propeller. Water flow
is vital in maintaining control of the ship. While water flow provided by the ship’s motion alone
can be effective, the effect will diminish as speed is reduced. Obstacles that deflect flow, such
as a stopped propeller in front of the rudder, particularly when the propeller is large, can reduce
rudder effectiveness. Reduced or disturbed flow will result in a poor response to rudder
movements.

4- Rudder response

The time it takes for the rudder to respond to a helm order will determine how rapidly a ship
gets into a turn. The quicker the rudder responds, the sooner the ship will begin to turn.

5- Single rudders and twin-screw ships

Maneuvering characteristics at low speeds will generally be poor on twin screw ships fitted
with a single centre line rudder. This is because the single centre line rudder may have to be
moved to large angles before any part of it becomes immersed in the slipstream of one of the
propellers. When not immersed, the lift produced by the rudder at low speeds will be very
small, resulting in large turning circles and poor response to helm.

Figure (1- 17) Lateral motion to port

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TEST

1- Name the Turning Circle items in the following figure?

2- Name the ship motion items in the following figure?

3-Read these statements then decide if the statements are true or false.

1- Maneuvering characteristics at high speeds will generally be poor on twin screw ships fitted
with a single centre line rudder ( )
2- The quicker the rudder responds, the sooner the ship will begin to turn ( )
3- A Pivot Points a central point on a vessel which remains fixed as the bow and stern swing
around it. ( )
4- When making headway and accelerating, Pivot Point lies about 1/4 length from the bow ( )
5- Rudder Aspect ratio : mean chord / span. ( )

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CHAPTER 2

MANOEUVRING TRIALS

In selecting tests, consideration should be given to the requirements contained in IMO.137(76)

"Standards for Ship Maneuverability" and to the purpose of the test.

2.1.IMO Recommandations MSC 137(76)

• The Manoeuvrability of ships can be evaluated from the characteristics of conventional trial
manoeuvres.

• Two methods can be used:

– Scale model tests or computer predictions using mathematical models at the design
stage /full scale trials must be conducted to validate these results
– Full scale trials

• The standards apply to:

– All ships of 100m in lenght and over.

– All chemical tankers and gas carriers.

• They consist of:

– Turning circles to Port and starboard

– Stopping Test
– Zig-Zag Test

• Conditions at which the standards apply

In order to evaluate the performance of a ship, manoeuvring trials should be conducted to both port
and starboard and at conditions specified below:

– Deep, unrestricted water (> 4xmean draft)

– Calm environment (Wind< 5Bft / Sea< 4)
– Full load (summer load line draught), even keel condition
– Steady approach at the test speed (min90% full).

2.2. Turning Circles

Turning circles should be performed to both right and left with 35 degrees rudder angle or the
maximum design rudder angle permissible at the test speed.

The essential information to be obtained from this maneuver consists of tactical diameter, advance,
and transfer. A turning circle of at least 540 degrees should be completed to determine the main
parameters of the maneuver and allow correction for any drift caused by a steady current or wind.

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With the ship in the trial condition and proceeding ahead at the maximum trial shaft RPM, with either
steering power unit, move the rudder at maximum rate and perform the following maneuvers:

1. Move rudder to Hardover Right and hold until ship's heading has changed 540 degrees.
2. Resume a straight course and restore speed.
3. Move Rudder to Hardover Left and hold until ship's heading has changed 540 degrees.
4. Resume a straight course.

The following data should be recorded or derived and presented as shown in Table 1:

a) Time of test, and base course.

b) Rudder angle.
c) Compass reading to nearest degree every 10 seconds that ship is in the turning maneuver.
d) Ship's position at suitable intervals from GNSS equipment.
e) Shaft RPM at beginning and end of each circle.
f) Depth of water and sea condition.
g) Wind direction and velocity.
h) Trial draft fore and aft.

Turning circle tests may be specified at depths, drafts, speeds, and rudder angles other than those given
if ship's maneuvering characteristics require further exploration.

Turning circles should be plotted and tactical dimensions reported as illustrated in Figure (2.1).

Figure (2.1) Turning Circle Test ##

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Table (2. 1) Turning Circle Test Data

2.3."Z" MANEUVER

The "Z" Maneuver is shown in Figure (2.2) and may be identified as the Zig-Zag Maneuver. With the
ship in trial condition and proceeding ahead into the wind at the maximum trial shaft RPM, with either
steering power unit, move the rudder at maximum rate and perform the following maneuvers:

1. Move the rudder from center to 10 degrees right - hold until ship's heading is 10 degrees to the
right of the original course.

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2. Move the rudder from 10 degrees right to 10 degrees left hold until ship's heading is 10 degrees
to the left of the original course.
3. Move the rudder from 10 degrees left to 10 degrees right hold until the ship's heading is 10
degrees to the right of the original course.
4. Move the rudder from 10 degrees right to center hold until original heading is restored. Steady
on original course.

The essential information to be obtained for the "Z" Maneuver is the initial turning time, time to second
execute, the time to check yaw, the angle of overshoot, and the magnitude of the overshoot.

The following data should be recorded or derived:

a) Time of test and base course.

b) Time rudder is held at each position.
c) Shaft RPM at beginning and end of test.
d) Depth of water and sea condition.

Figure (2. 2) "Z" Maneuver Test ##

2.4. Initial Turning Tests

The initial turning tests provide information on the transient heading condition between steady state
approach and change of heading after application of the rudder as shown in Figure (2.3).

These tests should be performed with rudder angles of 10 degrees and 20 degrees. The time history of
heading and yaw rate should be plotted. These tests may be performed in conjunction with turning
circle tests and partially with "Z" Maneuvers.

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With the ship in the specified trial conditions and proceeding ahead at the designated speed and on a
steady course, conduct the maneuver as follows for two separate tests, one at a rudder angle of 10
degrees and one at a rudder angle of 20 degrees.

The following data should be recorded:

1- Before starting the test:

1)Time of test and base course.

2)Ship speed and corresponding RPM.
3)Wind velocity and direction.
4)Depth of water and sea condition.

2- During the test:

Rudder Angle.Both heading and rate of change of headings should be plotted for each rudder position.

Figure (2.3) Initial Turning Test, Plot of Change of Turning Rate

2.5. Quick Reversal from Ahead to Astern (“Crash Astern” Stopping Tests

With the ship at trial drafts and proceeding ahead at maximum trial shaft RPM and normal machinery
operating conditions, signal "Full Astern" while maintaining the rudder in the amidships position.

Reverse the throttle at maximum allowable rate in one motion to the full astern position. When the
ship gains sternway, continue with the scheduled tests.

The following data should be recorded on data sheets during the test:

1)Time of test and base course.

2)Prime mover parameters immediately prior to "Full Astern" signal.
3)RPM, torque, and significant prime mover parameters at frequent intervals during the maneuver.
4)Time of issuing astern order.
5)Time when propeller stops prior to reversal.
6)Time shaft starts astern or the propeller pitch is positioned for astern way.
7)Time to stop ship "Dead-in-Water".
8)Time to reach required maximum astern shaft RPM.

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9)Ship's position at suitable intervals from GNSS equipment,

10)Depth of water and sea condition.
11)Wind direction and velocity.
12)Ship's drafts.

Figure (2.4) displays the plotted trajectory.

Figure (2.4) Crash Stop Test ##

IMO Resolution A.601(15)

Provision and Display of Manoeuvring Information on Board Ships - (adopted on 19 November 1987)

The manoeuvring information should be presented as follows:

1 Pilot card

The pilot card, to be filled in by the master, is intended to provide information to the pilot on boarding the ship. This
information should describe the current condition of the ship, with regard to its loading, propulsion and manoeuvring
equipment, and other relevant equipment. The contents of the pilot card are available for use without the necessity of
conducting special manoeuvring trials.

2 .Wheelhouse poster

The wheelhouse poster should be permanently displayed in the wheelhouse. It should contain general particulars and
detailed information describing the manoeuvring characteristics of the ship, and be of such a size to ensure ease of use.
The manoeuvring performance of the ship may differ from that shown on the poster due to environmental, hull and loading
conditions.

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3.Manoeuvring booklet

The manoeuvring booklet should be available on board and should contain comprehensive details of the ship’s
manoeuvring characteristics and other relevant data. The manoeuvring booklet should include the information shown
on the wheelhouse poster together with other available manoeuvring information. Most of the manoeuvring
information in the booklet can be estimated but some should be obtained from trials. The information in the
booklet may be supplemented in the course of the ship’s life.

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TEST

1- Name the Crash Stop Test items in the following figure?

2-Read these statements then decide if the statements are true or false.

1- Turning circles should be performed to both right and left with 25 degrees rudder angle ( )
2- The "Y" Maneuver is shown in Figure (2.2) and may be identified as the Zig-Zag Maneuver.
( )
3- The Manoeuvrability of ships can be evaluated from the characteristics of conventional trial
manoeuvres. ( )
4- Initial Turning Tests should be only performed with rudder angles of 10 degrees ( )
5- A turning circle of at least 540 degrees should be completed to determine the main
parameters of the maneuver ( )

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CHAPTER 3

HYDRODYNAMIC INTERACTION AND SQUAT

3.1. Hydrodynamic Interaction

3.1.1. Background

1- Wind, sea conditions and currents are the main external factors, which affect maneuvering
characteristics of a ship.
2- At the start and each of each voyage, ships are in shallow, restricted and congested waters
where greater difficulty is experienced in manoeuvring.
3- Certain types of vessels like tugs, pilot vessels etc., by nature of their duties, work close to
other ships as a routine and also maneuver in shallow and congested waters.
4- Operations like picking up a pilot, double banking, towing rescue, and replenishment at sea
involve working of two vessels close to each other.
5- A stationary ship moored in a river, at berth or at anchor is exposed to special effects generated
by strong tides or by ships passing at very closed ranges.
6- In the analysis of marine casualties namely grounding or collision, hydrodynamic interaction
has been a major contributing factor.

All these demands dictate the greater need for seafarers to understand & prepare for
phenomenon called interaction between vessels & shallow waters.

3.1.2. Bernoulli’s Principle

For fluids flowing over an irregular surface, local velocity of the fluid at two different points on the
surface can be different.

Considering energy per unit mass at points, say 1 and 2, the total energy is given by :

Kinetic Energy + Pressure Energy + Potential Energy = Constant

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Bernoulli's theorem states that the pressure in a fluid decrease as its velocity increases. In the diagram
above the same amount of fluid has to pass through the constriction during any given time as passes
through the wider parts of the river, so the fluid velocity v2 in the constriction is larger than the velocity
v1 outside it.

(This phenomenon is easy to observe in any river.) As a consequence, the pressure P2 is smaller than
the pressure P1.

3.1.3. Hydrodynamic Forces

On a stationary ship the pressures acting on ship’s hull are of hydrostatic origin.

When the ship moves it displaces water and leaves a void behind it. There is a build up of water ahead
of the ship, which returns along the sides and the bottom to fill up this void.

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Along the entire length of the hull, there is no accumulation of water and hence a negative or a low
pressure (P2) acts on the hull length.

Aft experiences an accumulation of water but of a lesser degree than at the bow. The velocity (V 2) of
backflow at aft is lesser than at length of ship but more velocity (V1) at bow.

If this void is not filled up with backflow of water, the ship will get sucked backwards in the partial
vacuum. The return flow or back flow has a velocity.

Thus there is a peak of positive pressure at the stern but of a smaller magnitude in comparison to the
positive pressure at the bow.

Compare to the static condition, the hydrodynamic pressure (P1) acting on the bow is positive due to
larger volume at the bow. The major length of the ship’s hull, in comparison to static state, experiences
water running past it with a greater velocity (V2).

Virtually there is an accumulation of water at the bow and there is greater resistance to the back flow
at the bow than at any other part of the ship’s hull. Thus velocity (V1) of the backflow at bow is the
least.

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+Positive pressure builds up forward of the pivot point (bow).

-Negative or low-pressure area builds up aft of the pivot point.

Magnitude of pressure field is proportional to the;

1- Size of the ship

2- Fullness of form (Cb)
3- Velocity V2

3.1.4. Hydrodynamic Pressure

The figure below shows the dynamic forces along the hull of a forward moving vessel. These are:

1- The positive peak at the bow is due to build up of water and reduced speed of water passing
along the hull.
2- Along the parallel hull as the speed of water increases, the pressure decreases giving a suction
effect.
3- Peak of positive pressure close to aft is weaker as compared to that near forward.

Plot of local pressure over the mean hydrostatic pressure##

When the vessel is moving forward, the hydrodynamic forces come into play. This due to the changes
in the local water speed over the free stream speed. The graph below shows the changes in the local
water speed through the longitudinal direction when the vessel is moving ahead.

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Plot of local water speeds relative to free stream speed##

3.1.5. Interactions Between Two Ships

1- Behavior of ships in close proximity of another ship(s) or obstruction(s) is called interaction.

2- It happens due to hydrodynamics-based Bernoulli’s theorem.
3- Interaction takes place between one ship and another body due to complex distribution of
dynamic pressures acting on the ship’s hull.
4- When the pressure fields around the hull change in any way due to presence of another vessel,
transverse/vertical obstruction and imbalance of pressures results in net forces (interactive
forces). These can be resolved into forces and turning moments
- Longitudinally > resulting in surge and roll
- Transversely > resulting in swaying and pitching
- Vertically > resulting in heaving and yawing

We will consider an interaction between two ships in a narrow channel and head-on to each other.

1- Back flow around a vessel is restricted due presence of another ship.

2- Restriction increases velocity of backflow on the side of the restriction.
This results in a drop of pressure towards the side of the obstruction.
3- The difference in the magnitude of pressure fields in the transverse direction causes sway
forces and yaw.

• Faster the ship-Stronger the interaction.

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• Greater the UKC - Smaller interaction lateral separation

• Smaller the UKC - Bigger the effect

We shall consider the interactive forces influence in three (3) distinctive phases:

Phase 1: Vessel in head on situation in a narrow channel will first move towards starboard side of the
channel, deciding on the safe passing distance.

Phase 2: Respective bows turn away from each other due to positive pressure at the bow. This is called
“bow out” phenomena. It is not very dangerous phase but gives warning of strong interactive
forces in play.

Phase 3: The “back flow” of each vessel feels constriction due to presence of other vessel. Thus, an
increase in velocity of backflow is experienced. This results in creation of a suction pressure
between the two hulls giving a lateral attraction. Bow of each ship (positive pressure area) is
attracted to the stern of other vessel (the relatively negative pressure area).

As sterns pass each other, the velocity of back flow is maximum as:

1. The constriction at the sterns is very high.

2. the hulls of the two vessels had come closer in earlier two phases.

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This results in very strong attraction forces at the sterns and hence very strong “bow out” tendency.
This phase is by far the most dangerous phase because….

1- The distance between vessels has already reduced in phase2.

2- The navigators’ attention may be diverted as the other vessel has passed her bridge.

3.2. Bank Effect

When navigating in shallow water, near a gently shelving bank:

1. As the bow displaces water forward, a positive pressure build up occurs ahead of and to the
side of the vessel near the bank.
2. At the same time, by the stern and by the bank, a negative pressure zone forms owing to the
void being left behind the vessel.
3. The +ve pressure at the bow, pushes the fore part away from the bank while the stern is sucked
toward the negative pressure zone astern by the bank.
4. This causes the vessel to sheer away and the stern may hit the bank

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To avoid the ship interaction:

1- The vessel should maintain safe distance from banks while moving towards starboard side of
the channel.
2- Decide passing distance, which should be sufficient to minimize effects of interaction.
3- Be ready to correct any sudden swing in ship’s head.
4- Reduce speed in good time before the interaction forces may be expected.
5- The change in bow movements in three phases should be anticipated.
6- The engine RPM and “Bold Helm” should be used to arrest the sheer developed.

3.3. Ship Squat

is the reduction of the vessel’s under-keel clearance caused by its relative movement. A vessel tends
to squat when making way through the water .

Squat is a serious problem for vessels, which have to operate with small under-keel clearances,
particularly when in a shallow channel confined by sandbanks or by the sides of a canal or river.

Gross Under Keel Clearance is found by subtracting the vessel draft from the water available (dept
+ tide).

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Gross Under Keel Clearance##

3.3.1. How does a ship squat occurs?

As a ship approaches relatively shallow water, the water flowing past the hull has to increase speed as
the available flow area decreases.

1. This causes a reduction in the pressure acting on the hull in the vertical direction.
2. Because of the shape of a ship and because of the adhesive effects of water, the changes in
pressure are not the same forward and aft.
3. This causes the ship to trim by the head or stern, depending on the hull shape.
4. Therefore, the magnitude of squat depends on the hull shape, the side and underkeel clearance
and the speed through the water. A ship with a block co-efficient of more than will generally
trim by the bow.

Effect of Squat

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3.3.1. Signs Of Squat In Developing Interaction

Squat is present even in deep water due to the different pressure field around the ship at speed. It is
accentuated, as well as being more significant, in shallow water. In a confined waterway a blockage
effect occurs once the ship's sectional area exceeds a certain percentage of the waterway's cross section.
This is due to the increased speed of the water which is trying to move past the ship.

In shallow waters, following effects may be evident

1. Sluggish movement
a. As the hull moves along the water, the water which is displaced is not instantly
replaced by surrounding water.
b. A partial vacuum is created.
c. The vessel takes longer to answer helm.
d. Response to engine movement becomes sluggish.
e. Speed reduces.

2. Vibration:
a. In shallow water vibrations set up.
b. It becomes very difficult to correct a yaw or sheer with any degree of rapidity.
3. Steering:
a. Steering becomes erratic.
b. Rate of turning is reduced.
c. Turning circle becomes larger.
d. Loss of speed due to turning is less in shallow water.
4. Smelling the ground:
a. Occurs when a ship is nearing an extremely shallow depth of water, such as a shoal.
b. The ship likely to take a sudden sheer.
c. The sheer is first towards the shallow, then violently away from it.
d. The movements of a sluggish ship may suddenly become astonishingly lively.
e. These effects are called smelling the ground.

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For narrow channels a blockage factor has been defined in equation :

𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 × 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑆

𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, (𝑆) = = (2)
𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 × 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝐶

The maximum squat (𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) formula is determined by block coefficient (𝐶𝐵 ) , blockage factor (𝑆)
and ship speed (𝑉𝐾 ) can be define in equation:

𝐶𝐵 × 𝑆 0.81 × 𝑉𝐾 2.08
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚
20
Change of trim by squatting of a vessel on even keel or at already existing trim:

1. Ship on even keel and (𝐶𝐵 ) = 0,7 – Ship is squatting with no change of trim
2. Ship on even keel and (𝐶𝐵 ) > 0,7 – Ship is squatting and trimming to forwardt
3. Ship on even keel and (𝐶𝐵 )< 0,7 – Ship is squatting and trimming to aft
4. Ship with existing trim to aft – Ship is squatting with trim to aft

Squat may be calculated by the following simplified formulae:

𝐶𝐵 𝑉𝐾 2
1- 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚 (In open waters)
100

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𝐶𝐵 𝑉𝐾 2
2- 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚 (In confined waters)
50

Example1

A supertanker operating in open water conditions is proceeding at a speed of 11 knots. Her C B

=0.830, static even-keel draft = 13.5m with a static under-keel clearance of 2.5m. Her breadth
moulded is 55m with LBP of 320m.

Calculate the maximum squat for this vessel at the given speed via two methods where the canal
width is 455m.

Example2

Assume now that this supertanker meets an oncoming container ship also travelling at 5 kts . If
this container ship has a breadth of 32 m a C b of 0.580, and a static even-keel draft of 11.58 m,
calculate the maximum squats of both vessels when they are transversely in line as shown.

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TEST

1- Name the Under Keel Clearance items in the following figure?

2-Read these statements then decide if the statements are true or false.

1- Gross Under Keel Clearance is found by subtracting the vessel draft from the water available (dept
+ tide) ( )
2- Squat is a serious problem for vessels, which have to operate with large under-keel
clearances. ( )
3- Behavior of ships in close proximity of another ship(s) or obstruction(s) is called interaction. ( )
4- To avoid the ship interaction:The engine RPM and “Bold Helm” should be used to arrest the sheer
developed. ( )
5- From sign of ship squat effects ship Speed increase. ( )
6- From sign of ship squat effects Turning circle becomes larger. ( )
7- Ship on even keel and (𝐶 𝐵 ) = 0,7 – Ship is squatting and trimming to forward ( )

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CHAPTER: 4

SHIP HANDLING WITH TUGS

4.1. introduction

A seagoing vessel needs tug assistance when its manoeuvrability gets restricted. Figure (4.1) illustrates
a tugboats primary service which is to control sea-going vessels in confined waters. Subject to the
speed of a sea-going vessel two fundamentally different services can be distinguished.

Figure (4.1) Tugboat requirement

4.2. Tug Boat Functions

Tug boats are auxiliary craft for the navigation and manoeuvring of vessels and other floating bodies
and are sed for the following functions:

• To assist the vessel in going alongside and sheering away manoeuvres.

• To aid the vessel in turning about in a small area.
• To provide the support necessary to counteract wind, wave and current actions in situations
where the vessel is moving at low speed while the propulsion engine and rudder efficiency is
low.
• To aid in stopping the vessel.
• To tow, push or aid a vessel which has lost its means of propulsion or steering.
• To escort vessels with hazardous cargoes in high-risk areas as a precaution for a loss of steering.
4.3. Different Tug Types
4.3.1. Conventional tugs

These tugs are used worldwide and their characteristics vary. These tugs can be equipped with fixed
propellers, single or twin screw (left or right-handed) and single rudders with fixed nozzles. their
general characteristics are:

• Manoeuvrable and effective for most work, but less manoeuvrable than Azimuth stern drive
tugs (ASD) or tractor tugs.

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• Good steering ability, especially as a forward pulling tug.

• Towing point is usually situated just aft of amidships.
• Astern bollard pull reduced by up to 50% of forward bollard pull.
• Increased risk of girting/girding when towing.
4.3.2. Azimuth stern drive tugs (ASD)

This tug type is fitted with two azimuth thrusters in nozzles at the stern and with bow tunnel thrusters.
Some are fitted with controllable pitch propellers (CPP). General characteristics of ASD tugs are:

• Low relative draught.

• Towing point is just forward or just aft of amidships.
• Underwater hull form improves the dynamic stability of the tug.
• Bollard pull going astern is reduced only by approximately 10%.
• Manoeuvrable and able to pull effectively over the stern or bow. Towing winches often fitted
both fore and aft.
• Risk of girting/girding when towing over the stern.
• Enhanced training of tug masters required when operating the forward winch.
4.3.3. Tractor tugs

The design of tractor tugs is unlike that of conventional tugs. The propulsion units are fully turning
controllable pitch blades, able to give thrust in any direction and act as steering units or azimuthing
fixed or controllable pitched propellers. The propulsion units are placed far ahead of the towing point,
close to the pivot point thereby producing a large turning momentum. This potentially gives a poor
steering performance, which is overcome by fitting a large centreline skeg. Their general
characteristics are:

• Full power available in all directions.

• Quick response to engine movements.
• Very manoeuvrable, especially in tight sea space.
• Reduced risk of girting/girding.
• Relatively deeper in draught therefore increased risk of bottom damage from grounding.
• Increased training required for tug masters.

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Figure (4.1) tugs types

Table (4.1) Compared twin-screw tug boat characteristics

4.4. Forces during towing

The towline force has to be counteracted by the tug and this is done by the thruster forces or by the
drag forces or by a combination of both.

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In the case of a tug with a forward towing point and aft positioned azimuthing thrusters, a thruster
force in the direction of the towline is needed for horizontal equilibrium. In the case of a tug with an
aft towing point, a thruster force in the opposite direction of the towline is needed.

This means that with the towline force, two other forces are acting on the tug, the drag force and the
thruster forces. The thruster forces can act in the same direction as the towline, counteracting the
heeling moment, or in the opposite direction, thereby increasing the heeling moment.

Figure (4.3) Forces during towing in a horizontal plane

The horizontal forces are projected in a vertical plane as shown in Figure (4.4). The towline force and
the drag and thruster forces cause a heeling moment which has to be counteracted by the transverse
stability moment of the tug.

Figure (4.4) Forces during towing in a vertical plane

4.5. Fundamental Tug Boat Characteristics

The main characteristics a tug boat should have are manoeuvrability, stability and power.

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4.5.1. Manoeuvrability

A tug boat’s capability and facility for manoeuvring are fundamental for performing its most
characteristic functions because in manoeuvring with large vessels in small spaces it will have to be
able to move in all directions.

A tug boat’s manoeuvrability depends on the shape of the hull, which is why they are usually specially
built in a hydroconic shape at the stern or flat bottomed so that suction currents reach the propellers
with no turbulence.

The propulsion and steering systems are determining factors of a tug boat maneuverability, particularly
the combined Schottel or Voith-Schneider propulsion-steering systems which, as mentioned before,
provide the tug boat with mobility in all directions.

Another factor influencing manoeuvrability is the position of the towing hook or winch which should
be very close to the centre of lateral resistance or somewhat aft of it.

A further item which will influence manoeuvrability is the tug boat’s capability of changing from a
full ahead situation to a complete stop. The stopping time should not exceed 25 seconds.

4.5.2. Stability

The static stability curve for a tug boat must be positive up to 60-70° with a metecentric height of
about 60 cm.

The accommodation and engine room entry doors must be watertight in view of the possibility of
reaching large heeling angles when the tow rope is pulling in a beam-on direction.

4.5.3. Power

A tug boat’s horsepower for transport operations (towing or pushing vessels, pontoons, rigs, etc.)
should be at least the necessary to pull or push a tow of a certain displacement at a certain minimum
speed which will enable it to steer under the worst possible weather conditions to be expected during
the operation. This horsepower necessary for reaching a certain speed will depend on the propulsion
engine’s efficiency, the efficiency of the shafting line, the efficiency of the propeller and the efficiency
of the tug boat’s and towed vessel’s hulls.

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4.5.4. Bollard pull (BP)

The bollard pull supplied by a tug boat can be simply determined with the following equation:
𝑤𝑒
𝐵𝑝 = 𝑘
1000
Where:
Bp = Bollard pull (tonnes).
We= Tug boat’s brake power in HP.
K= Coefficient depending on the tug boat’s characteristics. The following table may be used as a
function of the propulsion system for tug boats in the 500-2000 HP and 2000-4000 HP ranges.

When a tug is hired the chartering party requires knowledge of the BP of the tug i.e. the pulling
capability of the tug.

Where:

BP =required bollard pull (tonnes)

Δ =full displacement of towed vessel (tonnes)
V = tow speed (knots)
B = breadth of towed vessel (metres)
D = depth of the exposed transverse section of the towed vessel including deck cargo, measured
above the waterline (metres)
K = a factor that reflects potential weather and sea conditions;
• for exposed coastal tows K = 1.0 to 3.0
• for sheltered coastal tows K = 0.75 to 2.0
• for protected water tows K = 0.5 to 1.5
4.6. Required number and total bollard pull of tugs

There is no general rule describing relationship between ship’s size and required tug’s number and
bollard pull. Each harbour has its own calculations based on port layout, berth construction, local
environmental conditions, available tug characteristics and method of assistance, parameters and
equipment of a ship to be assisted, and experience of local authorities.

For a given port layout and berth construction and for a given ship, the required bollard pull is a
function of wind, current and eventual waves. The resulting force acting on a given ship must be
compensated by bollard pull of assisting tugs.

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To the above assessment of required bollard pull, special allowance should be added. It takes into
account special power reserve:

• For pushing or pulling a ship up against wind and current.

• For elimination the eventual longitudinal motion when berthing without use of propeller.
• For taking into account true power actually available which can differ from original
bollard pull tests.

Equal forward and aft tug power is not always the case. The ship is very often under the influence of
wind and current yaw moment due to specific ship’s profile above the water and to the form of
underwater part of the hull. Actual loading conditions are very important factor in planning of number
of tugs and the tug position along the hull.

Figure (4.5) Total pollard pull and average number of tugs for container and general cargo vessel in function of
ship’s length

Figure (4.6) Total pollard pull and average number of tugs for tankers and bulk carriers in function of ship’s
length

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Figure (4.7) Total pollard pull and average number of tugs for tankers and bulk carriers in function of ship’s
deadweight

4.7. Method Of Operation

There are three principal methods of ship handling operations:

1. On-the-line towing.
2. Push-pull method.
3. Indirect Towing.
4.7.1. On the Line

“On the line” towing means that the tug is connected to the assisted vessel by a towline. The towline
is connected to the tug by a towing hook, towing winch or secured to towing bitts (all of which are
known as the towing point). When made fast to a vessel’s bow, the effectiveness of tugs towing on a
line will decrease with increasing headway. This is because, as headway increases, more of the tug’s
power is used in maintaining its position relative to the vessel.

The danger with towing on the line is the risk of girting and capsizing. Girting happens when the
towline comes at right-angles to the tug. The tug is pulled bodily through the water by its tow, which
can lead to deck-edge immersion, flooding and capsize; unless the towline is released in good time.

The location of the towing point on ASD tugs and Tractor tugs reduces the risk of girting.

Figure (4.8) Tug in fine ahead

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Figure (4.9) Tug in line astern

4.7.2. Push-Pull

The push-pull operation means that the tug is connected to the assisted vessel by a tow line (ASD and
conventional tugs will use a bow line, whilst tractor tugs will use a stern line) and remains in close
proximity to the vessel. This enables the tug to push on the vessel, but then check/control the vessel
by pulling-back on the tow line.

Figure (4.10) push -pull method

4.7.3. Indirect Towing

Indirect towing is a way of enlarging the exerted force when turning and/or decelerating the tow. This
mode applies only to the stern tug. The tug is made fast to the vessel by a towline and is dragged by
the assisted vessel. The tug uses its thrust to maintain a sheered position relative to the tow’s heading
whilst the towing force is generated by the drag forces acting on the tug’s hull and transmitted via the
towline. The drag forces on the tug can be substantially higher than the bollard pull when the speed
through the water is greater than about 6 knots.

With the towline at a large angle to the tug's centre line, indirect towing is a potentially dangerous
manoeuvre. Indirect towing requires a highly skilled tug master to achieve the high towline forces
without endangering the tug and her crew.

4.8. Towing Positions

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Figure (4.11) towing positions

4.9. Towing Equipment

Each type of tug boat will be fitted with the equipment necessary to carry out its work normally. Some
items are fixed on deck such as towing winch, towing hook, «H» bitts and normal bitts. Others will
compose the towing material such as tow rope, and handling rope.

1- Towing winch

It is a hydraulic machine fitted with one or two drums where the towing line is reeved. The system
may be automatic tensioning or constant length or non-automatic. The constant tension winch keeps

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the cable at the programmed tension at all times, heaving out when entering into excessive force and
heaving in when remaining at the side. Thus, once the length of towing line or maximum tension is
set, these values will be automatically kept to. The non automatic towing winch is hand operated and
calls for the distance to be regulated by hand and care to be taken that it does not work to excess.

Figure (4.11) towing winch

Figure (4.12) construction of towing winch##

2- Bitts

There must be sufficient bitts on deck to secure the towing lines, placed in appropriate places to be
used in various types of towing operations, whether by the stern, by the bow or alongside.

Figure (4.13) bitts

3- Towing hook

It is a specially built hook which enables the tow rope to be unhooked automatically from the bridge.
The hook’s location should coincide with the centre of lateral resistance or somewhat sternwards from

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it, depending on the propulsion system, with the purpose of giving the tug boat maximum
manoeuvrability; its height will be the minimum to prevent the tug boat losing stability.

Figure (4.14) towing hook

4- Tow rope

Tow rope or cable or line is the cable or rope used to pull the object being towed. It may be made of
metal, natural fibre and synthetic fibre such as nylon, polypropylene, dacron, etc. The conventional
tow rope may be 5 to 6 cm in diameter and over 600 m long and is wound onto the towing winch drum.

Figure (4.15) tow rope

4.10. Ship–Tug Interaction

4.10.1. Interaction Forward

In simple terms, a ship making headway through the water has zones of differing water pressures
surrounding it. This results in a positive pressure forward of its pivot point extending out from the ship,
whilst a low pressure or suction area exists all the way down the ship's side from the pivot point to the
propeller. Near the stern this suction area is augmented by the flow of water into the propeller aperture
whilst the engine is turning ahead .

In position 1 the tug may be sucked in toward the shipside and find it difficult to come off the shipside.

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In position 2, the stern of the tug is affected by the negative pressure, while the bow is affected by a
positive pressure and there is a tendency to turn away to starboard. Tug Master corrects this with port
helm.

In position 3 a strong positive force pushes the tug and bold corrective rudder to port is required to
keep the tug in position.

If the tug moves ahead or the vessel slows down, the bow of the tug will suddenly experience a lack
of thrust and since helm is to port, the tug will suddenly swing into the path of the oncoming ship and
may be run over. The tug crew will have no time to respond to this emergency and many lives may be
lost.

Figure (4.16) Tug interaction, forward

4.10.2. Interaction aft

In position 1 the tug may be sucked towards the strong negative pressure aft.

If strong enough and not quickly counteracted by the Tug Master, she will be drawn in to position 2
and held against the shipside or even into position 3 below the transom where the tugs upper structure
may be damaged. She may also suffer damage by the propeller.

Figure (4.17) Tug interaction, aft

4.11. Girting or Girding

4.11.1. Girting Forward

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In position 1, the tug is fairly safe and can manoeuvre easily. In position 2, the tug is in danger of being
overrun by the ship or pulled due to the vessel swinging to starboard. If the vessel does indeed swing
to starboard or pick up speed and overrun the tug, she will be rapidly pulled into position 3 and capsize
in moments. Tug crew will have little or no time to escape.

Figure (4.18) Girting a tug, secured forward

4.11.2. Girting aft:

In position 1, the tug is fairly safe and can manoeuvre easily. In position 2, the tug is in danger of being
overrun by the ship or pulled due to the vessel picking up speed. If the vessel does indeed pick up
speed and overrun the tug, she will be rapidly pulled into position 3 and capsize in moments. Tug crew
will have little or no time to escape.

Figure (4.19) Girting a tug, secured aft

The use of a Gob Rope shifts the pivot point to the gob rope closer to the stern and reduces the chance
of girting. However, the turning lever reduces and manoeuvrability of the tug is much reduced. See
diagram below.

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Figure (4.20) Gob Rope

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TEST

1- Name the towing winch items in the following figure?

2-Read these statements then decide if the statements are true or false.

1- The use of a Gob Rope shifts the pivot point to the gob rope closer to the stern and reduces the
chance of girting. ( )
2- It may be made only from of metal, natural fibre . ( )
3- Towing winch may be automatic tensioning or constant length or non-automatic. ( )
4- The location of the towing point on ASD tugs and Tractor tugs reduces the risk of girting. ( )
5- The static stability curve for a tug boat must be positive up to 60-70° with a metecentric height
of about 50 cm. ( )

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