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Poetry Notes
ENGL101 – 2025

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What is poetry?
According to William Wordsworth (1772-1834):
“Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings […] recollected in tranquillity.”
 “spontaneous overflow”: Wordsworth believed poetry is a natural flow of strong feelings. He thought writing poetry allows your free
feelings and emotions to spill out onto the page.
 “recollected in tranquillity”: Wordsworth believed that poets undergo a period of tranquillity after being consumed by strong emotions. He
also emphasised the role of personal emotion in poetry.

According to Emily Dickson (1830-1886):

“If I read a book and it makes my body so cold no fire ever can warm me; I know that is poetry.”
 Dickson implies that true poetry evokes a profound, almost physical response, leaving a lasting impression on the reader.

According to Ezra Pound (1885-1972):

“Poetry is about as much a ‘criticism of life’ as red-hot iron is a criticism of fire.”
 In this quote, Pound says poetry is not just a tool used to critique life.
 Pound says that literature can be used to improve people’s appreciation of life and that very good writing can restore civilisation.
 Poetry is not simplistic; it is not just analysing life but is deeply immersed in its experience and emotions.

According to Robert Frost (1874-1963):

“Poetry provides the one permissible way of saying one thing and meaning another.”
 Oftentimes, a seemingly simple line can hold symbolic meaning. In particular, Frost’s poetry often uses symbolic meanings to convey
mundane facts.
 Frost’s poetry is filled with nature imagery; however, beneath the surface, his central theme appears to be the conflict happening in the
natural world.

***
These definitions of poetry illustrate that poetry is a multifaceted art form. It captures emotions, thoughts, and
experiences in a manner that resonates deeply with both the poet and the reader.

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The three main literary genres that the ENGL101 module introduces you to are:
1. Poetry,
2. Prose, and
3. Drama.
You have already encountered the first category; now it is time to learn about poetry. This section of the module aims to teach you about some of
the key concepts and terms involved in reading poetry so that you can clearly comprehend and interpret the poems.

How is poetry different from the literary genre of prose?

In the previous sections, you studied the literary genre of prose by looking at short stories and novels. Now, consider how the literary genre of
poetry differs from what you know. Think about how poetry is a unique form of literature. For example, think about how newspapers and novels
are different from poems. What you should immediately notice is that, unlike prose, the lines of a poem do not extend from the right side of a page
to the left. Instead, the lines in a poem are arranged differently, which impacts how the poem is read and understood.

Another significant distinction is the presence of rhyme and rhythm.

What is rhyme?
Rhyme occurs when words in one line sound similar to those in another.
What effect does this have?
This creates a musical effect that can enhance the poem's meaning, emphasise particular words, or help create a specific mood.
What is rhythm?
Rhythm refers to the patterned recurrence of sounds when certain syllables are stressed and unstressed. This creates a flow in how the poem
is read, which can also enhance the meaning, evoke emotions, and set the poem's tone.
What do you notice about the layout of poetry?
Unlike prose, where ideas are separated into paragraphs, poems are divided into stanzas.
What is a stanza?
A stanza works in the same way as a paragraph. It groups the main ideas together and visually separates different sections of the poem.
Poets utilise stanzas to place their thoughts and ideas together, to introduce new ideas clearly, and to create emphasis.

Now, to answer the big question: ‘How do you read poetry?’

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Refer back to the quotes on page 2. What images and feelings do these quotes evoke? These quotes tell us that poetry is meant to engage the
listener's and reader's imagination. Poetry is different from prose because many devices are used to create meaning, evoke emotions and provoke
thought. For example, unlike prose, where meaning is often direct, poetry urges the reader to engage actively with it. It also uses imagery, figures
of speech, sound effects, mood, and tone to convey the meaning.

Think about how language is open to interpretation. Simple phrases we use daily, like “I am fine” and “thank you,” can have different meanings
depending on the context, the speaker’s tone, and what words are stressed when they are being delivered. Therefore, poems can also have many
interpretations. What one reader finds may be different from what another reader understands. Although poems are open to interpretation, it does
not many all interpretations are acceptable. An interpretation can only be accepted when there is substantial evidence from the poem that supports
it. This is why it is important to read the poem more than once.

Although poetry allows for multiple interpretations, there are still guidelines one must follow when analysing a poem:
- Think about what the poem is saying.
- Explain how the poem creates and conveys meaning. To identify this, look at the word choice, structure, sound and imagery.
- Support the statements you make with textual evidence. Providing textual evidence that supports your claims ensures that you do not write
vague statements; instead, point to specific lines, words or literary techniques you see in the poem.

If analysing poetry still feels daunting, follow these guidelines to help you:
1. Title: The title of a poem often provides insight into its themes and subject matter.
2. Unusual Language: Poets are very intentional with their writing. If a word seems out of place, consider why the poet used it.
3. Imagery: Look for figurative language (similes, metaphors, personification) to create vivid images in the reader or listener's mind.
4. Repetition: Are there any repeated lines or phrases? If there are, why are they repeated?
5. Sound Devices: Pay attention to rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, assonance, and onomatopoeia. How do these devices contribute to the
overall meaning of the poem?
6. Contrast and Irony: Are any ideas being compared? What ideas are being subverted? What effect does this have on the poem's overall
meaning?

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Poet vs. Speaker: What Is the Difference?

A mistake commonly made by students is assuming that the speaker and the poet are the same thing when reading a poem. However, this is not
true.
Who is a poet?
The poet is the individual who wrote the poem.
Let us answer a straightforward question: Who is the poet of Sonnet 130: My Mistress’ Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun? The poet is William
Shakespeare.
In a poem, who is the speaker?
The speaker in a poem is the voice that expresses the thoughts, emotions, or narrative within the poem. A poet will use a speaker to express
ideas, thoughts, emotions or experiences that may not necessarily reflect their own personal views.
Consider the speaker in William Shakespeare’s poem: they are an unnamed male lover criticising traditional love poetry by presenting a
realistic depiction of his beloved.

Understanding Tone in Poetry

Similarly to tone in speech, tone in poetry conveys emotions, attitudes, and feelings. Here is a helpful tip to help you pick up the tone: read the
poem out loud. This is because poetry was initially meant to be spoken out loud, so reading the poem out loud can help you pick up the tone of the
poem. Once you have read the poem out loud, try and categorise how the poem makes you feel. Did it make you feel anger, fear, confusion, joy or
something else?
How is tone different from mood?
Mood can be defined as the overall feeling or atmosphere the poem evokes in you as the reader or listener. It can be influenced by things
such as imagery and setting.

Simile and Metaphor

The main aim of poetry is to make readers see things in a new way. In poetry, there are two major types of tools a poet uses to make comparisons:
1. Simile: This is when a direct comparison is made. The words ‘like’ or ‘as’ are used.
Example: “My love is like a red, red rose” compares love to a rose. It also emphasises its beauty and its fragile nature [Robert Burns].

2. Metaphor: A non-literal comparison is made by stating that something is like another.

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Example: “Hope is the thing with feathers” compares “hope” to a bird. Notice the difference? Here, it is not stated that hope is like a bird.
Instead, hope is a bird, which suggests that it exists in the soul and never stops [Emily Dickinson].
Metaphors are powerful literary devices because they encourage the reader to look beyond the literal meaning. Metaphors often carry more
profound symbolic interpretations.

The Condensed Nature of Poetry

In poetry, every single word is intentionally chosen to serve a purpose. This means that poetry is highly condensed. Unlike prose, where the
language you encounter is more straightforward, the language of poetry is much more layered. Words often carry connotations. What does this
mean? This means that, beneath the surface, words carry meaning.
Example: What does the word “light” mean? In the literal sense, “light” can simply mean the absence of darkness. However, it can also symbolise
happiness, hope and goodness.
Therefore, when you read and analyse a poem, consider what connotations words may carry and how they add to its overall meaning. Additionally,
think about why the poet chose to use those words. What is the poet trying to say?

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Courtly Love
 Courtly love (known in Old French as fin’amor) was a medieval European literary and cultural phenomenon that emerged in the 12th
century, primarily within aristocratic courts.
 Courtly love was a highly idealised and codified form of romantic love, often exploring themes of unrequited love and centred on the
admiration of a noble lady by a devoted lover, usually a poet or knight, longing for her – a woman of higher status who forever remains out
of his reach.
 The male poet-lover would praise his beloved extravagantly. In his poem, he would claim to be suffering greatly due to his love for the
noblewoman and begs her to return his affections or show some sort of favour for him.
 This concept was widely depicted in poetry, literature, and courtly life, shaping European ideas of love and romance for centuries.
 The sonnet became the preferred form of expressing this kind of devotion, portraying the beloved as an idealised, almost spiritual figure.
 The Italian poet Petrarch’s sonnets are some of the most well-known examples of this tradition. We will look at his poem titled “Laura.”

Key Courtly Love Conventions and Themes

In courtly love, the male speaker passionately woos a remote and often unattainable woman. She is typically of noble birth and often married. She
is placed on a pedestal and idealised as a divine and perfect being, yet she remains passive and voiceless in the poem. While his devotion seems to
grant her power, she rarely engages directly, reinforcing her role as an object of admiration rather than an active participant. See Petrarch’s poem
Laura for a good example of this.

The male lover expresses his devotion through extravagant praise, comparing her beauty and virtue to celestial or natural elements like the sun,
stars, angels, or flowers. The blazon [an extended metaphor] often achieves this by detailing her physical attributes as symbols of purity and moral
perfection. The admirer’s life is filled with suffering as he experiences deep emotional turmoil, unfulfilled longing, and even physical decline. He
praises her endlessly, pleads for her affection, and when ignored, blames himself for the hopelessness of his love. Nevertheless, he still continues.

Secrecy plays a crucial role, as this love is typically forbidden. The admirer passes secret messages, many stolen glances are exchanged between
the admirer and the beloved, and secret meetings intensify the romance, thus making it even more dramatic and unattainable. The knight/lover

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serves his lady in the same way he would serve his lord, continuously proving his endless devotion through heroic deeds or noble acts. She may
return his devotion with a small token or a favour, but oftentimes, she remains distant and emotionally inaccessible.

Courtly love is ultimately seen as a transformative force. The devotion of the admirer becomes the key defining point of his character. Even though
he spends all his efforts on his unattainable noblewoman, the love is doomed. This narrative is found in many courtly love narratives.

 The Lady as Superior

 The Suffering Lover/Admirer
 Secrecy and Discretion
 Chivalric Service
 Idealisation of Beauty and Virtue
 Love as a Transformative Force

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Blazon vs. Contreblazon

In the context of Courtly Love

As you read through these notes, you will encounter two words that may be unfamiliar:
1. Blazon, and
2. Contreblazon.
What do these two words mean?

1. The Blazon
The blazon is a poetic device used in Courtly Love poetry that describes and praises the physical features of an idealised and unattainable woman
in an exaggerated manner. It is commonly found in Petrarchan sonnets. The structure of a blazon moves in order through a woman’s physical
attributes. It will begin by describing her eyes, lips, cheeks, hair, and feet, all the while comparing them to nature or granting them celestial qualities.

For example:
In line 3 of Petrarch’s poem, Laura, the speaker’s beloved is described as having “eyes [that are] brighter than the radiant west.” This is a vivid
metaphor which compares the woman’s eyes to a beautiful sunset. The speaker is saying that her beautiful eyes can be compared to the radiant
evening sky.

2. The Contreblazon
The contreblazon is a subversive response to the Petrarchan sonnet's unrealistic and unattainable beauty standards. In other words, it parodies the
traditional blazon. In the contreblazon, the speaker does not idealise his beloved; instead, he undermines/critiques her features. What you will find
in the contreblazon are exaggerated comparisons that mock the over-the-top romantic comparisons found in the blazon.

For example:
In line 1 of Shakespeare’s sonnet, My Mistress’ Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun, the speaker begins by immediately rejecting the conventions of
blazon poetry and states that his “mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun.” He does not compare her eyes to “the radiant west” like the speaker in
Petrarch’s poem. This immediate rejection sets the tone for the rest of the poem. Instead of describing his beloved in an unrealistic way, the speaker
presents his beloved as an ordinary woman. Although the woman is not described as a divine being with untouchable beauty, the speaker is sincere
in his expression of love.

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Therefore, in Courtly Love Poetry, the blazon presents the unattainable woman, while the contreblazon critiques these unrealistic beauty standards
and ideals, leading to more realistic depictions of love and beauty.

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- THE SONNET -
STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS

A sonnet is a 14-line poem traditionally written in iambic pentameter [a rhythmic pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that is used in poetry
and verse drama] with a fixed rhyme scheme. While classical sonnets conform to strict structural rules, modern poets often experiment with form,
maintaining the 14-line framework while breaking away from the traditional rhyme scheme.

What seems to remain common in all sonnets is a personal voice, themes of deep emotion, and a structured argument.
Like all lyric poetry, a sonnet is an intimate expression of personal thought and emotion. The speaker shares deep and emotional inner reflections
and thoughts, giving the reader the role of a secret confidant.
Sonnets explore deep feelings like love, loss, grief, and longing. In addition to these raw emotions, the speaker also engages in intellectual
exploration.
Sonnets are defined by a key characteristic: their ability to present and develop an argument. The poem progresses logically, moving from a problem
to a resolution, a question to an answer, or a thought to a revelation.

The Petrarchan Sonnet (Italian)

- Divided into an octave (8 lines) presenting a problem and a sestet (6 lines) offering a solution.
- The shift in thought in the poem usually takes place between the octave and sestet.

The Shakespearean Sonnet (English)

- Organised into three quatrains (4-line stanzas) followed by a final couplet (2 lines), it often provides a sudden conclusion or twist.
- Each stanza (or in Shakespeare’s sonnet – a quatrain) explores a different idea which tend to build on each other. The last stanza provides
a solution or twist.

The Modern Sonnet

- Contemporary poets play around with the concise structure of the sonnet while experimenting with free verse, flexible rhyme, and
unconventional line arrangements.
- Occasionally, the modern sonnet breaks the 14-line rule. They will add to the 14 lines or subtract from the lines. They may even explore
non-traditional rhyme schemes or mix prose with verse.

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Although the sonnet has undergone many changes over the centuries, it still remains a very powerful poetic tool as it balances emotion and intellect.
It compresses deep feelings into a compact yet structured space, making it both a lyrical confession and a compelling argument.

Introduction to Literary Studies (2006: 46)

Petrarch’s Laura and Courtly Love

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) was one of the most famous poets of the Italian Renaissance, and his songbook contains many sonnets dedicated
to Laura, an idealised woman he loved from a distance.

Similarly to courtly love, Petrarch’s poems follow the same conventions:

Laura was an unattainable woman that Petrarch longed for. His love for her remained unfulfilled as she was married or simply unattainable. His
poem, therefore, aligns with courtly love conventions because his beloved is also beyond reach.
 Petrarch’s poem is an excellent example of courtly love conventions. It is, therefore, a blazon [a poem describing a woman’s physical
attributes, often comparing them to natural elements or idealised objects].

The descriptions provided for Laura’s beauty are celestial. She is described as having golden hair, bright eyes, and divine grace. She, therefore, has
an almost angelic presence. She is pure and untouched.

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Similarly to courtly love poets, Petrarch expresses his torment through emotional poetry by describing his pain in great detail. He longs for her yet
cannot have her.

Petrarch sees his love as a refining force that elevates his soul, making him a better poet and a more virtuous man.

 Unattainable Love
 Idealised Beauty
 The Suffering Lover
 Love as a Source of Spiritual Transformation

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“Laura”
By Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)
(Translated by Morris Bishop)

She used to let her golden hair fly free 1

For the wind to toy and tangle and molest; 2
Her eyes were brighter than the radiant west. 3
(Seldom they shine so now.) I used to see 4
Pity look out of those deep eyes on me. 5
(“It was false pity,” you would protest.) 6
I had love’s tinder heaped within my breast; 7
What wonder that the flame burned furiously? 8
She did not walk in any mortal way, 9
But with angelic progress; when she spoke, 10
Unearthly voices sang in unison, 11
She seemed divine among the dreary folk 12
Of earth. You say she is not so today? 13
Well, though the bow’s unbent, the wound bleeds on. 14

***

Laura is the perfect example of a courtly love poem because it embraces the idea of a distant, noble and unattainable
woman. This woman inspires the admirer to express his suffering, undying devotion and admiration.
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Shakespeare’s
‘My Mistress’ Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun’
& the Rejection of Courtly Love
As Renaissance ideals gradually took over from medieval beliefs, many poets began to challenge or satirise the conventions of courtly love. One
such poet is William Shakespeare.

William Shakespeare’s Sonnet 130: My Mistress’ Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun, is a satirical take on courtly love poetry. It is satirical because it
directly challenges its exaggerated and unrealistic conventions.
Unlike the poem Laura by Petrarch, Shakespeare’s poem does not place the woman on an unrealistic pedestal. It instead portrays a realistic image
of the speaker’s mistress. Therefore, Shakespeare’s poem subverts the traditional love tropes.

In Shakespeare’s poem, the speaker contradicts typical courtly love metaphors. For example, the speaker does not compare her eyes to the sun, nor
does he compare her lips to red coral.
Instead of describing her hair as golden, her hair is black wires.
He even goes as far as saying that her breath is not sweet or perfumed like roses. Therefore, he contrasts the usual poetic idealisation.
 Therefore, this rejection of the conventional courtly love traditions makes Shakespeare’s sonnet a contreblazon (an anti-blazon). In Sonnet
130: My Mistress’ Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun, Shakespeare reverses and parodies [imitates in order to satirise] the unrealistic
comparisons used in the blazon. Have a look at Petrarch’s descriptions of his beloved and Shakespeare’s descriptions. How are they
different? Which one seems more realistic to you?

Unlike the seriousness of traditional poetic comparisons, Shakespeare’s poem has a playful and mocking tone.
Rather than compare his mistress to a celestial being, he plainly states that she stomps the ground when she walks.

Although he rejects the conventional beauty standards, his love is affirmed. He states that his woman is just as rare as any woman falsely compared
to celestial objects.

Although Shakespeare’s woman is not perfect, he loves her for who she is. Therefore, love is grounded in reality.

 Rejection of Idealised Beauty

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 Humorous and Earthly Approach

 Love as Real and Honest
 Breaking the Courtly Love Mould

After you have looked at Shakespeare’s poem, ask yourself what he is trying to say.
Conventional courtly love places women on pedestals, turns them into goddesses, and objectifies them by merely focusing on their physical
attributes. In Shakespeare’s sonnet, his woman is not unobtainable and a celestial being. Notice how he states that she treads on the ground.
The descriptions he provides of his woman are grounded in reality. He is not saying that the women in other traditional courtly love poetry
are more beautiful than his woman; he just refuses to use unrealistic exaggerations about her beauty. Thus, one can argue that his love for
her is more sincere as it is grounded in truth and reality.

The turn in Shakespeare’s poem takes place in the last two lines:
“And yet”: here, Shakespeare introduces the change (line 13).
“by heaven”: this is an ironic exclamation. In traditional courtly love poetry, the woman is often compared to a celestial being. Therefore,
Shakespeare is mocking this while simultaneously expressing his genuine sincerity.

Do you think Shakespeare’s sonnet is a love poem?

Although Shakespeare’s sonnet is not a typical courtly love poem, it is still a love poem!

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Sonnet 130: My Mistress’ Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun

By William Shakespeare

My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun; 1

Coral is far more red than her lips’ red; 2
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; 3
If hairs be wired, black wires grow on her head. 4
I have seen roses damask’d, red and white, 5
But no such roses see I in her cheeks; 6
And in some perfumes is there more delight 7
Than in her breath that from my mistress reeks. 8
I love to hear her speak, yet well I know 9
That music hath a far more pleasing sound; 10
I grant I never saw a goddess go; 11
My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground: 12
And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare 13
As any she belied with false compare. 14

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Comparing Petrarch’s Laura and Shakespeare’s Sonnet 130: My Mistress’ Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun.

Fill in the blank spaces:

Feature Petrarch’s Laura Shakespeare’s Sonnet 130

Type of Love

Descriptions of the Woman

Tone

Purpose

Emotional Impact

Courtly love’s legacy can still be seen today in art, culture, and social interactions. Most notably, it has shaped our ideas of “courtesy,” “chivalry,”
and traditional gender roles. For instance, in many societies, there is still the belief that men should be the ones to pursue while women remain
passive or subtly influential actively. Petrarch’s poem, Laura, embodies this tradition as it idealises the distant and unattainable woman, her physical
and celestial beauty, and the suffering of the devoted suitor. However, Shakespeare’s Sonnet challenges courtly love traditions by describing an
honest love filled with humour and free of unrealistic beauty ideals. His approach is satirical: it critiques the over-the-top nature of courtly love
poetry and instead celebrates a love based on reality rather than unattainable perfection.

Adapted from ENG102 by Dr. Jean Rossmann

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