COURSE PREPARATION

Uzair Bashir (MCA)

Department of Computer Sciences
University of Kashmir

Showkat Hassan Malik (MCA)

Department of Computer Sciences
University of Kashmir

Bilal Maqbool Beigh (Ph.D)

Department of Computer Sciences
University of Kashmir

COURSE COORDINATION & FORMAT EDITING

Bilal Maqbool Beigh (Ph.D)

Department of Computer Sciences
University of Kashmir

Published By
The Director
Centre of Distance Education
University of Kashmir

© Centre of Distance Education, University of Kashmir

Printed By
CONTENTS

UNIT I

LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

LESSON 2
COMPUTER HARDWARE- CONFIGURATION AND APPLICATIONS

LESSON 3
STORAGE DEVICES

UNIT II

LESSON 4
INTRODUCTION TO ALGORITHM

LESSON 5
INTRODUCTION TO FLOWCHARTS

LESSON 6
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

UNIT III

Lesson 7
Operating System Basics

Lesson 8
Operating System Types and functions

Lesson 9
INTRODUCTION TO Windows

Lesson 10
System utilities and Application of Software’s
UNIT IV

Lesson 11
Word Introduction and Basic Operations

Lesson 12
Formatting, Grammar and Macro in MS-Word

Lesson 13
Spread sheet Introduction and Basic Operations

Lesson 14
Presentation Software

Lesson 15
INTRODUCTION TO POWER POINT

UNIT V

Lesson 16
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

Lesson 17
INTRODUCTION TO E-COMMERCE
 UNIT I
Lesson 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 What is a computer?
1.4 Types of computers
1.5 Classification of computers
1.6 Generations of Computers
1.7 Applications of Computers
1.8 Exercise

1.1 Introduction

The use of information Technology (IT) is now well recognized

everywhere. It has become the nervous system of Business houses as
their survival is now directly by the growing Information Technology
trends. Computer is one of the major components of an IT network
and is gaining more popularity with every passing day. Today,
Computer Technology has penetrated every sphere of modern life.
From railway reservations to medical diagnosis, from TV programs to
satellite launching, from match-making to criminal catching-
everywhere we witness the elegance, sophistication and efficiency
possible only with the help of computers.
In this unit, we will give a brief introduction to the computer hardware
technology, how does it work and what exactly it is.

1.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Define what a computer is
 Classify computers
 Understand the different generations of computers
 Understand the applications of computers in different fields
1.3 What is a Computer?

There are many definitions of what a computer is. Let’s give a fewer
definitions here:

1) Any device capable of processing information to produce a desired

result. No matter how large or small they are. Computers typically
perform their work in three well-defined steps: (i) accepting input, (ii)
processing the input according to predefined rules (programs), and (iii)
producing output

2) Any general-purpose machine that processes data according to a

set of instructions that is stored internally either temporarily or
permanently, including, but not limited to, a general purpose
computer, workstation, laptop computer, personal computer, set top
box, web access device.

3) A computer is a general-purpose machine that processes data. The

data is processed according to a set of instructions known as
programs. The computer and all equipment attached to it are called
hardware. The computer is a form of hardware and the programs are
known as software.

4) Electronic machine capable of performing calculations and other

manipulations of various types of data, under the control of a stored
set of instructions. The machine itself is the hardware; the instructions
are the program or software.

1.4 Types of Computers

Fundamentally, there are two types of computers

 Analog
 Digital

Analog computers solve problems by using continuously changing data such

as
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Voltage

Digital computers solve problems by manipulating discrete binary digits (0s

and 1s).Digital computers are further classified into four main categories viz
 Microcomputers
  Minicomputers
 Mainframes
 Supercomputers
They differ in size, speed of operation, amount of data that can be stored,
and the number of simultaneous users. Micro computers are further divided
into Desktop and Portable computers. This is shown in the following
diagram.

1.5 Classification of computers

Types of computers

Micro Mini Mainframe Super

Desktop Portable Laptop

Handheld

Microcomputers- These are of two types namely Desktop and Portable.

 Desktop - A Personal Computer that is not designed for

portability. The computer is set up in a permanent location. Most
desktops offer more power, storage and versatility for less cost.

 Portable- These include Laptops and handheld devices

(palmtops, PDAs etc).
  Laptop - These are also called notebooks. Laptops are
portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, a
pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard
drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than
an average hardcover book.

 Palmtop – small handheld devices

 Palmtops are tightly integrated computers that often use

flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage
 These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely
on touch screen technology for user input
 Palmtops are typically smaller than a paperback novel,
very lightweight with a reasonable battery life.

 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a handheld computer.

Newer PDAs also have both color screens and audio capabilities,
enabling them to be used as mobile phones (smart phones), web
browsers, or portable media players. Many PDAs can access the
Internet, WiFi, etc. Many PDAs employ touch screen technology
or use a stylus.
 Minicomputer- A class of multi-user computers that lies in the
middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest
multi-user systems (mainframe computers) and the smallest single-
user systems (micro computers or personal computers). The class at
one time formed a distinct group with its own hardware and
operating systems, but the contemporary term for this class of
system is midrange computers, such as the higher-end SPARC,
POWER and Itanium -based systems from SUN, IBM and HP.

 Mainframes computers used mainly by large organizations for

critical applications, typically for large data processing such as
census, industry and consumer statistics, Enterprise Resource
Planning (ERP), and financial transaction processing.

 Supercomputer- This type of computer usually costs hundreds of

thousands or even millions of dollars. Although some supercomputers
are single computer systems, most are comprised of multiple high
performance computers working in parallel as a single system. The
best known supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.
1.6 Generations of Computers

A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of a

product. This term is also used in different advancements of computer
technology. With each new generation, the circuitry became smaller and
more advanced than the previous generation. As a result of the
miniaturization, speed, power, and memory of computers have
proportionally increased.
First Generation (The Vacuum Tube):
The first generation computers were
huge, slow, expensive, and less
reliable. Eckert and Mauchly built the
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Calculator) computer which used
vacuum tubes instead of the mechanical
switches of the Mark I. The ENIAC used
thousands of vacuum tubes, which took
up a lot of space and gave off a great deal
of heat just like electric bulbs do. The ENIAC led to the development of other
vacuum tube based computers like the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer) and the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer).
The purpose of Vacuum tube was to act like an amplifier and a switch.
Without any moving parts, vacuum tubes could take very weak signals and
make the signal stronger (amplify). Vacuum tubes could also stop and start
the flow of electricity instantly (switch). These two properties made the
ENIAC computer possible. The ENIAC gave off so much heat that they had to
be cooled by large air conditioners. However even with these huge coolers,
vacuum tubes still overheated regularly and many of them would burst.

Second Generation (The Transistor):

John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain
working at AT&T's Bell Labs invented the transistor
which functions like a vacuum tube in that it can be
used to relay and switch electronic signals. The
transistor was faster, more reliable, smaller, and much
cheaper to build than a vacuum tube. One transistor
replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. These
transistors were made of solid material, some of which
is silicon; therefore they were very cheap to produce.
Transistors were found to conduct electricity faster and better than vacuum
tubes. They were also much smaller and generated much less heat
compared to vacuum tubes.

Third Generation: (Integrated Circuits):

Transistors were a tremendous breakthrough in
advancing the computer. However no one could predict
that thousands or even now millions of transistors
(circuits) could be compacted in such a small space.
The integrated circuit (IC), or as it is sometimes
referred to as semiconductor chip, packs a huge
number of transistors onto a single wafer of silicon.
Placing such large numbers of transistors on a single
chip vastly increased the power of a single computer
and lowered its cost considerably.
Since the invention of integrated circuits, the number of transistors that can
be placed on a single chip has increased exponentially, shrinking both the
size and cost of computers even further and further enhancing its power.
Most electronic devices today use some form of integrated circuits placed on
printed circuit boards- thin pieces of Bakelite or fiberglass that have
electrical connections etched onto them. These third generation computers
could carry out instructions in billionths of a second. The size of these
machines got reduced to the size of small file cabinets.

Fourth Generation (The Microprocessor):

This generation can be characterized by the invention of the
microprocessor (a single chip that could do all the processing
of a full-scale computer). By putting millions of transistors
onto one single chip more calculation and faster speeds were
achieved by computers.
Ted Hoff of Intel invented a chip the size of a pencil eraser
that could do all the computing and logic work of a computer. The
microprocessor was made to be used in calculators, not computers. It
however led to the invention of personal computers.

Fifth Generation: Present and Future (Artificial Intelligence)

The dream of creating a human-like computer that would be capable of
reasoning has existed since long. Such computers would learn from their
mistakes and possess the skill of experts.
The various characteristics of these generations are tabled below:
Generation Characteristics
-vacuum tube based
-punched tape input or output
1st -large, occupied more space
-generated large amounts of heat, so air-conditioning
was required
-very expensive and consumed large amount of
electricity
-about 1,000 circuits per cubic foot
Examples: Mark I,ENIAC ,EDSAC

-used transistors and were smaller in size

2nd -computational speed reduced to microseconds from
milliseconds
-more reliable and less prone to hardware failures
-more portable and generated less amount of heat
-about 100,000 circuits per foot
Examples: UNIVAC 1107,IBM 7030,IBM 7070

-used integrated circuit technology

-computational speed reduced to nanoseconds
3rd -easily portable and more reliable
-consumed less power and generated less heat
-smaller and failed rarely
-10 million circuits per square foot
Examples: IBM System/360, System 3,UNIVAC 9000
series

-micro processor based (LSI, VLSI, ULSI)

-very small in size (PC, Desktop)
4th -Generate negligible amount of heat and need no air-
conditioning
-negligible hardware failure
-low cost and commercially available
-GUI and pointing devices used
-billions of circuits per cubic foot
Examples: IBM System 3090, IBM RISC 6000, HP
9000
 -extremely large scale integration
5th -parallel processing
-high speed logic and memory chips
-high performance, micro-miniaturization
-voice/data integration; knowledge-based platforms
-artificial intelligence, expert systems
-virtual reality generation
-satellite links

1.7 Applications of Computers

Nowadays computers have become so common that there is hardly any field
where computers are not used. Following are some of the applications of
computers:

1) In offices and homes for preparing documents and perform other data
processing jobs
2) To prepare salary slips and salary cheques in offices, factories
3) To maintain accounts and transfer funds in Banks
4) To store and retrieve large amount of information in offices
5) To send and receive E-mail/ Voice mail
6) To search and retrieve information from other computers
7) To reserve tickets in railways, airlines etc
8) To regulate traffic lights on roads and to control machines and robots
in factories
9) To design automobiles, buildings, dams and to forecast weather
10) To create animations/ Cartoon movies and compose music
11) To control aero planes, trains, automobiles etc
12) To control electronic appliances such as air conditioners, TVs etc
13) To do online banking, buy and sell merchandise, shares etc
14) To control and simulate defense equipment
15) For scientific and industrial research
16) In post offices and hospitals
 17) In playing games, music (Audio/Video) etc
18) Last but not least in Education (Online tutorials, Virtual
classrooms etc)

1.8 Exercise

Q1 Fill in the Blanks

1) 3rd Generation Computers were based on
_________________technology
2) ULSI stands
for_____________________________________________
3) S/w embedded in H/w is called _______________
4) A hand held computer is also called _____________________
5) The super computer developed by India is
named__________________
6) The three main components of a CPU are ______,______and
________

Q2 Answer the following Questions

1) Briefly explain the different types of Computers?

2) What is a Computer? What are its characteristic features?
3) Illustrate and Explain the Block diagram of a computer?
4) Explain various generations of computers?
 Lesson 2

Computer Hardware- Configuration and Applications

Structure

2.1 Objectives
2.2 Computer Hardware
2.2.1 Central Processing Unit
2.2.2 Primary Memory
2.2.3 Input Devices
2.2.3.1 Keyboard
2.2.3.2 Mouse
2.2.3.3 Scanner
2.2.3.4 Other I/p Devices
2.2.4 Output Devices
2.2.4.1 Monitor
2.2.4.2 Printer
2.2.4.3 Projector
2.2.4.4 Other O/p Devices
2.3 Exercise

2.1 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Understand the job of Central Processing Unit
 Describe primary memory and its usage
 Understand the functions of various Input and Output devices

2.2 Computer Hardware

The apparent hardware composition of a computer is depicted in the

Diagram of a computer given on the next page.
As shown in the diagram, the basic architecture (known as Von Neumann
Architecture) of a computer consists of:
 A CPU which includes ALU, CU and some registers
 A Main Memory System
 An Input/output System
We will be discussing each of these components in detail in the following
sections.

Main
Memory

Data and Instruction

interconnection

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Operational registers
Arithmetic
and Logic
Control Unit Unit

Data and Control

Information
interconnection

Input/output
System

Block Diagram of Computer

2.2.1 Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit, or CPU, is that part of a computer which

executes programs written in some computer language. In older computers
this circuitry was formerly on several printed circuit boards, but in PCs is a
single integrated circuit (IC). Nearly all PCs contain a type of CPU known as
a microprocessor. The microprocessor often plugs into the motherboard
using one of many different types of sockets.
Motherboard
The motherboard, also referred to as system
board or main board, is the primary circuit board
within a personal computer. Many other
components connect directly or indirectly to the
motherboard. Motherboards usually contain one
or more CPUs, supporting circuitry - usually
integrated circuits(ICs) - providing the interface
between the CPU memory and input/output peripheral circuits, main
memory, and facilities for initial startup of the computer immediately after
power-on (often called booting). In many portable and embedded personal
computers, the motherboard houses nearly all of the PC's core components.
Often a motherboard will also contain one or more peripheral buses and
physical connectors for expansion purposes. Sometimes a secondary
Daughter Board is also connected to the motherboard to keep scope for
further expansion or adding more devices.

2.2.2 Primary/Main Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) fall in the
category of Primary Memory, also known as Main Memory.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random access memory or RAM most commonly refers to computer chips
that temporarily store dynamic data
to enhance computer performance. By
storing frequently used or active files
in random access memory, the
computer can access the data faster
than if it is to retrieve it from the far-
larger hard disk. Random access memory is also used in printers and other
devices.
Random access memory is volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents
once power is cut. This is different from non-volatile memory such as hard
disks and Flash Memory, which do not require a power source to retain data.
When a computer shuts down properly, all data located in random access
memory is committed to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive.
At the next boot-up, RAM begins to fill with programs automatically loaded
at startup, and with files opened by the user.
There are several different types of random access memory chips which
come in the form of a "stick." A stick of RAM is a small circuit board shaped
like a large stick. Sticks of RAM fit into "banks or slots" on the motherboard.
Adding one or more sticks increases RAM storage and performance.
Random access memory is categorized by architecture and speed. As
technology progresses, RAM chips become faster and employ new standards
so that RAM must be matched to a compatible motherboard. The
motherboard will only support certain types of random access memory, and
it will also have a limit as to the amount of RAM it can support. For example,
one motherboard may support dual-channel Synchronous Dynamic Random
Access Memory (SDRAM), while an older motherboard might only support
Single In-line Memory Modules (SIMMS) or Dual In-line Memory Modules
(DIMMS).

Since random access memory can improve performance, the type and
amount of RAM a motherboard will support becomes a major factor when
considering a new computer. If there is a faster, better random access
memory chip on the market, the buyer will want to consider purchasing a
motherboard capable of using it.
RAM varies in cost depending on type, capacity and other factors. Random
access memory often comes with a lifetime guarantee at a competitive price.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM), also called Firmware is
chips that store permanent instructions. Firmware
boots up computerized or digital devices, as ROM
chips are non-volatile, meaning they do not
require a power source to hold their contents.
This differentiates firmware from random access
memory (RAM), which loses stored data at
shutdown. Perhaps the most familiar firmware is the basic input output
system (BIOS) chip. The BIOS chip on a computer motherboard holds
instructions that, upon powering up, initialize the hardware, ensure
components are working, and finally bring in the Operating System to take
over the control of the system.
In the past, firmware chips could not be rewritten. When the BIOS became
outdated, the only option was to buy a new motherboard. New firmware
would understand the latest hardware so that the user would not be limited
to older drives and other legacy technologies when facing inevitable
upgrades.
It became clear that a new type of firmware chip that could be updated
would be extremely beneficial. This became possible with Flash Memory
chips. With the BIOS written to this type of chip, a user could connect to the
manufacturer’s website, download a firmware upgrade to diskette and flash
the BIOS chip during boot-up to install a new set of instructions. All quality
motherboards today feature a flash BIOS, or Upgradeable Firmware.
Firmware is at the heart of virtually every popular digital device. Portable
Audio players, cell phones, personal digital assistants, digital cameras and
gaming consoles are just some of the devices that use firmware.
Upgradeable firmware has extended the life of countless electronic devices,
adding new functionality. However, flashing firmware is also risky, as the
device will not boot if the flashing process is interrupted or becomes
corrupted.

2.2.3 Input Devices

As depicted in the Block diagram of a computer, one of the important

components of a system is the Input module used to give input to the
computer so that the given input is processed and output generated. For this
several input devices are used. Some of the important ones are described
below.

2.2.3.1 Keyboard

In computing, a keyboard is an arrangement of

buttons that each correspond to a function, letter,
or number. They are the primary devices of
inputing text. In most cases, they contain a series
of keys specifically organized with the
corresponding letters, numbers, and functions printed or engraved on the
button. They are generally designed around an operators language, and
many different versions of keyboards exist for different languages. In
English, the most common layout is the QWERTY layout, which was originally
used in typewriters. They have evolved over time, and have been modified
for use in computers with the addition of function keys, number keys, arrow
keys, operating system specific keys and more recently the Multimedia
controlling keys. Often, specific functions can be achieved by pressing
multiple keys at once or in succession, such as inputing characters with
accents or opening a task manager. Programs use keyboard shortcuts very
differently and all use different keyboard shortcuts for different program
specific operations, such as refreshing a web page in a web browser or
selecting all text in a word processor.

2.2.3.2 Mouse

A Mouse on a computer is a small, movable device

that users hold and slide around to point at, click,
and sometimes drag objects on screen in a graphical
user interface(GUI) using a pointer on screen.
Almost all Personal Computers have mice. It may be plugged into a
computer's rear mouse socket, or as a USB device, or, more recently, may
be connected wirelessly via a USB antenna or Bluetooth antenna. In the
past, they had a single button that users could press down on the device to
"click" on whatever the pointer on the screen was pointing to. Now,
however, many Mice have two or three buttons; a "right click" function
button on the mouse, which performs a secondary action on a selected
object, and a scroll wheel, which users can rotate using their fingers to
"scroll" up or down. The scroll wheel can also be pressed down, and
therefore be used as a third button. Different programs make use of these
functions differently, and may scroll horizontally by default with the scroll
wheel, open different menus with different buttons, among others.

Mice traditionally detected movement and communicated with the computer

with an internal "mouse ball"; and use optical encoders to detect rotation of
the ball and tell the computer where the mouse has moved. However, these
systems were subject to low durability and accuracy. Modern mice use
optical technology to directly trace movement of the surface under the
mouse and are much more accurate and durable. They work on a wider
variety of surfaces and can even operate on walls, ceilings or other non-
horizontal surfaces.

2.2.3.3 Scanner

A scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, or an object,

and converts it to a digital image. Common
examples found in offices are variations of the
desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the document
is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-
held scanners, where the device is moved by
hand, have evolved over time. Mechanically
driven scanners that move the document are
typically used for large-format documents, where
a flatbed design would be impractical.
Modern scanners typically use a charge coupled
device (CCD) or a contact image sensor (CIS) as
the image sensor, whereas older drum scanners
use a photomultiplier tube as the image sensor. A rotary scanner, used for
high-speed document scanning, is another type of drum scanner, using a
CCD array instead of a photomultiplier. Other types of scanners are
planetary scanners, which take photographs of books and documents, and
3D scanners, for producing three-dimensional models of objects.
Another category of scanner is digital camera scanners. Due to increasing
resolution and new features, digital cameras have become an attractive
alternative to regular scanners. While still having disadvantages compared to
traditional scanners (such as distortion, reflections, shadows, low contrast),
digital cameras offer advantages such as speed, portability, gentle digitizing
of thick documents without damaging the book spine. New scanning
technologies are combining 3D scanners with digital cameras to create full-
color, photo-realistic 3D models of objects.

2.2.3.4 Other Input Devices

Apart from the primary input devices mentioned above, computers have
many more alternate input devices used to give different kinds of input to
the machine. Some of these include cameras, Light pens, Touch panels,
Mike, Joystick, Data Glove, Bar code reader and Digitizers etc.

2.2.3 Output Devices

The processed input is produced in the form of output to be displayed to the

user on some output device. Some of the output devices have been
discussed here.

2.2.4.1 Monitor (Visual display unit)

A visual display unit (also called monitor) is a piece of electrical equipment,

usually separate from the computer case, which displays viewable images
generated by a computer without producing a permanent record. A
computer display device is usually either a cathode ray tube (CRT) or some
form of flat panel such as a TFT LCD. The monitor comprises the display
device, circuitry to generate a picture from electrical signals sent by the
computer, and an enclosure case. The images from monitors originally
contained only text, but as Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) emerged and
became common, they began to display more images and multimedia
content.

2.2.4.2 Printers

In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces

a hard copy (permanent human readable text and/or
graphics) of documents stored in electronic form,
usually on physical print media such as paper or
transparencies. Many printers are primarily used as
local peripherals, and are attached by a cable or, in
most new printers, a USB cable to a computer which serves as a document
source. Some printers, commonly known as network printers, have built-in
network interfaces, and can serve as a hardcopy device for any user on the
network. Individual printers are often designed to support both local and
network connected users at the same time.
In addition, a few modern printers can directly interface to electronic media
such as memory sticks or memory cards, or to image capture devices such
as digital cameras, scanners; some printers are combined with a scanner
and/or fax machine in a single unit. Printers that include non-printing
features are sometimes called Multifunction Printers (MFP), Multi-Function
Devices (MFD), or All-In-One (AIO) printers.
Printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs; requiring
virtually no setup time to achieve a hard copy of a given document.
However, printers are generally slow devices (30 pages per minute is
considered fast; and many consumer printers are far slower than that), and
the cost-per-page is relatively high.

2.2.3.3 Projectors

Video Projectors use CRT, LCD, DLP or

many other technologies to send light
through air to a projection screen.
LCD projectors are systems that display
or project information or video onto a
surface. LCD projectors are the
technological descendants of overhead
and slide projectors, older systems which serve the same purpose. LCD
projectors are most commonly used for displaying images in presentations
or lectures, but are also used in home theater applications.
Video signals are comprised of three colors: red, green, and blue (RGB). LCD
projectors contain a separate glass panel for each. Each panel consists of
two plates of glass with a layer of liquid crystal between them. When a
charge is applied, the crystals open to allow light through or close to block it.
This opening and closing of pixels is what forms the image.
LCD projectors use mirrors to split the light from the input source into red,
green, and blue components. Each then passes through the corresponding
panel, where pixels form an image. The three colors are then recombined in
a prism before being projected through a lens. LCD projectors use separate
panels for each color because it results in better color saturation than using
a single panel for all three.
LCD projectors are priced based on several factors, especially resolution.
The right amount of brightness, measured in Lumens, depends on the
lighting conditions the projector will be used under, as well as audience size.
A darkened home theater requires less brightness than a fully lit conference
room.
Other factors in considering LCD projectors are portability, Computer
connectivity, and input options. LCD projectors with higher resolution weigh
more and are therefore less portable. LCD projectors are frequently
compared to digital light processing (DLP) projectors. These use circuit
boards with thousands of tiny mirrors to project an image. Their chief
advantages over LCD projectors include smaller size because they do not
use multiple LCD panels and no pixilation effect like that sometimes seen on
LCD projectors. However, LCD projectors are still known for having better
color saturation. Generally, DLP is more popular for home theater use.
A Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector is a revolutionary technology that
uses an optical semiconductor to digitally manipulate light. It incorporates a
reliable, all-digital display chip that delivers the very best picture quality
available. A DLP projector system can be used in a variety of products,
including projectors used for business or home entertainment, large screen
digital televisions and digital cinema.
2.2.3.4 Other O/p Devices
Besides these devices described above, computers have some more output
devices used to display the output generated by the system. Some of these
include Plotters, Speakers etc.

2.3 Exercise
Q Answer the following Questions

1) Differentiate between RAM and ROM?

2) Discuss the applications of computers in various fields?
3) Explain any two Input Devices?
 Lesson 3

Storage Devices and Communication Devices

Structure

3.1 Objectives
3.2 Storage Devices
3.2.1 Floppy
3.2.2 Hard Disk
3.2.3 Optical Devices
3.2.4 Other storage devices
3.4 Exercise

3.1 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Describe primary memory and its usage
 Understand the functions of various Input and Output devices
 Understand the need and use of storage devices.
 Understand different communication devices.

3.2 Storage Devices

Computers store data permanently for future use. This data is stored in
various storage devices with their pros and cons. Some common storage
devices are described here.

3.2.1 Floppy

Floppy disks are small, removable, media storage devices.

They record data onto a thin, circular magnetic film
encased in a flat, square plastic jacket. Floppy disks are
rarely used now, having been replaced by memory sticks
and re-writable CD storage devices.
Original floppy disks were 8-inch floppies used in 1970s,
but the first floppy disks that were widely used
commercially were 5.25-inch disks. These floppy disks
were quite flexible and required a 5.25-inch floppy drive. The disks could
store up to 360 kilobytes (KB) of data. Later high-density floppy disks held
1.2 megabytes (MB) of data.
As the technology of floppy disks improved, the next generation was smaller
and eventually held more data. The newer 3.5-inch floppy disks had hard
shell cases for protection. The term floppy disk was still used for many
years, however. Some 3.5-inch floppy disks only utilized one side of the
internal magnetic mylar film for recording data, with a capacity of 744 KB.
High-density 3.5-inch floppy disks used both sides, doubling the capacity to
1.44 MB. In fact there were several configurations, including single or double
sided (SS or DS), and single or double density (SD or DD). Today most 3.5-
inch floppy disks are high-density and referred to simply as "diskettes." The
term floppy disks are rarely used.
Various technologies have been used since 1991 in the attempt to extend
the life of floppy disks by increasing capacity to 2.88 MB (extended density
or ED), and even 120 MB and 240 MB.
Today other storage devices those are more convenient and robust, such as
compact disks and memory sticks, have largely replaced floppy disks. A CD
can hold more than 600 MB, and even the smallest capacity memory stick
holds several hundred times the amount of a single floppy disk. Some
memory sticks now compete with smaller hard drives for disk capacity,
making them ideal for transferring files, programs etc.

3.2.2 Hard Disk

A hard drive, also known as a hard disk drive or HDD, is a

fundamental part of modern computers. The hard drive is
where all our programs and files are stored, so if the drive
is damaged for some reason, we lose everything on our
computer system Hard Disks are generally of two type’s
viz. Movable Head Disks and Fixed Head Disks.
Hard drives contain round, mirror-like platters that are
covered some magnetic recording medium. The platters inside a hard disk
drive are usually made of glass or aluminum. It is the polished magnetic
material on the surface that makes the platter appear shiny, like a mirror. A
clean, polished surface is critical to the proper functioning of the hard drive
— even the smallest speck of dust can cause irreparable damage or disk
crash.
Just as a head inside a cassette player reads the data on the tape, a head
inside the hard disk drive reads and writes data to the platters. This head is
on an arm that is attached next to the platters, so that it can move back and
forth over the platters (in Movable head disks). The time taken by the R/W
head to move to a track to read/write data is called Seek time. This time is
not involved in Fixed head disks where we have one R/W head for each
track.
The average modern hard disk drive has several platters inside of it, stacked
one on top of the other. There is a small gap between each platter, which
allows each platter’s head to pass over it. The heads are all on the same
arm, which has a separate branch for each head.
When we turn on the computer, the platters immediately begin to spin. The
platters in a desktop computer hard disk drive typically get up to about
7,200 rotations per minute (rpm), while the hard drives in laptop computers
usually run at 5,400 rpm. The time taken by a Sector to come under the
R/W head so that data can be read or written is called Rotational Delay.
When the computer is on but we don’t read or write anything to the
memory, the platters in the hard disk drive are always spinning. The arm
with the heads on it, however, only begins to move when we run a program
or open, save, or delete a file. This arm can move back and forth across the
surface of the platter as many as 50 times in a single second, causing it to
appear as a blur. Because everything in the hard disk drive moves so
quickly, the head never actually touches the platters, instead skimming just
barely above them, supported by a cushion of moving air that is generated
by the platters’ spinning.
The rapid motion of the platters and heads inside the hard disk drive make it
susceptible to “head crash,” which is where the heads crash into the platters.
Several different things can cause head crash. If dust gets into the hard
drive and settles on the platters, it can actually cause the arm to bounce as
the disk operates. The magnetic recording medium is extremely fragile, and
is often ruined when the heads crash into the platters.

3.2.3 Optical Devices (CDs)

An optical disk is a compact disk or CD. The formatting of

the optical disk will dictate whether it is a DVD, CD, read-
only or rewritable. Optical disks have replaced Magnetic
tapes, videotapes and floppy disks.
The optical disk became the preferred medium for music,
movies and software programs because of its many
advantages. Compact, lightweight, durable and digital, the
optical disk also provides a minimum of 650 megabytes (MB) of data
storage. A double-layered and double-sided DVD optical disk holds up to 16
gigabytes (GB) of data.
The optical disk is so named because its technology is based on light. As the
disk spins, a Laser beam follows a spiral trail of pits and lands in the plastic
material of the disk. The pits reflect light differently than the lands, while a
device translates the reflective difference to bits of "on/off" or 1 and 0.
A standard optical disk measures 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm in
thickness. The master optical disk is made from glass.
Notwithstanding music, movies and digital photographs, the optical disk is
increasingly being used for data storage such as backup and archiving.
Instant access to files and the ability to use a built-in DVD player all make
the optical disk a superior choice over legacy tape backup units for the
computer user.
A blank optical disk can be purchased in many formats. The least expensive
will be an audio CD, as these are single-sided, single layered, and not
rewritable. DVDs are more expensive, with a double-sided, double-layered
optical disk being the most expensive.

3.2.4 Other storage devices

Other storage devices include Magnetic Tapes, Pen drives, Memory cards etc
that can also be used for storage and Backup purposes.

3.4 Exercise

Q1 Fill in the Blanks

1) The time taken by R/W head to move to a track is called
_____________
2) Computers are broadly classified as __________ and ___________
3)
Q2 Answer the following Questions
1) Explain the following:
a) Firmware
b) Seek Time
c) Rotational Delay
d) Types of Hard Disk
2) Explain different types of Monitors?
 UNIT II
Lesson 4
INTRODUCTION TO ALGORITHM

Structure

4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Algorithm Representation
4.4 Essential Elements of a Good Representation
4.4.1 Show the Logic
4.4.2 Reveal the Flow
4.4.3 Be Expandable and Collapsible
4.4.4 Aid in Implementation
4.4.5 Implementation Independence
6.4.6 Pseudo code
4.5 Example
4.6 Exercise

4.1 Objectives

At the end of this lesson students will be able to:

 Define algorithm
 Understand the representation of algorithm
 Understand the elements of good representation
 Understand how to write an algorithm using examples

4.2 Introduction

Algorithms are basically a set of instructions that, if correct and if followed

carefully, produce some desired result. Since they are sets of instructions,
they are generally presented in such a way that that the step-by-step nature
of how they should be followed is readily apparent. The two most common
representations are pseudo code and flowcharts. In this course, unless it is
stated otherwise, you are free to use either one at your discretion. Likewise,
unless the context indicates otherwise, references to either in the following
discussion generally refer to both.

Algorithms can be thought of as the recipe for taking the general solution for
a class of problem and applying it to a specific instance of a problem covered
by that class. For instance, the class of problem might be to find the surface
area of a sphere given its radius. Through some problem solving means
perhaps by performing the fundamental calculus computation or perhaps
simply by looking up the equation in a math book. We determine that the
general solution to the problem is that the area is four times pi times the
square of the radius. We can then use this general solution and create an
algorithm that permits use to compute the surface area of a specific sphere:

1. TASK: Compute the surface area of a sphere

1. GET: radius
2. SET: area = 4*pi*radius*radius

4.3 Algorithm Representation

Algorithms are generally represented by either pseudo code or a flowchart

each is merely a means of representing an algorithm. Let’s focus on what
features we need our means of algorithm representation to have in order for
it to be a meaningful and useful representation.

 Show the logic of how the problem is solved not how it is

implemented.
 Readily reveal the flow of the algorithm.
 Be expandable and collapsible.
 Lend itself to implementation of the algorithm.

4.4 Essential Elements of a Good Representation

In order to write an algorithm we should take some elements into

consideration which are as under:

4.4.1 Show the Logic

One of the most difficult things for people just learning problem solving
especially when it involves computer programming is to clearly distinguish
between the concept of problem logic and implementation logic. The former
is independent of the details of how the problem solution is implemented. If
you are trying to find the radius of a sphere having a specific surface area,
then you need to find out what that area is, you need some means of
dividing that area by 4pi, and you need some means of taking the square
root of the result. It doesn't matter whether you are solving the problem
with a C program, a Java program, a calculator, a pencil and paper, or in
your head those elements are part of the logic of solving the problem. The
logic involved in taking the square root of a number, on the other hand, is
germane primarily to the logic of how you are implementing your solution.
In other words, for most purposes I can communicate the logic behind how
to determine the radius of a sphere with a specific surface area by going into
no more detail than to note that, at some point, it is necessary to take the
square root of a number.

Your algorithm representation should focus on the logic of the problem, and
not the logic of the eventual implementation. More specifically, the upper
levels of your representation should, to the degree possible, be devoid of
implementation details - these should be relegated to the lower levels of the
representation.

4.4.2 Reveal the Flow

Most problems, especially if they are intended to be solved with the aid of a
computer program, involve flow control. In the "structured programming"
paradigm, this flow control consists of sequences, selections, and
repetitions. This may not be readily apparent at the topmost level where the
algorithm can be represented by a list of tasks that are to be performed one
after another in a specific sequence. But at some point, as each of those
tasks is developed, decisions will have to be made and different steps taken
depending on the outcome of those decisions. The representation method
used should be compatible with this and clearly show the points at which
decisions are made and what the various courses of action are that can
result.

4.4.3 Be Expandable and Collapsible

Our algorithm representation should be flexible and allow us to readily

collapse it so as to show less detail and focus on the more abstract elements
of the algorithm or to expand it so as to get as detailed as necessary in
order to actually implement the solution. Unstated in this is an
acknowledgement that, as we expand our algorithm and become more
detailed, at some point we have to get into the logic of the implementation
issues.

For instance, if we expand the step that says to take the square root of a
number, we have to start describing the specific method that will be used to
do this and that method is highly dependent on the eventual
implementation. At that point, our algorithm is becoming "locked" to that
particular implementation. This is perfectly acceptable. The reason that we
should be asking for more detail on how to take the square root is because
we are now dealing with implementation issues and therefore expect that
the steps will be specific to the implementation.

If we have structured our representation properly, then we can always back

up. If our original implementation was with a C program and now we want to
implement the algorithm in assembly on a PIC microcontroller, then we
simply collapse our algorithm until the implementation dependent portions
are gone and then re-expand the high level logic that was left in such a way
that it can now be implemented on a PIC.

4.4.4 Aid in Implementation

At the end of the day, the goal is usually to actually implement a solution to
the problem being solved. If our method of representing our algorithm does
not lend itself to an orderly implementation of that algorithm, then our
method is seriously flawed. Conversely, if our method of representation
lends itself to a systematic implementation of the algorithm, then our
method is extremely useful.

By "systematic implementation" we mean that we should be able to take our

represented algorithm and break it into easily identifiable fragments each of
which can be readily translated into one of the structures, such as a while ()
loop or an if ()/else block, available to us in our chosen implementation
scheme be it a C program, an assembly language routine.

This is one of the reasons why we seldom use flowcharts for algorithms that
are slated for implementation using a physical circuit flowcharts do not lend
themselves to aiding such an implementation. But schematics do and
properly developed schematics possess all of the properties described above.
Likewise, schematics are seldom used to develop algorithms slated for
implementation with a computer program for the same reason. However,
when collapsed to their most abstract level - the topmost level or two - a
well-structured flowchart and a well-structured schematic for a program and
circuit, respectively that solve the same problem may look nearly identical.
The reason is that, in each case, the top most levels are representing only
the logic of the problem and do not contain much, if any, information specific
to the eventual means of implementation.

4.4.5 Implementation Independence

From this point forward, we will restrict the discussion to algorithms that are
intended for eventual implementation using a computer program but the
concepts described can be readily generalized to any type of implementation
and you should read them with the intent of grasping those generalized
concepts.

Most texts maintain that the pseudo code or flowchart for a problem should
represent the solution in a manner that is independent of how that solution
will eventually be implemented and sufficiently complete such that the
person developing the conceptual solution, who may have little if any
programming background, can turn the material over to a programmer who
could, in turn, decide what programming language to use and proceed to
implement the solution without even understanding any of the conceptual
goals behind the code being written. For instance, I should be able to give
you a flowchart for a function that accepts one value and that then uses that
value to produce and return another value. If I have done my job
adequately, you should be able to write the function to accomplish this task
in any language you are familiar and comfortable with without ever knowing
or caring that the function is actually implementing a what and how.

4.5.6 Pseudo code

Pseudo code is a shorthand notation for programming which uses a

combination of informal programming structures and verbal descriptions of
code. Emphasis is placed on expressing the behavior or outcome of each
portion of code rather than on strictly correct syntax (it does still need to be
reasonable, though).In general, pseudo code is used to outline a program
before translating it into proper syntax. This helps in the initial planning of a
program, by creating the logical framework and sequence of the code. An
additional benefit is that because pseudo code does not need to use a
specific Syntax, it can be translated into different programming languages
and is therefore somewhat universal. It captures the logic and flow of a
solution without the bulk of strict syntax rules. Below is some pseudo code
written for a program which moves as long as a touch sensor is not pressed,
but stops and turns to the right if its sonar detects an object less than 20cm
away.
This pseudo code example includes elements of both programming
language, and the English language. Curly braces are used as a visual aid for
where portions of code need to be placed when they are finally written out in
full and proper syntax.

4.6 Example

The example consists of two classes and computes the salary increase of
employees. The problem must compute a 4.5% salary increase for
employees, and update their salary. The algorithm describes the following
sequence of operations for an employee, in an informal pseudo-code
notation.
1. Get the value of the employee's salary.
2. Compute the 4.5% salary increase of the current salary.
3. Add the value of this salary increase to the current salary to get the
new (updated) salary.
4. Print the values of the salary increase and the updated salary.

Pseudo code notation

Begin
Display "Enter salary"
Read salary
Set increase_salary = salary x 4.5/100
Set salary = salary + increase_salary
Display "increased salary”, salary
End

4.7 Exercise

Q Answer the following Questions

1) Briefly explain Algorithms?

2) What are the elements of good representation?
3) Write an algorithm to add two numbers?
4) What do you mean by pseudo code?
 Lesson 5
INTRODUCTION TO Flowcharts

Structure

5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Basic Flowchart Shapes
5.3.1 Circle - Entry/Exit Point
5.3.2 Rectangle – Task
5.3.3 Parallelogram - Input/output
5.3.4 Diamond - Decision Point
5.3.5 Arrow – Inter block Flow
7.4 Examples
5.5 Advantages of using flowcharts
5.6 Limitations of using flowcharts
5.7 Exercise

5.1 Objectives

At the end of this lesson students will be able to:

 Define flowchart
 Understand the use of flowchart shapes
 Understand how to make flowcharts
 Understand advantages of flowcharts
 Understand limitations of flowcharts

5.2 Introduction

A Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. Flowchart is a

means of visually presenting the flow of data through an information
processing systems, the operations performed within the system and the
sequence in which they are performed. We can say flowchart is a
diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence of operations to
be performed to get the solution of a problem. Flowcharts are generally
drawn in the early stages of formulating computer solutions. Flowcharts
facilitate communication between programmers and business people. These
flowcharts play a vital role in the programming of a problem and are quite
helpful in understanding the logic of complicated and lengthy problems.
Once the flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write the program in any
high level language. Often we see how flowcharts are helpful in explaining
the program to others. Hence, it is correct to say that a flowchart is a must
for the better documentation of a complex program

5.3 Basic Flowchart Shapes

The shapes we will use are the circle, the rectangle, the parallelogram, the
diamond, and the arrows that interconnect them.

5.3.1 Circle - Entry/Exit Point

The circle indicates the entry and exit point for the program or for the
current segment of the program. The entry point has exactly one arrow
leaving it and the exit point has exactly one arrow entering it. Execution of
the program or of that segment of the program always starts at the entry
point and finishes at the exit point.

5.3.2 Rectangle - Task

The rectangle represents a task that is to be performed. That task might be

as simple as incrementing the value of a single variable or as complex as
you can imagine. The key point is that it also has a single entry point and a
single exit point.

5.3.3 Parallelogram - Input/output

The parallelogram is used to indicate that some form in input/output

operation is occurring. They must also obey the single entry single exit point
rule which makes sense given that they are a task-block except with a
slightly different shape for the symbol. We could easily eliminate this symbol
and use the basic rectangle but the points at which I/O occur within our
programs are extremely important and being able to easily and quickly
identify them is valuable.

5.3.4 Diamond - Decision Point

The diamond represents a decision point within our program. A question is

asked and depending on the resulting answer, different paths are taken.
Therefore a diamond has a single entry point but more than one exit point.
Usually, there are two exit points, one that is taken if the answer to the
question is "true" and another is taken if the answer to the question is
"false". This is sufficient to represent any type of branching logic including
both the typical selection statements and the typical repetition statements.
However, most languages support some type of "switch" or "case" statement
that allows the program to select one from among a potentially large set of
possible paths. The basic two-exit-point diamond is fully capable of
representing this construct, but it is generally cleaner and more useful to
represent it using an as many exit points from the diamond as there are
paths.

5.3.5 Arrow – Inter block Flow

The arrows simply show which symbol gets executed next. The rule is that
once an arrow leaves a symbol, it must lead directly to exactly one other
symbol; arrows can never fork and diverge. They can, however, converge
and join arrows coming from other blocks.
5.4 Examples

 Sequential structure

Given the radius and height for a cylinder find the volume and surface area

 Selection/Branching Structure
 Repetition/Looping Structure

 Combination of Structures
5.5 Advantages of using flowcharts

1. Communication: Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic

of a system to all concerned.
2. Effective analysis: With the help of flowchart, problem can be analysed
in more effective way.
3. Proper documentation: Program flowcharts serve as a good program
documentation, which is needed for various purposes.
4. Efficient Coding: The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the
systems analysis and program development phase.
5. Proper Debugging: The flowchart helps in debugging process.
6. Efficient Program Maintenance: The maintenance of operating program
becomes easy with the help of flowchart. It helps the programmer to
put efforts more efficiently on that part.

5.6 Limitations of using flowcharts

1. Complex logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In

that case, flowchart becomes complex and clumsy.
2. Alterations and Modifications: If alterations are required the flowchart
may require re-drawing completely.
3. Reproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction
of flowchart becomes a problem.
4. The essentials of what is done can easily be lost in the technical details
of how it is done.

5.7 Exercise

Q Answer the following Questions

1) Briefly explain flow charts?

2) Explain various the shapes used in flowcharts?
3) Draw a flowchart to add two numbers?
4) What are the limitations of flowchart?
 Lesson 6
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Structure

6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 List of some popular programming languages
6.4 What's actually involved in programming?
6.5 Language Translators
6.5.1 Complier
6.5.2 Assembler
6.5.3 Interpreter
6.6 Exercise

6.1 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Understand purpose of programming languages
 Understand types of programming languages
 Learn how to write a program
 Learn about language translators

6.2 Introduction

The goal of a programming language is to make it easier to build software. A

programming language can help make software correct, and efficient.
In order to communicate instructions to a computer, humans need a
language which we call a programming language. Like we have a variety of
spoken languages, we also have a variety of programming languages.
However, computers nowadays are digital computers and only understand
the language of 0’s and 1’s. Therefore, to instruct a computer to perform
some specific task we have to put these 0’s and 1’s in a particular sequence.
This kind of a programming language is called Machine Language. A set of
these instructions is called a Program like a set of dialogs in a spoken
language is called a Conversation. Communicating instructions to a digital
computer in machine language is difficult, error prone, non-portable and so
on. To overcome some of its drawbacks (specifically difficulty) an assembly
language can be used which actually uses mnemonics for these strings of 1’s
and 0’s. Indeed assembly language is not understood directly by a computer
and hence a translator (which is called assembler) is required to convert
these mnemonics into binary strings. A translator converts a source program
written in some programming language into executable machine code.
Machine and Assembly language, both called low-level programming
languages, are highly machine-dependent, error-prone, difficult to
understand and learn, and so on. A high-level programming language is
machine independent, less error-prone, easy to understand and learn, and
so on. In this language, the statements (or instructions) are written using
English words and a set of familiar mathematical symbols which makes it
easier to understand and learn, and is thus less error-prone. Furthermore,
the language is machine independent and hence can be ported to other
machines. The high-level programming languages can be further classified
into procedural, non-procedural and problem oriented languages. This text
discusses the vocabulary, grammatical rules and technical aspects of a high-
level procedural language called C. It must be noted that all high-level
languages also need a translator to convert it into machine language.
Depending upon whether the translation is made to actual machine code or
some intermediate code, the translator is called a Compiler or an Interpreter
respectively.

6.3 List of some popular programming languages

1. C

The C language was originally designed from 1969 to 1972, by Dennis

Ritchie to program the UNIX operating system.
2. C++

C++ was created in 1981 by Bjarne Stroustrup to add object orientation

features to C while remaining compatible with it and thus preserving its
advantages, including portability between systems.
3. Java

Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at

Sun Microsystems and released in 1995.
4. Pascal

Pascal was designed in 1970 by Nicklaus Wirth to impose programmers a

structured programming style.
5. Python

Python is a high-level programming language. Python 2.0 was released

on October 2000.

6. FORTRAN
 FORTRAN is a general-purpose programming language that is especially
suited to numeric computation and scientific computing. Originally
developed by IBM at their campus in south San Jose California in the
1950s for scientific and engineering applications.

6.4 What's actually involved in programming?

The process of writing programs involves the following steps:

1. Type a program.
2. Compile the program.
3. Run the program.
4. Debug the program.
5. Repeat the whole process until the program is finished.

1. Type a program

In order to type a program we have to learn a programming language. Then

we can use the syntax of that language for writing the program. We can use
any editor to type the syntax of our program and then save it in a file. For
example if we are writing a program in c language we can use the turbo c
compiler IDE to type our program and save the file with “.c” extension.
2. Compile the program

After typing the program next step is to compile the program because the
program we write may have syntax errors and it is not understood by the
machine, so we need to convert it into 0’s and 1’s so that machine can
understand it. Complier performs both the functions it checks for syntax
errors and generates machine code of the given program. to compile c
program we have to choice compile option from the menu.
3. Run the program

Now that you've compiled the program into a form that the computer can
use, you want to see if it works, you want to make the computer perform
the steps that you specified. This is called running the program, or executing
it.

4. Debug the program.

Debug refers to fixing errors and problems with your program. We usually
debug our program by stepping through it.
 5. Repeat the whole process until the program is finished

We repeat the whole process until we are happy with the program

6.5 Language Translators

Language translators convert programming source code into language that

the computer processor understands. Programming source code has various
structures and commands, but computer processors only understand
machine language. Different types of translations must occur to turn
programming source code into machine language, which is made up of bits
of binary data. The three major types of language translators are compilers,
assemblers, and interpreters.

6.5.1 Compiler

Most high level programming languages use a compiler for language

translation. A compiler is a special program that takes written source code
and turns it into machine language. When a compiler executes, it analyzes
all of the language statements in the source code and builds the machine
language object code. After a program is compiled, it is then a form that the
processor can execute one instruction at a time.

In some operating systems, an additional step called linking is required after

compilation. Linking resolves the relative location of instructions and data
when more than one object module needs to be run at the same time and
both modules cross-reference each other’s instruction sequences or data.

Most high-level programming languages come with a compiler. However,

object code is unique for each type of computer. Many different compilers
exist for each language in order to translate for each type of computer. In
addition, the compiler industry is quite competitive, so there are actually
many compilers for each language on each type of computer. Although they
require an extra step before execution, compiled programs often run faster
than programs executed using an interpreter.

6.5.2 Assembler

An assembler translates assembly language into machine language.

Assembly language is one step removed from machine language. It uses
computer specific commands and structure similar to machine language, but
assembly language uses names instead of numbers. An assembler is similar
to a compiler, but it is specific to translating programs written in assembly
language into machine language. To do this, the assembler takes basic
computer instructions from assembly language and converts them into a
pattern of bits for the computer processor to use to perform its operations.

6.5.3 Interpreter

Many high-level programming languages have the option of using an

interpreter instead of a compiler. Some of these languages exclusively use
an interpreter. An interpreter behaves very differently from compilers and
assemblers. It converts programs into machine executable form each time
they are executed. It analyzes and executes each line of source code, in
order, without looking at the entire program. Instead of requiring a step
before program execution, an interpreter processes the program as it is
being executed.

6.6 Exercise

Q1 Fill in the Blanks

7) C++ was developed by _________________
8) C language was developed in the year_______________
9) Computer understands the languages of_____ and _____
10) Java is developed by____________
11) Types of language translators are ____________
Q2 Answer the following Questions

1) Briefly explain the purpose of programming languages?

2) List some of the popular programming languages?
3) Explain language translator?
4) What do you mean by debugging?
5) What is the difference between compiler and interpreter?
 Unit III

Lesson 7
Operating System Basics

Structure

7.1 Objectives
7.2 Operating System
7.3 History of Operating Systems
7.4 Objectives of operating systems

7.1 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Define what a Operating System is.
 Understand functions of operating system.
 Understand objectives of operating system.

7.2 Operating System

An operating system is a layer of software or program which takes care of

technical aspects of a computer's operation. It shields the user of the machine
from the low-level details of the machine's operation and provides frequently
needed facilities. There is no universal definition of what an operating system
consists of. You can think of it as being the software which is already installed
on a machine, before you add anything of your own. Normally the operating
system has a number of key elements:
 a technical layer of software for driving the hardware of the
computer, like disk drives, the keyboard and the screen;
 a filesystem which provides a way of organizing files logically,
and
 a simple command language which enables users to run their
own programs and to manipulate their files in a simple way.
Some operating systems also provide text editors, compilers,
 debuggers and a variety of other tools. Since the operating
system (OS) is in charge of a computer, all requests to use its
resources and devices need to go through the OS.
 An OS therefore provides legal entry points into its code for
performing basic operations like writing to devices.
Operating systems may be classified by both how many tasks they can
perform simultaneously and by how many users can be using the system
simultaneously. That is single-user or multi-user and single-task or multi-
tasking. A multi-user system must clearly be multi-tasking.

7.3 History of Operating Systems

An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages the

hardware and software resources of a computer. The OS performs basic
tasks, such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing the processing
of instructions, controlling input and output devices, facilitating networking,
and managing files. The first computers did not have operating systems.
However, software tools for managing the system and simplifying the use of
hardware appeared very quickly afterwards and gradually expanded in
scope. By the early 1960s, commercial computer vendors were supplying
quite extensive tools for streamlining the development, scheduling, and
execution of jobs on batch processing systems. Examples were produced by
UNIVAC and Control Data Corporation, amongst others. Through the 1960s,
several major concepts were developed, driving the development of
operating systems. The development of the IBM System/360 produced a
family of mainframe computers available in widely differing capacities and
price points, for which a single operating system OS/360 was planned
(rather than developing ad-hoc programs for every individual model).This
concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line was crucial for the
success of System/360 and, in fact, IBM's current mainframe operating
systems are distant descendants of this original system; applications written
for the OS/360 can still be run on modern machines. OS/360 also contained
another important advance: the development of the hard disk permanent
storage device (which IBM called DASD). Another key development was the
concept of time-sharing: the idea of sharing the resources of expensive
computers amongst multiple computer users interacting in real time with the
system. Time sharing allowed all of the users to have the illusion of having
exclusive access to the machine; the Multics timesharing system was the
most famous of a number of new operating systems developed to take
advantage of the concept. Multics, particularly, was an inspiration to a
number of operating systems developed in the 1970s, notably Unix. Another
commercially-popular minicomputer operating system was VMS. The first
microcomputers did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate
operating systems that had been developed for mainframes and minis;
minimalistic operating systems were developed. One notable early operating
system was CP/M, which was supported on many early microcomputers and
was largely cloned in creating MS-DOS, which became wildly popular as the
operating system chosen for the IBM PC (IBM's version of it was called IBM-
DOS or PC-DOS), its successors making Microsoft one of the world's most
profitable companies. The major alternative throughout the 1980s in the
microcomputer market was Mac OS, tied intimately to the Apple Macintosh
computer. By the 1990s, the microcomputer had evolved to the point where,
as well as extensive GUI facilities, the robustness and flexibility of operating
systems of larger computers became increasingly desirable. Microsoft's
response to this change was the development of Windows NT, which served
as the basis for Microsoft's entire operating system line starting in 1999.
Apple rebuilt their operating system on top of a UNIX core as Mac OS X,
released in 2001. Hobbyist-developed reimplementation’s of Unix,
assembled with the tools from the GNU project, also became popular
versions based on the Linux kernel are by far the most popular, with the
BSD derived Unix’s holding a small portion of the server market. The
growing complexity of embedded devices has a growing trend to use
embedded operating systems on them. The appropriate OS may depend on
the hardware architecture, specifically the CPU, with only Linux and BSD
running on almost any CPU. Windows NT has been ported to other CPUs,
most notably the Alpha, but not many. Since the early 1990s the choice for
personal computers has been largely limited to the Microsoft Windows family
and the Unix-like family, of which Linux and Mac OS X are becoming the
major choices.

7.4 Objectives of operating systems

Modern operating system has the following major goals.

1. To hide details of hardware by creating abstraction: An
abstraction is software that hides details and provides a set of higher-
level functions.
2. To allocate resources to processes: An operating system controls
how processes may access resources
3. Provide a pleasant and effective user interface: The user
interacts with the operating system through the user interface and
usually interested in the look and feel of the operating system.
4. One can view operating system from two viewpoints : resource
manager and extended machine .from resource manager point of view
operating system manages different parts of the system efficiently and
from extended point of view operating system provide a virtual
machine to users that is more convenient to use.

5. 7.5 Exercise

1. Define operating system.

2. Discuss the history of Operating system.
 Lesson 8
Operating System Types and functions

Structure

8.1 Classification of Operating Systems

8.2 Functions of an Operating System
8.3 Exercise

8.1 Classification of Operating Systems

All operating systems consist of similar components and perform almost

similar functions but the methods and procedures for performing these
functions are different. Operating systems are classified into different
categories based on their distinguishing features

Different Types of Operating Systems are:

 Single User Operating Systems
 Batch Processing Operating Systems
 Time-Sharing Operating Systems
 Multiprogramming Operating Systems
 Multi-user Operating Systems
 Parallel Operating Systems
 Distributed Operating Systems
 Real Time Operating Systems
 Embedded Operating System

Single User Operating System:

Single user operating system allows a single user to access the
computer at a time. These computers have a single processor and
execute a single program. The resources such as CPU and I/O devices
are constantly available to the user in a single user operating system
for operating the system. As a result, the CPU site idle for most of the
time and is not utilized to its maximum.
Batch Processing Operating System:
The batch processing operating system places the user’s jobs on an
input queue and these jobs are stored as a batch. The batch monitor
executes these batches at a definite interval of time. The batch
monitor accepts the commands for initializing, processing and
terminating a batch.
These jobs are executed through interaction with the hardware and the
operating system gives the output back to different users. The batch
processing operating system automatically executes the next job in
the batch and decreases the user intervention during the processing of
jobs.
Time Sharing Operating System:
The time sharing operating system has complex requirements as it
allows multiple jobs to be kept in the memory for their execution by
the CPU. It requires a backing store that swaps the jobs between the
disk and the main memory.
Multiprogramming Operating System:
Multiprogramming operating system allows multiple users to execute
multiple programs using a single CPU. The multiprogramming
operating system executes different processes concurrently using a
time-multiplexed CPU by implementing the concept of CPU slicing
between them.
The operating system stores multiple jobs in main memory and CPU
immediately switches to the next job in sequence when the previous
executing process comes in wait stage. The previous executing process
comes in wait stage due to an interrupt or requirement of I/O
operations.
Therefore, multiprogramming operating system increases the
utilization of CPU by reducing its idle time. UNIX, Windows 95,
Windows NT, and OS/2 are examples of multiprogramming operating
systems.

Multi User Operating System:

Multi user operating system allows various users to access the
different resources of a computer simultaneously. The access is
provided using a network that consists of various personal computers
attached to a mainframe computer. These computers send and receive
information to multi user mainframe computer system.
Parallel Operating System:
Parallel Operating system consists of multiple processors sharing the
clock, bus, memory and peripheral devices. Parallel operating systems
are also known as multiprocessor or tightly coupled operating system.
Distributed Operating Systems:
In distributed operating system processing user requests are carried
out independently in more than one location but with shared and
controlled access to some common facilities. A system consists of
multiple parts located at or embedded in geographically dispersed
physical locations.
Real Time Operating Systems:
Real time operating system defines the completion of job within the
rigid time constraints otherwise the job loses its meaning. Real time is
the ability to respond to an event deterministically.
Embedded Operating System:
Embedded operating systems are mainly executed on computers that
control devices. These devices are mobile phones, TV sets etc. These
systems consist of circuits and 32-bit microprocessors that control the
functioning of various operations.
8.2 Functions of an Operating System

 Acts as an extended machine.

 Acts as a resource manager.
 Acts as a constant application program interface.
The operating system acts as an extended machine by translating your
commands into machine language instructions. The CPU executes
these machine language instructions and operating system re-
translates the output back into a user understandable language. An
operating system acts as a resource manager by controlling and
allocating various hardware and software resources to different users
in an-optimal and efficient mode. The task of resource management
becomes essential in multi-user operating systems where different
users compete for the same resources.

As resource manager operating system has the following functions:

 Process management
 Main memory management
 File management
 secondary storage management
 I/O management
Process Management

 Process refers to a program in execution.

 A process is a unit of work in a system such a system consists of a
collection of processes which are Operating system processes and user
process.
 The operating system is responsible for the following activities of the
process management.
 Creating and deleting the user and system process.
 Allocating hardware resources among the processes.
 Controlling the progress of processes.
 Providing mechanisms for process communications.
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling.
Main memory management

 Main memory (primary memory) management is concerned with

following functions.
  Keeping track of the status – Each memory location is either free or
allocated.
 Determining allocation policy for memory.
 Allocation technique – specific location must be selected and
allocation information updated.
 De-allocation technique – after de-allocation, status information must
be updated.
File Management.

 Secondary storage are usually organized into named collections called

files.
 Computer uses physical media for storing the different information.
 A file may contain a report, an executable program or a set of
commands.
 A file consists of a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records.
 Physical media is used for storing files.
 Physical media are different types, magnetic disk, magnetic tape and
optical disk.
 The operating system is responsible for the following activities of the
file management.
 Creating and deleting of files.
 Mapping files onto secondary storage.
 Backing up files on stable storage media.
Secondary storage management.

 Main memory is too small to accommodate all data and programs.

 When power is lost, main memory lost data, so computer system must
provide secondary storage to backup main memory.
 The operating system is responsible for the following activities of the
secondary storage management.
o Free space management
o Storage allocation
o Disk scheduling.
I/O system management.

 Keeping track the status of devices is called the I/O traffic controller..
 Each I/O Device has device handler with that device.

8.3 Exercise

Q1. Give the classification of Operating Systems.

Q2. Discuss briefly the functions of operating system

 Lesson 9
INTRODUCTION TO Windows

Structure

9.1 Objectives
9.2 Windows Operating System
9.2.1 Desktop
9.2.2 My Computer
9.2.3Title Bar
9.2.4 Menu Bar
9.2.5 My Documents
9.2.6 Task bar
9.2.7 Start menu
9.2.8 Explorer
9.2.9 New file
9.2.10 Open file
9.2.11 Copy file
9.2.12 Print
9.2.13 Delete
9.2.14Recycle Bin
9.2.15 Search
9.2.16 Log Off/Shutdown/Restart
9.4 Exercise

9.1 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Learn how to use windows operating system.

9.2 Windows operating system

The Windows Operating System is a graphical user interface (GUI) developed by

the Microsoft Corporation. The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems
originated as a graphical layer on top of the older MS-DOS environment for the
IBM PC.
Basic Terminology
 Right-Click: Pressing the right button of the mouse once. (Used for
opening contextual menus.)
 Single-Click: Clicking once (with the left mouse button) on the icon to
select the icon.
 Double-Click: Clicking twice (with the left mouse button) on the icon to
activate the icon. Activating the icon will run the program or open the file
that is associated with the icon.
  Drag/Drag-and-Drop: This is used to move files around on the computer.
It may also be used to copy files from hard drive to floppy drive and vice-
versa. To drag a file, left-click and hold down the button. Move the icon to
the new location and let go of the mouse button.

9.2.1 Desktop

The computer screen that is displayed is called the Desktop. As you move the
mouse around with your hand, you see the mouse pointer move accordingly on
the computer desktop. The icons on the desktop correspond to commonly used
programs found in the computer. These icons are actually shortcuts to the
programs themselves and double-clicking the icons will launch the programs
automatically.

You can also use the right mouse button to open up different commands. Right-
click on an empty area of the desktop and arrange the icons by name.

9.2.2 My Computer

The My Computer icon will show a listing of the computer’s disk drives,
network drives, and system files/folders. Local files or folders are found on the
computer’s drives whereas remote files or folders are found on the network
drives. Double-clicking on the drive letter will open the contents of that drive.
 You can also right-click on the icons to do advanced functions.

9.2.3 Title Bar

The Title Bar shows the name of which window you are viewing.

9.2.4 Menu Bar

Select View from the Menu Bar and click Toolbars, and then click Customize
(From now on, selecting options will be shown as View -> Toolbars ->
Customize)
You are able to customize the toolbars and menus that are available for quick
access.

By selecting View -> Tiles, you are able to customize the way files, folders,
and or programs are displayed to give you detailed information or a preview of
what the file contains.
9.2.5 My Documents

The My Documents folder is the default folder where most of the

Windows XP programs will save your files.

9.2.6 Taskbar

All open windows will be accessible via the Taskbar. You can select them by
clicking on the button that they formed when they were first opened.

Time and date are found on the right-hand side of the Taskbar and can be
changed by double clicking on the numbers that display the time.

9.2.7 Start Menu

The Start Menu contains shortcuts to the most commonly used

programs that are found on your computer.
Clicking Start -> Programs -> Accessories -> Calculator will launch the
calculator program

If you know the name of the program you want to open, go to Start -> Run
and type in the program’s name. For example, if you want to open the
calculator program, go to Start -> Run
and type in the name calc. Click the OK button.

9.2.8 Explorer

Go to Start -> Run and type Explorer. Click the OK button. (You can also
right-click on the Start Menu Button and select Explore All Users.) This will
allow you to create and maintain shortcuts in the Start Menu and other folders
on the computer

9.2.9 New File

Go to Start -> Run and type Explorer. Click the OK button. In the Explorer
Window, select File -> New -> Microsoft Word Document
Name it temp.doc and click the OK button.

9.2.10 Open File

Open the file you just created by double-clicking on it. You can also open the file
from the Menu Bar by selecting File -> Open.
With the new file open, enter your name in the open area of the Microsoft Word
document.
Save (As) Select File -> Save As

Enter your name as the File name:.

 Click on the down arrow where it says to Save as type:
Select to save the file as Rich Text Format (*rtf).

9.2.11 Copy

Another way to make a backup copy of your files would be to:

 Locate the file you want to copy in My Computer or Windows Explorer.
 Select the file you want to copy by clicking once on the file.
 Select Edit from the Tool Bar and click on Copy.
 Select Edit from the Tool Bar and click Paste.
 You now have a copy of the file you selected.

You can also right-click on the file you want to copy and left-click on the Copy
command. Now move to an empty area of the window you are currently in and
right-click that spot. Select Paste.

9.2.12 Print

Open the new file and select Print from the File Menu.
9.2.13 Delete

From the Menu Bar, select File -> Delete

Click the Yes button.

9.2.14 Recycle Bin

Locate the Recycle Bin icon on the Desktop.

Find the file you just deleted and select it by clicking on it once. From the Menu
Bar, Select File -> Restore

The file will have been restored to the directory it was deleted from. If you do
not remember which directory the file was in when it was deleted, you can
search for it by using the Search Feature.
9.2.15 Search

To search for the file that was just restored, Click the Start Menu button, and
select Search ->For File or Folders …

There are various ways to search for files and folders. You are able to search by
file name or words found in the file you are looking for. You can search specific
areas of your hard drive or for files that were created or modified on a certain
date. Test some different ways of searching to see which one works best for
you.

Double-click on the icon to open it

Also, the most recent files that were opened will be found in Start Menu ->
Documents
The Help and Support Center can be a vital source of information. Click the
Start Menu and select Help and Support.

You can type in a word or phrase to search for or select topics that might be
useful. Try typing the word RESTORE.

9.2.16 Log Off/Shutdown/Restart

To restart your computer or turn your computer off, click the Start Menu Button
and select Shut Down …

You will now have the option to log off the computer, turn your computer off or
restart the computer. Select what you want to do and click the OK button
Alternatively, pressing CTRL-ALT-DEL (hold down the Ctrl key, the Alt key, and
the Delete key on the keyboard) simultaneously will bring up these options also.

9.3 Exercise

Q1 Fill in the Blanks

1) Windows Operating System is Developed by_________________
2) _________________folder is the default folder where most of the
Windows XP programs will save your files.
3) To restart your computer or turn your computer off, click the Start
Menu Button and select _____________

Q2 Answer the following Questions

1) Briefly explain windows operating system?
2) Write down the steps to copy a file?
3) How to restore a file in windows Operating System?
 Lesson 10
System utilities and Application of Software’s

Structure

10.1 System Utilities

10.2 Applications of Software’s
10.2 Exercise

10.1 System Utilities:

Essential system utilities include backup software, file managers, file

finders, disk scanning programs, antivirus programs, file compression
utilities, and defragmentation programs.

A. File Management
Refer students to the Spotlight feature “File Management” directly
following Chapter 1 for a review of file management and terminology.
Explain how to use a file manager, as illustrated in Figure 5.16.

B. File Finders
Explain how to use a file finder, as illustrated in Figure 5.17.

C. Backup Utilities
Emphasize that a sound backup procedure begins with a full backup of
the entire hard drive and continues with periodic incremental backups
of just those files that have been created or changed since the last
successful backup occurred.

D. Antivirus Software
Antivirus programs protect a computer from computer viruses. They
examine all files on a disk and look for signatures of virus code. It’s
extremely important that all computer users install antivirus software
on their computer systems.

E. File Compression Utilities

Point out that file compression utilities have become very popular
as an efficient way to share files over the Internet. Using Figure 5.20,
explain how a compression utility such as WinZip for PCs and Stuffit
for the Mac are used to create archives and compressed files.
 F. Disk Scanning Utilities
Explain that disk scanners are helpful in discovering and repairing
many physical and logical problems that occur as your computer
stores files on disks. Ask students to recall the analogy and discussion
on formatting disks that was presented in the Chapter 4 lecture.
Mention that disk cleanup utilities can be used to save disk space by
removing unneeded files.

10.3 Exercise

Answer the following Questions

1) Name different utilities of Operating System?
2) What are different applications of Software
 Unit IV
Lesson 11
Word Introduction and Basic Operations

Structure

11.1 Introduction to MS-Word

11.2 What Word Does?
11.3 Creating, Opening and Saving Documents
11.4 Entering and editing text.
11.5 Exercise

11.1 Introduction

MS-Word, you’re probably comfortable with the way things are currently.
Now the software has changed once again, and this time Microsoft has
definitely done a massive makeover. Massive changes make Word more
intuitive and more powerful. Layout tools organize both the new and legacy
features more logically so commands and options are much easier to find
and access. Word really is easier to use, and it really does give you more
power and usability. To realize productivity gains, though, you must make
a successful transition to Word.
Microsoft Word has been the world's most popular word processor for so
long, Word has undergone a makeover that goes well beyond with other
things. Microsoft has redesigned the way you interact with the program and
has redefined the underlying document format (don't worry; your old Word
documents will still work).

Some things haven't changed: Word 2007 still makes it easy to create
professional-looking letters, business reports, and novels. But Microsoft has
loaded the program with new features to make designing and formatting
attractive documents easier than ever. So even if you're well acquainted
with its predecessors, Word 2007 needs an introduction and a new book too.

11.2 What Word Does

You type words, and they appear onscreen, what else? Well, maybe in the
first version of Word. But in Word 2007, the program does a whole lot more.
Word's designers knew what kinds of documents folks are likely to create,
and stocked the program with predesigned templates that have all the
important elements in place-headings, signature line, text boxes, and so on.
You don't even have to worry about making it look nice: Word comes with
attractive, built-in color schemes called themes that you can apply with a
single click. Here are just some of the things you can create:

 Letters, lists, note cards, and other personal documents. You can even
print your own greeting cards and invitations.
 Programs, menus, and booklets. Some of Word's templates are
multipage affairs, letting you create scrapbooks, catalogs, playbills,
and more.
 Brochures, reports, business cards, and other business documents.
Word even has a feature that lets you create tables, so you don't have
to use a spreadsheet program like Excel for simple tables. Word's are
better looking, too.

To create all these documents, all you have to do is type the words. But
even there, Word takes some of the work off your hands. It has tools that
help you check your spelling and grammar, and look up facts and definitions.
Word's AutoText feature even does some of the typing for you. And if you
need an illustration, Word gives you a slew of pictures you can plunk right
onto the page no drawing skills required.

11.3 CREATING, OPENING, AND SAVING DOCUMENTS

Every word project you created whether it's a personal letter, a TV script, or
a thesis in computer science begins and ends the same way. You start by
creating a document, and you end by saving your work. Sounds simple, but
to manage your Word documents effectively, you need to know these basics
and beyond. This chapter shows you all the different ways to create a new
Word document like starting from an existing document or adding text to a
predesigned template and how to choose the best one for your particular
project.

You'll also learn how to work faster and smarter by changing your view of
your document this chapter gets you up and running with these fundamental
tools so you can focus on the important stuff your words.

11.3.1 Launching Word

The first time you launch Word after installation, the program asks you to
confirm your name and initials. This isn't Microsoft's nefarious plan to pin
you down: Word uses this information to identify documents that you create
and modify. Word uses your initials to mark your edits when you review and
add comments to Word documents that other people send to you.

You have three popular ways to fire up Word, so use whichever method you
find quickest:

 Start menu. The Start button in the lower-left corner of your screen
gives you access to all programs on your PCWord included.

To start Word, choose Start All Programs Microsoft Office

Microsoft Office Word.

 Quick Launch toolbar. The Quick Launch toolbar at the bottom of your
screen (just to the right of the Start menu) is a great place to start
programs you use frequently. Microsoft modestly assumes that you'll
be using Word a lot, so it usually installs the Word icon in the Quick
Launch toolbar. To start using Word, just click the W icon, and voila!

 Opening a Word document. Once you've created some Word

documents, this method is fastest of all, since you don't have to start
Word as a separate step. Just open an existing Word document, and

Word starts itself. Try going to Start My Recent Documents, and

then, from the list of files, choose a Word document. You can also
double-click the document's icon on the desktop or wherever it lives on
your PC.
So, what happens once you've got Word's motor running? If you're a
newcomer, you're probably just staring with curiosity. If you're familiar with
previous versions of Word, though, you may be doing a double take figure
above. In Word 2007, Microsoft combined all the old menus and toolbars
into a new feature called the ribbon. Click one of the tabs above the ribbon,
and you see the command buttons change below. The ribbon commands are
organized into groups, with the name of each group listed at the bottom.

Office Tabs to change commands Ribbon

Button
Quick Access
toolbar

11.3.2 Creating a New Document

When you start Word without opening an existing document, the program
gives you an empty one to work in. If you're eager to put words to page,
then type away.

Sooner or later, though, you'll want to start another new document. Word
gives you three ways to do so:

 Creating a new blank document. When you're preparing a simple

document like a two-page essay, a note for the babysitter or a press
release a plain, unadorned page is fine. Or, when you're just
brainstorming and you're not sure what you want the final document
to look like, you probably want to start with a blank slate or use one of
Word's templates (more on that in a moment) to provide structure for
your text.
 Creating a document from an existing document. For letters, resumes,
and other documents that require more formatting, why reinvent the
wheel? You can save time by using an existing document as a starting
point. When you have a letter format that you like, you can use it over
and over by editing the contents.
 Creating a document from a template . Use a template when you need
a professional design for a complex document, like a newsletter, a
contract, or meeting minutes. Templates are a lot like forms the
 margins, formatting, and graphics are already in place. All you do is fill
in your text.

To start your document in any of the above ways, click the Windows logo in
the upper-left corner of the screen. That's Office 2007's new Office button.
Click it, and a drop-down menu opens, revealing commands for creating,
opening, and saving documents. Next to these commands, you see a list of
your Word documents. This list includes documents that are open, as well as
those that you've recently opened. The Office button is also where you go to
print and email your documents.

11.3.3 Creating a New Blank Document

Say you want a new blank document, just like the one Word shows you
when you start the program. Here are the steps:

1. Choose Office button New

The New Document dialog box appears.

2. In the upper-left corner of the large "Create a new Word document"

panel, click "Blank document" The New Document box presents a
seemingly endless number of options, but don't panic. The "Blank
document" option you want is on the left side of the first line.
3. At the bottom of the New Document dialog box, click Create.
 The dialog box disappears, and you're gazing at the blank page of a
new Word document.

11.3.4 Creating a New Document from an Existing Document

A blank Word document is sort of like a shapeless lump of clay. With some
work, you can mold it to become just about anything. Often, however, you
can save time by opening an existing document that's similar to the one you
want to create. Imagine that you write the minutes for the monthly
meetings of the Chief Executive Officer's Surfing Association (CEOSA). When
it's time to write up the June minutes, it's a lot faster to open the minutes
from May. You keep the boilerplate text and all the formatting, but you
delete the text that's specific to the previous month. Now all you have to do
is enter the text for June and save the document with a new name:
JuneMinutes.docx.

Note: The .docx extension on the end of the filename is Word 2007's new
version of .doc. The switch from three-letter to four-letter filename
extensions indicates a change in the way Word stores documents. (If you
need to share documents with folks using earlier versions of Word, choose
Office button Save As Word 97-2003 document when you save the file. See
the box for details.)

Word gives you a "New from existing" document-creation option to satisfy

your desire to spend more time surfing and less time writing meeting
minutes. Here's how to create a new document from an existing document:

1. Choose Office button then New (Alt+F, N) to open the New Document
window. Then click "New from existing..." (It sits directly below the
"Blank document" button).

The three dots at the end of the button's title tell you that there's
another dialog box to come. And sure enough, when you click "New
 from existing", it opens another box, appropriately titled New from
Existing Document. This box looks and works like a standard Windows
Open File box. It lets you navigate to a specific folder and open a file.

1. On your computer, find the existing document you're using for a

model.

You can use the bar on the left to change the folder view. Word starts
you in your My Documents folder, but you can switch to your desktop
or your My Computer icon by clicking the icons on the left. Double-
click folder icons in the large window to open them and see their
contents.

2. Click to select the file, and then click Create New (in the lower-right
corner). (Alternatively, just double-click the file's icon to open it. This
trick works in all Open File boxes.)

Instead of the usual Open button at the bottom of the box, the button
in the New from Existing Document box reads Create New your clue
that this box behaves differently in one important respect: Instead of
opening an existing file, you're making a copy of an existing file. Once
open, the file's name is something like Document2.docx instead of the
original name. This way, when you save the file, you don't overwrite
the original document. (Still, it's best to save it with a new descriptive
name right away.)
11.3.5 Saving and Closing Documents

From the earliest days of personal computing, the watch word has been
"save early, save often". There's nothing more frustrating than working half
the day and on the other side your boos is knocking your head for
completing the same document your power goes out. So, here are some tips
to protect your work from disasters human-made and natural:

 Name and save your document shortly after you first create it. You'll
see the steps to do so later in this section.
 Get in the habit of doing a quick save with Alt+F, S (think File Save)
when you pause to think or get up to go to the canteen for tea. (Note
for old-timers: Ctrl+S still works for a quick save too.)
 If you're leaving your computer for an extended period of time, save
and close your document with Alt+F, C (think File Close).

11.4 Entering and Editing Text

Despite advanced features like grammar checking, indexing, and image

editing, Word is still, at heart, a word processor. You probably spend most of
your time entering text and massaging it into shape. Amidst all the slick
graphics and gee-whiz automation, Word 2007 makes it faster and easier
than ever for you to enter and edit your text. A quick read through this
chapter will reveal time saving techniques that'll help you spend less time
hunting, pecking, and clicking, so you can move on to the important stuff
polishing your prose and sharing it with the world.

11.4.1 Typing in Word

Whenever you're entering text into Word, the insertion point is where all the
action takes place it’s that vertical, blinking bar that's a little taller than a
capital letter. When you press a key, a letter appears at the insertion point,
and the blinking bar moves a space to the right. To type in a different spot,
just click somewhere in your text and the insertion point moves to that
location.
Press Shift to type capitals or to enter the various punctuation marks you
see above the numbers keys (!@#$*&^). When you want to type several
words in uppercase letters, press the Caps Lock key. You don't have to keep
holding it down. It works like a toggle. Press it once and you're in caps
mode. Press it again and you're back to lowercase. The Backspace key and
the Delete key both erase characters, but there's a difference: The
Backspace erases the characters behind the insertion point, while the Delete
key eliminates characters in front. But if all you do with Word is type, you're
missing out on 95 percent of its potential. What makes Word a 21st-century
tool is the ease with which you can edit text, as described next.

11.4.2 Click and Type for Quick Formatting

Word's Click and Type feature makes it easy to position and align text on a
blank spot on the page. It's great for those jobs where you want to position
a block of text in an unusual place. Imagine you're putting together a title
page for a report and you want the title about a third of the way down on
the right side of the page with text aligned to the right. All you have to do is
position your mouse cursor where you want the text. Notice, as you move
the cursor around the page, sometimes four small lines appear near the I-
beam. When the cursor's on the right side of the page, the lines trail off to
the left.
When the cursor's in the center of the page, the lines are centered at the
bottom of the I-beam. As usual, the cursor is giving a hint about what will
happen next.

If you double-click when the cursor's on the right side of the page (with the
lines trailing off to the left), then several things happen. Most noticeable,
your insertion point is exactly where you clicked. Behind the scenes, Word
makes several other adjustments. If necessary, Word positions the insertion
point vertically and horizontally on the page by adding paragraph marks and
tabs as needed. Word changes the paragraph alignment setting to Align
Right it's just as if you clicked the button on the ribbon. Fortunately, you
don't need to worry about these details; all you have to do is type the text.

11.4.3 Selecting Text

Even among the best writers, the first draft needs a lot of editing before it's
ready for public viewing. You'll need to change words, delete boring parts,
and move sentences (or even whole paragraphs) to reorganize your text.

In Word, as in most programs, you have to select something before you can
do anything to it. Say you want to change the word "good" to "awesome":
Select "good," and then type your new, improved adjective in its place. To
delete or move a block of text, first select it, and then use the mouse,
keyboard, or ribbon commands to do the deed. Since selection is such a
fundamental editing skill, Word gives you many different and new ways to
do it, including the Mini toolbar .If you've been dragging your mouse around
for the past 20 years, you're lagging behind. This section shows you some
time saving selection techniques with and without the mouse.
11.4.4 Selecting with the Mouse

The mouse is an easy, visual, intuitive way to make selections. It's the first
way most people learn, and besides, it's right there on your desktop. Here's
how to select various document parts using your mouse:

 Select individual characters. Click to place the insertion point at the

beginning of the text you want to select. Press and hold the left mouse
button and drag over the characters. As you drag, the characters you
select are highlighted to indicate they're part of the selection
 Select a word. Double-click the word. The entire word's highlighted.
 Select a sentence. Ctrl-click the sentence. The entire sentence is
highlighted.
 Select a line of text. Move the cursor into the left margin. The cursor
changes to an arrow. Click right next to the line you want to select.
The line's highlighted, showing that it's selected.
 Select a whole paragraph. Move the cursor into the left margin. When
it changes into an arrow, double-click next to the paragraph. The
entire paragraph is highlighted. To add more paragraphs, keep your
finger on the mouse button and drag until the cursor points at another
paragraph, and another...
 Select a block of text. Click to place the insertion point at the
beginning of the block you want to select. (No need to keep pressing
the mouse button.) Hold the Shift key down, and then click at the
other end of the selection. The block of text is highlighted, and your
wrist is happy. Everybody wins.
 Select an entire document. Move the cursor into the left margin, so
that it changes into an arrow. Click the left mouse button three times.
Your entire document's highlighted. (In other words, do the same
thing as for selecting a paragraph, except you triple-click instead of
double-click.)

11.4.5 Extending a Selection

What if you've selected some text and then realize you'd like to add a little
bit more to your selection? You have a couple of options. The most common
method: Extend your selection by Shift-clicking in your text. Word highlights
the text between the previous selection and your Shift-click and includes it in
the new selection.

A similar, but even more elegant way to extend a selection is with the F8
key. Pressing F8 sets one end of your selection at the insertion point. Click
either forward or backward in your document, and everything in between the
insertion point and your click is instantly highlighted and selected. F8 has
several other surprising selection powers.

11.4.6 Selecting Multiple Chunks of Text in Different Places

If you're into efficiency and multitasking, Word's multiple selection feature

was made for you. Multiple selections save you time by applying formatting
to similar, but disconnected elements. Say you have several paragraphs of
text and you decide you'd like to make the first sentence in each paragraph
bold for emphasis. After you select the sentences, you can format them all
at once. You can also collect items from several locations and then copy and
paste them into a new spot. To make a multiple selection, simply make your
first selection and then press the Ctrl key while you make another. The areas
you select don't need to be connected.

So, here are the steps to follow:

1. Drag to select the first sentence in the first paragraph.

Word highlights the sentence to indicate it's selected.

2. Press Ctrl, and keep holding it as you drag to select the first sentence
in the next paragraph.

Word highlights each sentence you select but nothing in between.

Repeat this step for each sentence you want to select.

3. Press Ctrl+B.

Word makes the selected sentences bold and leaves them highlighted.
You can enter another command if you want bold italics, anyone

11.4.7 Cutting, Copying, and Pasting

When it comes time to edit your text and shape it into a masterpiece of
communication, the job is all about cutting, copying, and pasting. Compared
to actually using scissors and paste (which is what writers and editors did in
the pre-PC era), Word makes manipulating text almost effortless. You're free
to experiment, moving words, sentences, and paragraphs around until
you've got everything just right. By now, you've probably figured that most
Word functions can be done in at least two ways by keyboard and by mouse.
That's certainly the case when it comes to the basic editing functions, as
shown in the table. If you're typing away and don't want to take your hands
off the keyboard, then you'll probably want to use the keyboard shortcuts,
which can all be performed with a flick of your left hand.

Ribbon Keyboard
Command Ribbon Command Icon Shortcut
Cut Scissors Ctrl+X
Home Clipboard Cut
Copy 2 pages Ctrl+C
Home Clipboard
Copy
Paste Clipboard Ctrl+V
Home Clipboard
Paste

11.4.7 Editing with the Ribbon

 Word's new ribbon is where all the commands live, and it's hardly a
surprise that cut, copy, and paste are the first commands on the first
tab (Home) in the first group (Clipboard). As you can see, these
commands are conveniently located right near another place you
frequently mouse over to, the Office button.

 You need to select text (or an object, like a picture or a table) before
you can cut it from your document. When you invoke the Cut
command, your selected item disappears, but Cut is very different
from a Delete or a Clear command. The Cut command actually stores
the cut item on the Office Clipboard, where you can bring it back later
using the Paste command. You can actually open this Clipboard and
see recently cut and copied items. The Office Clipboard works across
all Microsoft Office programs, so you can cut a paragraph from your
novel and paste it into an Outlook email or PowerPoint slide.
 You may expect, Copy makes a duplicate of the selected text or object
and stores it on the Clipboard. It leaves the selection in place in its
original location.
 Before you use the Paste command, you must first cut or copy some
text (or a picture or other object). Then, put the insertion point exactly
where you want to place the item, and then paste away.
11.5 Exercise

Q1 Answer the following Questions

1) Write down the steps to launch MS word?

2) How to create a new document?
3) How to use cut, copy and paste?
4) Write down short cut keys for various commands?
 Unit IV
Lesson 12
Formatting, Grammar and Macro in MS-Word

Structure

12.1 Formatting Basic.

12.2 Grammar and spelling Checking.
12.3 Headers and Footers
12.6 Exercise

12.1 Formatting Basics

Word deals with formatting on three levels encompassing small and specific
on up to big and broad through characters, paragraphs, and sections. You
apply different types of formatting to each of these parts. Character
formatting includes selecting a font, a font size, bold or italics, and so on. At
the paragraph level, you apply indents, bullets, and line spacing. For each
section of your document (even if there's only one), you set the page size,
orientation, and margins, as described in the previous chapter. Sometimes it
helps to think of the parts of a document as Russian nesting dolls:
Characters go inside paragraphs, which go inside sections, which fit inside
your document.

Each type of formatting has its own dialog box, giving you access to all
possible settings. You can also apply most types of formatting via the ribbon,
the mini-toolbar, or the keyboard shortcut.

 Characters. Use the Font dialog box (Alt+H, FN) to format characters.
Letters, numbers, and punctuation marks are all printable characters
and, as such, you can format them. Once you select a character or a
group of characters, you can apply any of the formatting commands
on the Home tab's Font group (Alt+H). You can choose a font and a
size for any character in your document. You can make characters
bold, underlined, superscript, or change them to just about any color
of the rainbow.
 Paragraphs. Use the Paragraph dialog box (Alt+H, PG) to format
paragraphs. You can set formatting for text alignment, indents, line
spacing, line breaks, and paragraph breaks. You don't have to select a
paragraph to format it; just click to place the insertion point within a
 paragraph. Because characters are part of paragraphs (remember
those Russian nesting dolls), every paragraph includes a basic font
description. When you select characters within a paragraph and
change the font settings, you override the basic font description in the
paragraph's style.
 Sections. Use the Page Setup dialog box (Alt+P, SP) to format
sections. When you change margins, page orientation, page size, and
the number of columns per page, you're formatting the section. Many
documents have only one section, so when you make formatting
changes to a section, you're actually formatting the entire document.

12.1.4 Changing Capitalization

Any letter can be uppercase or lowercase, but when you get to words and
sentences, you find some variations on the theme. It's not unusual to have a
heading or a company name where all the letters are capitalized. Sentences
start with an initial cap on the first word only, and titles usually have the
major words capped. In an effort to automate anything that can possibly be
automated, Microsoft provides the Change Case menu (Alt+H, 7) on the
ribbon. The Change Case command defies the usual rules about selecting
before you apply character formatting. If you don't select anything, Word
assumes you want to apply the Change Case command to an entire word, so
the program selects the word at the insertion point. If you've selected text,
the command works, as you'd expect, only on the selection.

12.1.4 Small caps for headers

Small caps are another variation on the capitalization theme. You won't find
this option on the Change Case button; for small caps you have to use the
Font dialog box, which you find on the right side under Effects (where
underline or strikethrough are). Small caps are great for headings and
letterhead (especially if you're a lawyer or an accountant), but you wouldn't
want to use them for body text. It's difficult to read all capitalized text for an
entire paragraph.

12.1.5 Formatting Paragraphs

Formatting a paragraph usually entails changing its shape. You may be

squeezing it in with indents or stretching it out with additional line spacing.
Other kinds of formatting change a paragraph's very nature, like adding a
border or making it part of a numbered or bulleted list. The Paragraph
formatting group (Home Paragraph) is right next door to the Font
group. You don't need to select text to format a paragraph; just make sure
the insertion point is in the paragraph you want to format. However, if you
want to format several paragraphs at once, select them all before you apply
a command.

12.1.6 Aligning Text

It's easy to apply alignment to text. With your insertion point in the
paragraph you want to change, click one of the alignment buttons in the
Paragraph group on the Home Tab. For example, Home Paragraph
Left sets the current paragraph's alignment. As shown in above figure, you
have four choices when it comes to aligning your paragraphs:

 Left (Alt+H, AL). Aligns the lines in the paragraph flush on the left side
and ragged on the right. Left alignment is standard for letters, reports,
and many business documents.
 Centered (Alt+H, AC). Centers each line in the paragraph, leaving both
left and right margins ragged. This setting is appropriate for headings
and short chunks of text, as in invitations and advertisements. Avoid
using centered text for long paragraphs, since it's hard for readers'
eyes to track from the end of one line to the beginning of the next
when the left margin is uneven.
 Right (Alt+H, AR). Aligns the lines in the paragraph flush on the right
side and ragged on the left. This unusual alignment is most often used
for setting captions or quotations apart from the main text.
 Justified (Alt+H, AJ). Adds space between letters and words so that
both the left and right sides of the paragraph are straight and flush
with the margins. Justified margins give text a more formal look
suitable for textbooks or scholarly documents. If your justified text
looks odd because big gaps appear between the letters or words, try
using a long linethat is, putting more characters per line. You can do
this by extending the margins (Alt+P, M) or by changing the size of
your font (Alt+H, FS).
12.1.7 Spacing between Lines

In the Paragraph box, to the right of the paragraph spacing controls, you
find the "Line spacing" tools. Use these controls to set the distance between
lines within paragraphs. You have three presets and three custom settings:

 Single keeps the lines close together, with a minimum amount of

space between. Single spacing is usually easy to read, and it sure
saves paper.
 1.5 lines give your text a little more breathing room, and still offers a
nice professional look.
 Double is the option preferred by teachers and editors, so there's
plenty of room for their helpful comments.
 At least is a good option if you have a mix of font sizes or include
inline graphics with your text. This option ensures that everything fits.
 Exactly puts you in control. Type a number in the At box, and Word
won't mess with that setting.
 Multiple is the oddball of the bunch. Think of Multiple as a percentage
of a single line space: 1=100 Percent; .8=80 percent; 1.2=120
Percent; and so on.

12.1.8 Inserting Page Breaks and Line Breaks

Some things just look wrong, such as a heading at the bottom of a page
with no text beneath it. That heading should be at the top of the next page.
Sure, you could force it over there with a page break (Ctrl+Enter), but that
can cause trouble if you edit your text and things move around. You could
end up with a page break in some weird spot. The solution is to adjust your
Line and Page Break settings so that headings and paragraphs behave the
way you want them to.

On the Paragraph box's Line and Page Breaks tab ,you can adjust how
paragraphs handle these breaks. The behavior becomes part of the
paragraph's formatting and travels with the text no matter where you move
the text or breaks. The keyboard shortcut to get there is Alt+H, Alt+P. You
can use four settings:

 Widow/Orphan control. Single lines abandoned at the top (widows) or

bottom (orphans) of the page look out of place. Turn on this checkbox,
and Word keeps the whole family, paragraph together.
 Keep with next. Certain paragraphs, like headings, need to stay
attached to the paragraph that comes immediately after them. Choose
 the "Keep with next" option for your headings, and they always appear
above following paragraph.
 Keep lines together. Sometimes you have a paragraph that shouldn't
be split between two pages, like a one-paragraph quote or disclaimer.
Use this option to keep the paragraph as one unit.
 Page break before. Use this command with major headings to make
sure new sections of your document start on a new page.

12.1.9 Creating Bulleted and Numbered Lists

Bullets and numbers add impact and help organize information. The bullets
in the previous section call attention to the Line and Page Breaks commands
and show that the commands are related to each other. Numbered
paragraphs send a different signal, implying that the items listed are
sequential or have a hierarchy. This book uses numbered paragraphs for
step-by-step instructions. Meeting minutes are usually numbered, both as a
point of reference and to indicate the order of the meeting's events.

Like the other paragraph formatting options, you don't have to select a
paragraph to format it. It's enough just to have the insertion point in the
paragraph. When using bullets or numbers, you usually want to format more
than one paragraph. To do that, make a selection, and then click the bullet
or number button.

12.1.13 Choosing Paper Size and Layout

When you edit a document in Word, what you see on your computer screen
looks almost exactly like the final printed page. To get that correct preview,
Word needs to know some details about the paper you're using, like the
page size and orientation. You have two different ways to change the page
settings: using the Page Layout tab or the Page Setup dialog box .When you
click the Page Layout tab, the ribbon's buttons and icons change to show you
options related to designing your page as a whole. Your options are
organized in five groups: Themes, Page Setup, Page Background, Paragraph,
and Arrange.

12.1.14 Changing Paper Size

If you want to quickly change the page size to a standard paper size like
letter, legal, or tabloid, the Page Layout Page Setup Size
menu is the way to go. With one quick click, you change your document's
size. If there's text in your document, Word reshapes it to fit the page. Say
you change a ten-page document from letter size to the longer legal-size
page. Word spreads out your text over the extra space, and you'll have
fewer pages overall.

12.1.15 Customizing paper size and source

If you can't find the paper size you need on the Size menu, then you need to
customize your paper size, which you do in the Page Setup dialog box's
Paper tab. Here are the steps:

1. Choose Page Layout Page Setup Size. At the bottom of the

Size menu, click More Paper Sizes.

The Page Setup dialog box appears, with the Paper tab showing. Why
the Paper tab? Because you opened the box using the More Paper
Sizes button.

2. In the Width and Height boxes, enter the size of your custom paper.

The quickest way to change the Width and Height settings is to select
the numbers in the boxes and type your new page dimensions. Your
new numbers replace the previous settings. You can also click the up
and down arrows to the right of the text boxes, but it's slow going as
the sizes change in tenths of an inch. Notice that as you change the
dimensions, the Preview image at the bottom of the Page Setup box
changes to match.

3. Click OK at the bottom, to close the dialog box and make the changes.
 The Page Setup box closes, and your custom-sized document shows in
Word.

12.2 Adding Headers and Footers

Headers and footers are where Word puts the bits of information that appear
at the top or bottom of every page of most multipage documents They
remind you of the page number, chapter title, and so on, as you read along.
For business memos and reports, headers are a great place to repeat the
document's subject and publication date. (If you're the author of the report
and want your boss to know, consider adding your name under the title.)

12.2.1 Introducing the Header and Footer Tools

Unlike some of the other features in this chapter, the header and footer tools
are on the Insert tab (not the Page Layout tab). As you can see in Figure
above , three menus appear in the Header & Footer group Header, Footer,
and Page Number. Each of the menus provides predesigned page elements,
known in Word-speak as Building Blocks. So, for example, if you select a
header Building Block, it may add text and several graphic elements to the
top of your page.

12.2.2 Inserting and Modifying a Header Building Block

Go to Insert Header & Footer Header, and you see more than a
dozen predesigned header options. You can keep these canned headers as
they are, or use them as a starting point for your own imagination. The
following steps show you how to use a Building Block to add a header to
your document and then tweak it a bit by inserting an additional field.

1. Go to Insert Header & Footer Header to open the Header

menu.

If you've used earlier versions of the program, you'll notice that the
drop-down menus in Word 2007 are larger and much more visual. The
Header menu is a good example, as it gives you a clear representation
of the available predesigned headers.

2. Use the scroll bar on the right to find the Tiles header.

You can drag the box in the scroll bar to move quickly through the
menu, or use the arrow buttons to browse through the examples.

3. Click the Tiles header to insert it into your document.

When you select the Tiles header, you're adding more than text to
your document: A Building Block comes with all its own accessories.
The Tiles header includes a box with a rule around it and two tiles of
color. Inside the tiles are bracketed words.

When you insert a header, a couple of other things happen too. The
Header menu closes and a new Design tab appears on your ribbon,
with a Header & Footer Tools tab above. Along with that, a whole slew
of new buttons and tools appear on the ribbon (left to right): Header &
Footer, Insert, Navigation, Options, Position, and the Close Header and
Footer button.

4. Click the bracketed words "Type the document title," and then type a
title of your choice.

The bracketed words are a prompt that you're supposed to enter new
text in that spot. A single click anywhere on the words selects the
entire group. Type your title, say, A Tale of Two Cities. When you type,
the other words and the brackets disappear. When you add a title to
the header, Word uses this text to update the title shown in the
Document Properties Click the bracketed word "Year," and then use
the calendar control to update the header's Year field.

This standard Word tool lets you enter a date by selecting it. At the
top, you see the month and year. Click the buttons on either side to
move backward or forward through the months. Click a date on the
 calendar below to select a specific date. Word uses the year from the
date you selected to update the Year text in the header. Or you can
enter a year simply by typing it.

You can modify Building Blocks after you add them to your document
by typing your own text, which you'll do next.

5. Click the header to the right of your title. If the title is highlighted, use
the right arrow key to deselect the title, and then type a hyphen (-)
followed by a space.

You can also add automatically updating text by inserting a field, which
is how Word creates those ever-changing dates and page numbers.
Word has fields for lots of other stuff too. You can't create (or edit) a
field by typing directly in your document, though. You must use the
Field dialog box.

6. Choose Insert Quick Parts Field.

The Field dialog box opens showing an alphabetical list of field names
on the left side. Fields store information about your document and
keep track of other information that you can use in your documents.

1. Double-click the Author field name to insert it into the header.

The author's name appears next to the title in the header. (If you're
working on your own computer, it's probably your name.) This text is
grayed out to show that it's a field and that you can't edit it directly.

2. Double-click anywhere on the document's body text to close the

Header & Footer Tools contextual tab.

You have two options for closing the header and going back to editing
your document. You can double-click anywhere outside the header, or,
on the right side of the ribbon, you can click the Close Header and
Footer button. Either way, the header fades out and the text of your
document sharpens up. Your insertion point appears back in the body
text, and you're ready to work.
 Unit IV
Lesson 13
Spread sheet Introduction and Basic Operations

Structure

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Overview of Excel
13.6 Exercises

13.1 Introduction

Modern spreadsheets (Electronic Worksheets) provide a rich environment for

numerical calculation and the exploration of numerical models. These
packages allow their users to set up calculations using formulas that are
automatically updated when the relevant data in the spreadsheet changes.
And formulas are easily constructed and edited as well. Adding to the power
of the environment, spreadsheets provide a great many built-in functions to
perform commonly used computations in the financial, statistical, and other
problem domains. Once calculations are performed, spreadsheets offer the
opportunity to explore graphical interpretations of the results through a
number of built-in chart and graph types. These pictorial interpretations
often provide insights into the meaning of a calculation that would otherwise
be difficult to perceive or that may even go unnoticed. The particular
spreadsheet we will learn about in this script is Microsoft Excel. However,
modern spreadsheet packages are remarkably similar and what we learn
about Excel will translate with little difficulty if we need to use Lotus 1-2-3,
Quattro, or some other spreadsheet software. This unit will give you a basic
introduction to Microsoft Excel.

13.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Understand the basic concepts of spreadsheets
 Create, Save, Open and Close a workbook
 Enter different types of Data in a worksheet
  Edit data in cells and format worksheets

13.3 Overview of Excel

The Electronic version of "paper and Pencil workbook" is called a Worksheet

and a three-dimensional stack of worksheets consisting of rows and columns
forms an Excel Workbook. When we access Microsoft Excel for the first time,
a worksheet similar to the one shown below is displayed. At the top of the
screen is the File name indicator. This shows the name of the file that is in
use at any moment, the default name being ‘Book1’ until it is changed by
the user. Below the file name indicator is the Menu bar, which contains a
number of programmed facilities or commands like Opening, Creating,
Saving, Manipulating a worksheet? Below the Menu bar are different types of
Tool bars containing shortcuts for almost all the commands contained in
various Menus in the menu bar. Below and to the left of toolbars is the
Address bar showing the address of the active cell. To the right of the
address bar is the Formula bar where the contents of a cell are displayed
and we type our formulas and functions in this bar. Below this are shown the
Column letters of the worksheet and then comes the actual worksheet in the
form of grid lines showing cells, a Solid white cross showing the mouse
pointer and a solid rectangular border showing the Active cell. Only when a
cell is active can data be entered into it or its contents modified. To the left
of the worksheet are shown the Row numbers. Vertical and Horizontal Scroll
bars can also be seen to the right and below the actual worksheet. These are
used to move up and down or left and right in a worksheet. To the left of the
bottom scroll bar are the Sheet tabs used to select a particular sheet from
the list. An active sheet is shown by the light background in the sheet tab.
To the left of the sheet tabs are Sheet scroll bars that allow a user to display
names of all the sheets in the workbook. Finally, at the bottom of the screen
is the Status bar displaying various messages about the tasks being carried
out in the worksheet.

In any worksheet rows are labeled by numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) and columns are
labeled with letters (A, B, C, … , AA, AB, AC, ...). Cells are then labeled with
both the column letter(s) and row number in that order. For example, the
highlighted cell in the figure below is cell C4. A cell is selected (highlighted)
by clicking the cursor over it. Only one cell can be selected at a given time
and this cell is referred to as the active cell.

13.4 Creating the Data Worksheet

Entering Data

In Excel data must be entered into the workspace in an organized manner.

To select a cell, simply put the mouse pointer over that cell and click once.
That cell will then be surrounded by a thick black box, the selection box.
There are few ways to enter data into a cell, regardless of Intro to Excel ,
whether that data is a number or text or a formula. The easiest way is to
click on a cell and start typing. Hit the enter key on the keyboard when
done entering the information for that cell. Learn the good habit of entering
the independent variable (such as time) in the first column and the
dependent variable (such as distance an object moves with time) in the next
column to the right. Label each of the columns to describe the data they
contain, otherwise it is confusing as to which numbers are what. Include the
units of the measurement in the title of the column, since a person looking
at the data would not know just by looking at the numbers. Use the cell in
the first row of the column for the title. In Figure below the titles of the
columns are in bold. In order to change the text of a cell, select the cell by
clicking on it and use the formatting buttons in the area above the
workspace.
Formatting Data

The following are a few useful formatting tools.

 Font changes the look of the text in the cell. Click a cell and then go to
the pull-down top menu bar of the page. The Font Style menu
changes the kind of text of the cell and the Font Size menu changes
the size of the text. Click the little arrow to the right of each menu to
see all the possible selections.
 Boldface, Italics, and Underline also change the look of the text (as
demonstrated!). These styles may be applied by clicking on a cell and
then clicking the Boldface button , Italics button , or Underline
button .
 Alignment can be changed to make the text line up against the left-
hand side of the cell, the right-hand side of the cell, or centered in the
cell by using the buttons for left-alignment ,right-alignment , or
center alignment .
The previous formatting tools may also be accessed by putting the mouse
pointer over a cell, clicking the right mouse button, and selecting Format
Cells from the menu that appears. In the window that pops up go to the
Alignment and Font tabs. For a Macintosh, go to the top menu bar, click
Format and select Cells from the menu that appears.

 Column and row width may be increased and decreased. Go to grey

row above the worksheet which has the letters of each column. Find
the grey box with the letter of the column to be resized and put the
mouse pointer on the right border of that grey box. The mouse pointer
 will change to a black bar with two arrows. Click and hold down the
mouse button and move the mouse to the right to make the column
larger (or move the mouse to the left to make the column smaller). A
dotted grey line appears below the mouse pointer to show how wide
the column will be while it is being resized. Release the mouse button
to apply the change in width.
Selecting Cells

It would be a pain to format each cell by hand, so there is a way to select

multiple cells. To select a single cell, simply click on that cell and it will be
surrounded by a black box (the selection box). To select more than one
cell in a row, first put the mouse pointer over a cell. Hold down the mouse
button and drag the mouse to the left or right until all the desired cells are
included in the selection box. To select more than one cell in a column,
click on a cell, hold down the mouse button, and drag the mouse down or up
until all the desired cells in the column are selected. It is also possible to
select multiple columns and rows of cells by selecting cells in a row (for
example) and --- while still holding down the mouse button --- dragging the
mouse up or down to include multiple rows. These methods will all come in
handy for following this guide. For example, to format all of the titles of the
columns, just select the cells of the titles and apply the Bold formatting.
Another example is to change the size of the font of the data in two
columns.

Filling Data

Notice in Figure below, that the data starting in the second row starts at 1
and increases to 15.
This data series only has 15 entries, so it wouldn’t take too long to type
those numbers, but wouldn’t it be a pain to have to type that for 30 entries?
Most certainly! Instead of typing all of those numbers, there is a faster way
to fill in a simple pattern of numbers using the Fill command. For this
example, column A should be filled with numbers counting from 1 to 15.
Start by typing the numbers 1, 2, and 3 in the first three cells of column A.
Use the mouse pointer to select those three cells. Notice the small black
square on the bottom right corner of the selection box; this is the fill
handle. Put the mouse pointer over the fill handle and the mouse pointer
will change from a white arrow to a black cross. While the mouse pointer is
the black cross, hold down the mouse button and drag the mouse pointer
down until rows 2 through 16 are selected (surrounded by a selection box).
Let go of the mouse button. Now the column A is filled with numbers
whichcount up from 1 to 15 --- without all the typing! Take another
example: instead of representing time and counting up from 1 to 15,
suppose the cells in column A are to represent the error of certain data
should be 0.1 for all the cells. In that case, type 0.1 into the first two cells of
column A. Then select those two cells with the mouse pointer, put the mouse
pointer over the fill handle in the corner of the selection box, and drag
the mouse pointer down until rows 2 through 16 are selected. Excel will
automatically fill 0.1 in all the selected cells. Fill is a convenient function
which can be used with a pattern of numbers or formulae and can be a real
time saver.
Entering Formulae

Entering an equal sign in a cell lets Excel know that a formula is about to be
entered. Say, for example, that column B needed to be filled with the square
of the values in column A. In cell B1 type an equal sign and then type A2^2
and hit enter. That takes care of the first cell, but what about the rest of
them? Drag the fill handle (mentioned in above Section Filling Data) to
fill column B from B1 all the way to B10 with the squares of the respective
cells (A1 to A10). The commands for constructing a formula are the same as
those used by Graphical Analysis in the labs: addition is marked by a +,
subtraction by a -, multiplication by a *, division by a /, raising to a power
by a ^, and parenthesis to group.

A word of warning with filling functions: if, say, column B were to hold
the results of column A divided by a certain value (which is, say, located in
cell C1), the method described above will not work. Typing =A1/C1 in cell B1
is fine for the first cell; however, when Excel fills the formula in the other
cells, it will fill cell B2 with A2/C2, cell B3 with A3/C3 --- not exactly what’s
wanted! To create a formula that will tell Excel to fill column C with the cells
of column A divided by cell C1, enter the formula A1/$C$1 in cell C1 and fill
the rest of column C. The dollar signs signify an absolute cell reference
which is not to be changed with a fill command.

Entering a Sum

There are two ways of getting Excel to compute the sum of a group of cells:
using the SUM function to create the formula and just typing in the formula
by hand. The SUM function pops open a window in which the cells to be
summed are selected and then writes the appropriate formula, which is
great for someone who’s not familiar with using Excel functions. For those
who are more familiar, just typing the formula is faster. For example, say
cell A11 should hold the sum of cells A1 through A10. Type an equal sign in
cell A11, go to the Name Box as shown in Figure below. Select the SUM
function. In the Function Arguments window that appears, use the Number 1
field to select all of the independent variable data. Do this by clicking the
button next to the field. The Function Arguments window will collapse,
leaving only the Number 1 field showing. Use the mouse pointer to select all
of the independent variable data, meaning cells A1 through A10. A dashed
box indicates what data is selected. If a mistake is made, click on the
Number 1 field, delete the information, and try selecting again. When done
selecting data, click the button next to the Number 1 field, which will expand
the Function Arguments window. Click the Ok button. The short method of
doing this is just to type =SUM(A2:A10) in cell A11.
 Unit IV
Lesson 14
Presentation Software

Structure

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Getting Acquainted with PowerPoint
14.4 A Brief Geography Lesson
14.5 Creating a New Presentation
14.6 Creating New Slides for Your Presentation
14.7 Inserting a new slide
14.8 Selecting a different layout for a slide
14.9 Hiding and Displaying the Slides Pane and Notes Pane
14.10 Restoring the Slides and Notes pane:
14.11 Selecting, Moving, and Deleting Slides
14.12 Choosing a Theme for Your Presentation
14.12.1 Selecting a theme
14.12.2 Tweaking a theme
14.13 Placing a clip-art image in the slide background
14.14 Using a graphic for a slide background
14.15 Using a texture for a slide background
14.16 Entering Text
14.16.1 Choosing fonts for text
14.16.2 Changing the font size of text
14.16.3 Changing the color of text
14.17 Handling Bulleted and Numbered Lists
14.17.1 Choosing a different bullet character, size, and color
14.17.2 Choosing a different list-numbering (style, size, and color)
14.19 Exercise

14.1 Introduction

It’s impossible to sit through a conference, seminar, or trade show these

days without seeing at least one PowerPoint presentation. PowerPoint has
found its way into nearly every office and boardroom. As nice as PowerPoint
can be, it has its detractors. If the software isn’t used properly, it can come
between the speaker and the audience. In an article in the May 28, 2001,
New Yorker titled “Absolute PowerPoint: Can a Software Package Edit Our
Thoughts?” Ian Parker argued that PowerPoint may actually be more of a
hindrance than a help in communicating. PowerPoint, Parker wrote, is “a
social instrument, turning middle managers into bullet point dandies.” The
software, he added, “has a private, interior influence. It edits ideas . . . . It
helps you make a case, but also makes its own case about how to organize
information, how to look at the world.” o make sure that you use PowerPoint
wisely; this chapter shows what creating a PowerPoint presentation entails.
After a brief tour of PowerPoint, you find out how to create presentations,
get a better view of your work.

14.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Know how to Create a New Presentation
 Know how Create New Slides for Your Presentation
 Know how to Select a different layout for a slide
 Understand Hiding and Displaying the Slides Pane and Notes
Pane

 Understand how to Choose a Theme for Your Presentation

 Understand how to Place a clip-art image in the slide background

 Understand how to Using a graphic for a slide background

 Understand how to Enter Text, change font, color, size of text

 Understand Handling Bulleted and Numbered Lists

14.3 Getting Acquainted with PowerPoint

Figure above shows the PowerPoint window. That thing in the middle is a
slide, the PowerPoint word for an image that you show your audience.
Surrounding the slide are many tools for entering text and decorating slides.
When the time comes to show your slides, you dispense with the tools and
make the slide fill the screen, as shown in Figure II (bottom). To make
PowerPoint do your bidding, you need to know a little jargon:

14.4 A Brief Geography Lesson

Here is a brief geography lesson about the different parts of a PowerPoint

screen. I’d hate for you to get lost in PowerPoint Land. Figure II shows the
different parts of the screen. Fold down the corner of this page so that you
can return here if screen terminology confuses you:
  Office button: The round button you can click to open a menu with
commands for creating, opening, and saving PowerPoint presentations,
as well as doing other file-management tasks.
 Quick Access toolbar: A toolbar with four buttons — Save, Undo,
Repeat, and Print. You see this toolbar wherever you go in PowerPoint.
 Ribbon: The place where the tabs are located. Click a tab — Home,
Insert, Design, Animations, Slide Show, Review, or View — to start a
task.
 Presentation: All the slides, from start to finish, that you show your
audience. Sometimes presentations are called slides shows.
Presentations are saved in presentation files (.pptx files).
 Slides: The images you create with PowerPoint. During a presentation,
slides appear on-screen one after the other. Don’t be put off by the
word slide and dreary memories of sitting through your uncle’s slide
show vacation memories. You don’t need a slide projector to show
these slides. You can now plug a laptop or other computer into special
monitors that display PowerPoint slides.
 Handout: Printed pages that you may give to the audience along with
a presentation. A handout shows the slides in the presentation.
Handouts are also known by the somewhat derogatory term leave
behinds.
 Slides pane: In Normal view, the place on the left side of the screen
where you can see the slides or the text on the slides in your
presentation. Scroll in the Slides pane to move backward and forward
in a presentation.
 Slide window: Where a slide (in Normal view) or slides (in Slide Sorter
view) are displayed. Scroll to move backward or forward in your
presentation.
 Notes pane: Where you type notes (in Normal view) that you can refer
to when giving your presentation. The audience can’t see these notes
— they’re for you and you alone.
 View buttons: Buttons you can click to switch to (from left to right)
Normal, Slide Sorter, and Slide Show view.
 Zoom controls: Tools for enlarging or shrinking a slide (in Normal
view).

14.5 Creating a New Presentation

When you start PowerPoint, the program creates a new, blank presentation
just for you. You can make this bare-bones presentation the starting point
for constructing your presentation, or you can get a more sophisticated, fully
realized layout and design by starting with a template. Templates are a
mixed blessing. They’re designed by artists and they look very good. Some
templates come with boilerplate text — already written material that you can
recycle into your presentation. However, presentations made from templates
are harder to modify. Sometimes the design gets in the way. As well, a loud
or intricate background may overwhelm the diagram or chart you want to
put on a slide. No matter what kind of presentation you want, you can start
creating it by clicking the Office button and choosing New on the menu (or
pressing Ctrl+N). You see the New Presentation dialog box, as shown in
Figure below. Use one of these techniques to create a presentation:

 Blank presentation: Double-click the Blank Presentation icon. A new

presentation appears. Try visiting the Design tab and choosing a
theme or background style to get a taste of all the things you can do
to decorate a presentation.
 Presentation from a template: You have considerably more choices if
you want to create your presentation from a template:

 Use a template on your computer: Click Installed Templates (you can

find this button under Templates in the upper-right corner of the dialog
box). Templates that you loaded on your computer when you installed
 PowerPoint appear in the dialog box. Double-click a template to create
a presentation.
 Search for a template online at Microsoft: Enter a search term in the
Search box, make sure your computer is connected to the Internet,
and click the Start Searching button. Templates appear in the dialog
box. Click a template to examine it. Double-click a template to
download and use it to create a presentation.
 Use a template you created (or downloaded earlier from Microsoft):
Click the My Templates button. The New Presentation dialog box
appears. Select a template and click OK.
 Select a recently used template: Click a template name in the middle
of the dialog box if you want to use a template listed there.
 Recycle another presentation: If you can use another presentation as
the starting point for creating a new presentation, nab slides from the
other presentation. Click the New from Existing button. In the New
from Existing Presentation dialog box, select the presentation and
click the Create New button.

14.6 Creating New Slides for Your Presentation

After you create a presentation, your next step on the path to glory is to
start inserting the slides. As shown in Figures below, you can choose among
several different slide layouts, the preformatted slide designs that help you
enter text, graphics, and other things. Some layouts have text placeholder
frames for entering titles and text; some come with content placeholder
frames designed especially for inserting a table, chart, diagram, picture, clip-
art image, or video. When you insert a new slide, select the layout that best
approximates the slide you have in mind for your presentation. These pages
explain how to insert slides and harvest them from Word document
headings.

14.7 Inserting a new slide

Follow these steps to insert a new slide in your presentation:

1. Select the slide that you want the new slide to go after. In Normal
view, select the slide on the Slides pane. In Slide Sorter view, select
the slide in the main window.
2. Click the Home tab.
3. Click the bottom half of the New Slide button.You see a drop-down list
of slide layouts. (If you click the top half of the Add Slide button, you
insert a slide with the same layout as the one you selected in Step 1.)
Figures below show you what the slide layouts look like (left), what a
slide looks like right after you insert it (middle), and finished slides
(right).
 4. Select the slide layout that best approximates the slide you want to
create. Don’t worry too much about selecting the right layout. You can
change slide layouts later, as “Selecting a different layout for a slide”.

14.8 Selecting a different layout for a slide

If you mistakenly choose the wrong layout for a slide, all is not lost. You can
start all over. You can graft a new layout onto your slide with one of these
techniques:

 On the Home tab, click the Layout button and then choose a layout on
the submenu.
 Right-click the slide (being careful not to right-click a frame or object),
choose Layout on the drop-down list, and choose a layout on the
submenu.

PowerPoint also offers the Reset command for giving a slide its original
layout after you’ve fiddled with it. If you’ve pushed a slide all out of shape
and you regret doing so, select your slide and click the Reset button on the
Home tab.

14.9 Hiding and Displaying the Slides Pane and Notes Pane

In Normal view, the Slides pane with its slide thumbnails appears on the left
side of the screen, and the Notes pane appears on the bottom of the screen
so that you can scribble notes about presentations. Sometimes these panes
just take up valuable space. They clutter the screen and occupy real estate
that could be better used for formatting slides. Follow these instructions to
temporarily remove the Slides and Notes pane:

 Removing the Notes pane: Move the pointer over the border
between the pane and the rest of the screen, and after the pointer
changes to a two-headed arrow, drag the border to the bottom of the
screen.
 Removing the Slides pane (and the Notes pane): Click the Close
button on the Slides pane. This button is located to the right of the
Outline tab.

Clicking it removes the Notes pane as well as the Slides pane.

14.10 Restoring the Slides and Notes pane:

On the View tab, click the Normal button. You can also move the pointer to
the left side or bottom of the screen, and when you see the double-headed
arrow, click and start dragging toward the center of the screen. You can
change the size of either pane by moving the pointer over its border and
then clicking and dragging.

14.11 Selecting, Moving, and Deleting Slides

As a presentation takes shape, you have to move slides forward and

backward. Sometimes you have to delete a slide. And you can’t move or
delete slides until you select them first. Herewith are instructions for
selecting, moving, and deleting slides.

Selecting slides

The best place to select slides is Slide Sorter view (if you want to select
several at a time). Use one of these techniques to select slides:

 Select one slide: Click the slide.

 Select several different slides: Hold down the Ctrl key and click each
slide in the Slides pane or in Slide Sorter view.
 Select several slides in succession: Hold down the Shift key and click
the first slide and then the last one.
 Select a block of slides: Drag across the slides you want to select. Be
sure when you click and start dragging that you don’t click a slide.
Moving slides

To move or rearrange slides, you’re advised to go to Slide Sorter view.

Select the slide or slides you want to move and use one of these techniques
to move slides:

Dragging and dropping

Click the slides you selected and drag them to a new location. You see the
drag pointer, and in Slide Sorter view, a vertical line shows you where the
slide or slides will land when you release the mouse button. On the Slides
pane, a horizontal line appears between slides to show you where the slide
or slides will land when you release the mouse button.
Cutting and pasting

On the Home tab, cut the slide or slides to the Windows Clipboard (click the
Cut button, press Ctrl+X, or right-click and choose Cut). Then select the
slide that you want the slide or slides to appear after and give the Paste
command (click the Paste button, press Ctrl+V, or right-click and choose
Paste). You can right-click between slides and paste with precision.

Deleting slides

Before you delete a slide, think twice about deleting. Short of using the Undo
Command, you can’t resuscitate a deleted slide. Select the slide or slides
you want to delete and use one of these techniques to delete slides:

 On the Home tab, click the Delete button.

 Press the Delete key.
 Right-click and choose Delete Slide on the shortcut menu.

14.12 Choosing a Theme for Your Presentation

After you initially select a theme, you can do one or two things to customize
It. These pages explain how to find and select a theme for your presentation
and diddle with a theme after you’ve selected it. By the way, you can find
the name of the theme that is currently in use on the left side of the status
bar, in case you’re curious about a theme you want to replace.

14.12.1 Selecting a theme

Use one of these techniques to select a new theme for your presentation:

 Selecting a theme in the Themes gallery: On the Design tab, open

the Themes gallery and move the pointer over different themes to
“live-preview” them, as shown in Figure 2-3. Click a theme to select it.
 Borrowing a theme from another presentation: On the Design
tab, open the Themes gallery and click Browse for Themes . You see
the Choose Theme or Themed Document dialog box. Locate and select
a presentation with a theme you can commandeer for your
presentation and click the Apply button.
14.12.2 Tweaking a theme

Starting on the Design tab, you can customize a theme with these
techniques:

 Choosing a new set of colors: The easiest and best way to

experiment with customizing a theme is to select a different color set.
Click the Theme Colors button, slide the pointer over the different
color sets on the drop-down list, and see what effect they have on
your slide.
 Change the fonts: Click the Theme Fonts button and then choose a
combination of fonts on the drop-down list. The first font in each pair
applies to slide titles and the second to slide text. You can also choose
Create New Theme Fonts on the list and select theme fonts of your
own.
 Change theme effects: Click the Theme Effects button and choose a
theme effect on the drop-down list. A theme effect is a slight
refinement to a theme.
 Choosing background style variation: Most themes offer
background style variations. Click the Background Styles button to
open the Background Styles gallery and select a style. The next
section in this chapter, “Creating Slide Backgrounds on Your Own,”
explains how you can create backgrounds similar to these, as well as
how to create a single-color, gradient, clip-art, picture, and texture
background.
14.13 Placing a clip-art image in the slide background

As long as they’re on the pale side or you’ve made them semi-transparent,

clip-art images do fine for slide backgrounds. They look especially good in
title slides. Figure below shows examples of clip-art images as backgrounds.
You’re invited to place one in the background of your slides by following
these steps:
 On the Design tab, click the Background Styles button and choose
Format Background on the drop-down list. The Format Background
dialog box appears.
 Click the Picture or Texture Fill option button.
 Click the Clip Art button.You see the Select Picture dialog box.
 Find and select a clip-art image that you can use in the background of
your slides. You can scroll through the clip-art images until you find a
good one, enter a search term in the Search Text box and click the Go
button, or click the Include Content from Office Online check box to
search online at Microsoft for a clip-art image. You can get hundreds of
clip-art images this way.
  In the Format Background dialog box, enter a Transparency
measurement. Drag the Transparency slider or enter a measurement
in the box. The higher the measurement, the more transparent the
image is.
 Enter measurements in the Offsets boxes to make your clip-art image
fill the slide.
 Click the Apply to All button and then click Close. There you have it.
The clip-art image you selected lands in the slides’ backgrounds.

14.14 Using a graphic for a slide background

Figure below shows examples of graphics being used as slide backgrounds.

Select your graphic carefully. A graphic with too many colors — and that
includes the majority of color photographs — obscures the text and makes it
difficult to read. You can get around this problem by “recoloring” a graphic to
give it a uniform color tint, selecting a grayscale photograph, selecting a
photo with colors of a similar hue, or making the graphic semi-transparent,
but all in all, the best way to solve the problem of a graphic that obscures
the text is to start with a quiet, subdued graphic.

Follow these steps to use a graphic as a slide background:

 On the Design tab, click the Background Styles button and choose
Format Background on the drop-down list. You see the Format
Background dialog box.
 Click the Picture or Texture Fill option button.
 Click the File button. The Insert Picture dialog box appears.
 Locate the graphic you want, select it, and click the Insert button. The
graphic lands on your slide.
 Enter a Transparency measurement to make the graphic fade a bit into
the background. Drag the slider or enter a measurement in the
 Transparency box. The higher percentage measurement you enter, the
more “bleached out” the graphic is.
 Using the Offsets text boxes, enter measurements to make your
graphic fit on the slides.
 Click the Apply to All buttons.

How do you like your slide background? You may have to open the Format
Background dialog box again and play with the transparency setting. Only
the very lucky and the permanently blessed get it right the first time.

14.15 Using a texture for a slide background

Yet another option for slide backgrounds is to use a texture. As shown in

Figure below, a texture gives the impression that the slide is displayed on a
material such as cloth or stone. A texture can make for a very elegant slide
background. Follow these steps to use a texture as a slide background:

 On the Design tab, click the Background Styles button and choose
Format Background on the drop-down list.The Format Background
dialog box appears.
  Click the Picture or Texture Fill option button.
 Click the Texture button and choose a texture on the drop-down list.
 Enter a Transparency measurement to make the texture less imposing.
Drag the slider or enter a measurement in the Transparency box.
 Click the Apply to All buttons and then click Close.

14.16 Entering Text

No presentation is complete without a word or two at least, which is why the

first thing you see when you add a new slide to a presentation are the words
“Click to add text.” As soon as you “click here,” those words of instruction
disappear, and you’re free to enter a title or text of your own. Most slides
include a text placeholder frame at the top for entering a slide title; many
slides also have another, larger text placeholder frame for entering a
bulleted list. As shown in Figure below, the easiest way to enter text on
slides is to click in a text placeholder frame and start typing. The other way
is to switch to Normal view, select the Outline tab in the Slides pane and
enter text there. Text that you type next to a slide icon in the Outline pane
is then made the title of the slide.

14.16.1 Choosing fonts for text

If you aren’t happy with the fonts in your presentation, you have three ways
to remedy the problem:
✦ Dig in and choose new fonts on a slide-by-slide basis. Select the
text, go to the Home tab, and choose a font from the Font drop-down list or
the Font dialog box. You can also choose fonts on the Mini Toolbar.
✦ Select new theme fonts for your presentation. Theme fonts are
combinations of fonts that the designers of PowerPoint themes deem
appropriate for the theme you’re working in. To change theme fonts, go to
the Design tab, click the Theme Fonts button, and select a new font
combination.
✦ Choose a new font on a master slide to change fonts throughout
your presentation. Chapter 2 of this mini-book explains master slides and
how you can use them to change formats simultaneously on many slides. In
Slide Master View, select a master slide and change its fonts on the Edit
Master tab.

14.16.2 Changing the font size of text

For someone in the back row of an audience to be able to read text in a

PowerPoint presentation, the text should be no smaller than 28 points. Try
this simple test to see whether text in your presentation is large enough to
read: Stand five or so feet from your computer and see whether you can
read the text. If you can’t read it, make it larger. Go to the Home tab and
click in or select the text whose size you want to change. Then use one of
these techniques to change font sizes:

 Font Size drop-down list: Open this list and choose a point size. To
choose a point size that isn’t on the list, click in the Font Size text box,
enter a point size, and press Enter.
 Font dialog box: Click the Font group button to open the Font dialog
box. Then either choose a point size from the Size drop-down list or
enter a point size in the Size text box and click OK.
 Increase Font Size and Decrease Font Size buttons: Click these
buttons (or press Ctrl+] or Ctrl+[) to increase or decrease the point
size by the next interval on the Font Size drop-down list. Watch the
Font Size list or your text and note how the text changes size. This is
an excellent technique when you want to “eyeball it” and you don’t
care to fool with the Font Size list or Font dialog box.

14.16.3 Changing the color of text

Before you change the color of text, peer into your computer screen and
examine the background theme or color you selected for your slides. Unless
the color of the text is different from the theme or color, the audience can’t
read the text. Besides choosing a color that contributes to the overall tone of
the presentation, select a color that’s easy to read. Select the text that
needs touching up and then use one of these techniques to change the color
of text:

 On the Mini Toolbar, open the drop-down list on the Font Color button
and choose a color.
 On the Home tab, open the drop-down list on the Font Color button
and choose a color.
 On the Home tab, click the Font group button to open the Font dialog
box, click the Font Color button in the dialog box, and choose a color
on the drop-down list.

14.17 Handling Bulleted and Numbered Lists

What is a PowerPoint presentation without a list or two? It’s like an emperor

without any clothes on. This part of the chapter explains everything there is
to know about bulleted and numbered lists. These lists can be as simple or
complex as you want them to be. PowerPoint offers a bunch of different
ways to format these lists, but if you’re in a hurry or you don’t care whether
your lists look like everyone else’s, you can take advantage of the
Numbering and Bullets buttons and go with standard lists. Nonconformists
and people with nothing else to do, however, can try their hand at making
fancy lists. The following pages cover that topic, too. Creating a standard
bulleted or numbered list In typesetting terms, a bullet is a black, filled-in
circle or other character that marks an item on a list. Many slide layouts
include text frames that are already formatted for bulleted lists. All you have
to do in these text frames is “click to add text” and keep pressing the Enter
key while you enter items for your bulleted list. Each time you press Enter,
PowerPoint adds another bullet to the list. Bulleted lists are useful when you
want to present the reader with alternatives or present a list in which the
items aren’t ranked in any order. Use a numbered list to rank items in a list
or present step-by-step instructions.

Follow these instructions to create a standard bulleted or numbered list:

 Creating a bulleted list: Select the list if you’ve already entered the
list items, click the Home tab, and click the Bullets button (or click the
Bullets button on the Mini Toolbar). You can also right-click, choose
Bullets on the shortcut menu, and choose a bullet character on the
submenu if you don’t care for the standard, black, filled-in circle.
  Creating a numbered list: Select the list if you’ve already entered
the list items, click the Home tab, and click the Numbering button. You
can also right-click, choose Numbering on the shortcut menu, and
select a numbering style on the submenu.
 Converting a numbered to a bulleted list (or vice versa): Drag
over the list to select it, click the Home tab, and then click the Bullets
or Numbering button.

To remove the bullets or numbers from a list, select the list, right-click it,
choose Bullets or Numbering on the shortcut menu, and choose None on the
submenu

14.17.1 Choosing a different bullet character, size, and color

As Figure below demonstrates, the black filled-in circle isn’t the only
character you can use to mark items in a bulleted list. You can also opt for
what PowerPoint calls pictures (colorful bullets of many sizes and shapes) or
symbols from the Symbol dialog box. While you’re at it, you can change the
bullet color and size.

If you decide to change the bullet character in your lists, be consistent from
slide to slide. Unless you want to be goofy, select the same bullet character
throughout the lists in your presentation for the sake of consistency. You
don’t want to turn your slide presentation into a showcase for bullets, do
you? To use pictures or unusual symbols for bullets, start by selecting your
bulleted list (if you already entered the list items), clicking the Home tab,
and opening the drop-down list on the Bullets button. Do any of the bullets
on the drop-down list tickle your fancy? If one does, choose it; otherwise,
click the Bullets and numbering option at the bottom of the drop-down list.
You see the Bulleted tab of the Bullets and Numbering dialog box. Starting
there, you can customize your bullets:

 Using a picture for bullets: Click the Picture button and select a
bullet in the Picture Bullet dialog box.
 Using a symbol for bullets: Click the Customize button and select a
bullet in the Symbol dialog box. By opening the Font drop-down list
and choosing a Wingdings font, you can choose an oddball character
for bullets.
 Changing bullets’ color: Click the Color button in the Bullets and
Numbering dialog box and choose an option on the drop-down list.
Theme colors are considered most compatible with the theme design
you choose for your presentation.
 Changing bullets’ size: Enter a percentage figure in the Size % of
Text box. For example, if you enter 200, the bullets are twice as big as
the font size you choose for the items in your bulleted list.

14.17.2 Choosing a different list-numbering (style, size, and color):

PowerPoint offers seven different ways of numbering lists. As well as

choosing a different numbering style, you can change the size of numbers
relative to the text and change the color of numbers. To select a different
list-numbering style, size, or color, begin by selecting your list (if you
already entered the list items), clicking the Home tab, and opening the drop-
down list on the Numbering button. If you like one of the numbering-scheme
choices, select it; otherwise choose Bullets and Numbering to open the
Numbered tab of the Bullets and Numbering dialog box. In this dialog box,
you can customize list numbers:

 Choosing a numbering scheme: Select a numbering scheme and

click OK.
 Changing the numbers’ color: Click the Color button and choose a
color on the drop-down list. Theme colors are more compatible with
the theme design you choose than the other colors are.
 Changing the numbers’ size: Enter a percentage figure in the Size
% of Text box. For example, if you enter 50, the numbers are half as
big as the font size you choose for the items in your numbered list.
14.18 Exercise

Q1. Answer the following in about 10-20 words.

1. How to Create a New Presentation

2. How to insert a new slide?

3. How to select a different layout for a slide?

4. How to select a theme in the Themes gallery?

Q2. Answer the following

a) Write steps to create a new presentation
b) Write steps to create new slides.
c) Write steps to enter text in the slide
d) Write steps to Place a clip-art image in the slide background
e) How to use a graphic for a slide background
f) How to use a texture for a slide background
 Unit IV
Lesson 15
INTRODUCTION TO POWER POINT

Structure

15.1 Objectives
15.2 Putting Footers (and Headers) on Slides
15.3 Putting a standard footer on all your slides
15.4 Creating a nonstandard footer
15.5 Transitions and Animations
15.6 Showing transitions between slides
15.7 Animating parts of a slide
15.8 Sounding Off on Slides
15.9 Inserting a sound file on a slide
15.10 Playing Video on Slides
15.11 Inserting a video on a slide
15.12 Fine-tuning a video presentation
15.13 Exercise

15.1 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Understand how to put footers on slides
 Know about Transitions and Animations
 Understand how to Animate parts of a slide
 Understand Sounding Off on Slides
 Know how to Insert a sound file and video file on a slide
 Understand How to Playing Video on Slides
 Understand Fine-tuning a video presentation

15.2 Putting Footers (and Headers) on Slides

Footer is a line of text that appears at the foot, or bottom, of a slide. Figure
below shows footer. Typically, footer includes the date, a company name,
and/or a slide number, and footers appear on every slide in a presentation if
they appear at all. That doesn’t mean you can’t exclude footer from a slide
or put footers on some slides, as I explain shortly. For that matter, you can
move slide numbers, company names, and dates to the top of slides, in
which case they become headers. When I was a kid, “header” meant
crashing your bike and falling headfirst over the handlebars. How times
change.

These pages explain everything a body needs to know about footers and
headers — how to enter them, make them appear on all or some slides, and
exclude them from slides.

15.3 Putting a standard footer on all your slides

A standard footer includes the date, some text, and/or the page number. To
put a standard footer on all the slides in your presentation, click the Insert
tab and then click the Header & Footer button. You see the Header and
Footer dialog box. Choose some or all of these options to enter a footer:

 Date and Time: Select this check box to make the date appear in the
lower-left corner of all your slides. Then tell PowerPoint whether you
want a current or fixed date:
 Update Automatically: Select this option button to make the day’s
date (or date and time) appear in the footer and then open the
dropdown list to choose a date (or date and time) format. With this
option, the date you give your presentation always appears on slides.
 Fixed: Select this option button and enter a date in the text box. For
example, enter the date you created the presentation. With this
option, the date remains the same no matter when or where you give
the presentation.
 Slide Number: Select this check box to make slide numbers appear in
the lower-right corner of all slides.
 Footer: Select this check box, and in the text box, enter the words
that you want to appear in the bottom, middle of all the slides.
15.4 Creating a nonstandard footer

As “Some background on footers and headers” explains earlier in this

chapter, you have to look elsewhere than the Header and Footer dialog box
if you want to create something besides the standard footer. Suppose you
want to move the slide number from the lower-right corner of slides to
another position? Or you want to fool with the fonts in headers and footers?
Follow these steps to create a nonstandard footer:

 Create a standard footer if you want your nonstandard footer to

include today’s date and/or a slide number. If you want to move
the slide number into the upper-right corner of slides, for example,
create a standard footer first. Later, you can move the slide number
text frame into the upper-right corner of slides.
 On the View tab, click the Slide Master button. You switch to Slide
Master view. Chapter 2 in this mini-book explains this view and how to
format many slides at once with master slides.
 Select the Slide Master, the first slide in the Slides pane.
 Adjust and format the footer text boxes to taste (as they say in
cookbooks). For example, move the slide number text frame into the
upper-right corner to put slide numbers there. Or change the font in
the footer text boxes. Or place a company logo on the Slide Master to
make the logo appear on all your slides.
 Click the Close button to return to Normal view. You can always
return to Slide Master view and adjust your footer. Removing footer
from a single slide On a crowded slide, the items in the footer — the
date, footer text, and page number — can get in the way or be a
distraction. Fortunately, removing one or all of the three footer text
frames from a slide is easy:
1. Switch to Normal view and display the slide with the footer that
needs removing.
2. Select the Insert tab.
3. Click the Header & Footer button. The Header and Footer dialog box
appears.
4. Deselect check boxes — Date and Time, Slide Number, and Footer
— to tell PowerPoint which parts of the footer you want to remove.
5. Click the Apply button.

Be careful not to click the Apply to All buttons. Clicking this button removes
footers throughout your slide presentation.
15.5 Transitions and Animations

In PowerPoint-speak, a transition is a little bit of excitement that occurs as

one slide leaves the screen and the next slide climbs aboard. An animation is
movement on the slide. For example, you can animate bulleted lists such
that the bullet points appear on a slide one at a time when you click the
mouse rather than all at once. Before you know anything about transitions
and animations, you should know that they can be distracting. The purpose
of a presentation is to communicate with the audience, not display the
latest, busiest, most dazzling presentation technology. For user-run, kiosk-
style presentations, however, eye-catching transitions and animations can
be useful because they draw an audience.

15.6 Showing transitions between slides

Transitions include the Dissolve, the Wipe Up, and the Cover Down. Figure
below shows how a transition works. For the figure, I chose the News Flash
transition. This slide doesn’t so much arrive on-screen as it does spin onto
the screen. Don’t worry, you get a chance to test-drive these transitions
before you attach them to slides. Follow these steps to show transitions
between slides:

 Click the Animations tab.

 Select the slides that need a transition. If you need to select more
than one slide or you don’t want to assign the same transition to all
your slides, switch to Slide Sorter view to make selecting slides easier.
To apply the same transition to all the slides in the presentation, skip
this step and click the Apply to All button after you select a transition.
  In the Transition Scheme gallery, choose a transition (you may
have to click the Transition Scheme button first, depending on
the size of your screen). The names and images on the drop-down
list give you an idea of what the transitions are, but the only sure way
to tell what a transition does is to watch a slide after you make your
choice. However fleetingly, you see the transition you chose on a slide.
 If you care to, open the Transition Sound drop-down list and
choose a sound to accompany the transition. Hold the pointer
over sound names to hear the different sounds. The Loop until Next
Sound option at the bottom of the drop-down list plays a sound
continuously until the next slide in the presentation appears.
 On the Transition Speed drop-down list, choose Slow, Medium,
or Fast to declare how quickly or slowly you want the transition
to occur. As I mention in Step 2, you can click the Apply to All button
to assign the same transition to all the slides in your presentation.

15.7 Animating parts of a slide

When it comes to animations, you can choose between animation schemes,

the pre-built special effects made by the elves of Microsoft, or customized
animations that you build on your own. Only fans of animation and people
with a lot of time on their hands go the second route.

Choosing a ready-made animation scheme

Follow these steps to preview and choose an animation scheme for slides:
 Go to the Animations tab.
 Click to select the element on the slide that you want to
animate. You can tell when you’ve selected an element because a
selection box appears around it.
 Open the Animate drop-down list and choose an animation
effect, as shown in Figure below
Your choices are Fade, Wipe, and Fly In. If you choose a text-box or text-
frame element with more than one paragraph in Step 1, tell PowerPoint
whether to animate all the text or animate each paragraph separately from
the others:
 All at Once: All the text is animated at the same time.
 By 1st Level Paragraphs: Each paragraph is treated separately and is
animated on its own. For example, each item in a bulleted list is
treated as a separate element — each item fades, wipes, or flies in
after the one before it, not at the same time as the one before it. Very
briefly, you see a preview of the animation choice you made. To get a
good look at the animation you just chose for your slide, click the
Preview button on the Animation tab.
 To remove an animation, return to the Animate drop-down list and
choose No Animation.

15.8 Sounding Off on Slides

Especially in user-run, kiosk-style presentations, sound can be a welcome

addition. Sound gives presentations an extra dimension. Sound attracts an
audience. PowerPoint offers two ways to make sound a part of a
presentation:
 As part of slide transitions: The sound is heard as a new slide
arrives on-screen. On the Animations tab, open the Transition Sound
drop-down list and choose a sound.
 On the slide itself: The means of playing the sound appears on the
slide in the form of a Sound icon, as shown in Figure below. By clicking
the Sound icon, you can play the sound. You can also make the sound
play as soon as the slide arrives on-screen.
Whether each file type is a wave or MIDI sound, and whether the file can be
used in slide transitions. To find out what kind of sound file you’re dealing
with, note the file’s three-letter extension; or open Windows Explorer or My
Computer, find the sound file, switch to Details view, and look in the Type
column. To switch to Details view in Windows Explorer or My Computer, click
the View button and choose Details on the drop-down list.

15.9 Inserting a sound file on a slide

Before you insert your sound file on a slide, ask yourself, “Do I want the
sound file to start playing when the slide appears or when I click the Sound
icon?” Clicking the Sound icon gives you more control over when the sound
is heard, but you have to remember to click the icon to start playing the
sound. You can hide the Sound icon or leave it on a slide to remind yourself
to click to start playing sounds.

Follow these steps to insert a sound file in a slide:

 Click the Insert tab.

 Click the Sound button. You see the Insert Sound dialog box.
 Locate and select a sound file and then click OK. Earlier in this
chapter, Table above in last section, lists the type of sound files that
you can play in presentations.
 Choose Automatically or When Clicked in the dialog box that
asks how you want the sound to start playing. Here are your
choices:
o Automatically: Click this button to make the sound play
automatically as soon as the slide appears.
o When Clicked: Click this button to play the sound when you click
the Sound icon on your slide. Don’t worry about choosing right
now. You can always change your mind about when a sound
plays, as “Telling PowerPoint when and how to play a sound file”.
 To quit playing a sound file on a slide, select the Sound icon and
then press the Delete key.

15.10 Playing Video on Slides

If a picture is worth a thousand words, what is a moving picture worth? Ten

thousand? To give your presentation more cachet, you can play video on
slides and in so doing, turn your presentation into a mini-movie theater. To
play video, PowerPoint relies on Windows Media Player, the media player
that comes with Windows. Therefore, to play video on a slide, stick to
formats that Windows Media Player can handle: AVI (Audio Visual
Interleaved), MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group), MPG (Media Planning
Group), WMV (Windows Media Video), and ASF (Advanced Systems Format).
void video files in these formats: MOV (QuickTime Video), RM (RealVideo),
and VCD (Video Compact Disc).

15.11 Inserting a video on a slide

Follow these steps to insert a video on a slide:

 Open the Insert Movie dialog box. You can open the dialog box
with one of these techniques:
 Click the Movie icon in a content placeholder frame.
 On the Insert tab, click the Movie button.
 Select a video file in the Insert Movie dialog box and click OK
(or Open).
 In the dialog box that asks how you want the video to start
playing, select Automatically or When Clicked.- Automatically
makes the video play automatically when the slide appears; When
Clicked plays the video after you or another presenter clicks it. Don’t
waste too much time deciding because changing your mind is easy
enough, as “Fine-tuning a video presentation” explains shortly.

15.12 Fine-tuning a video presentation

As shown in Figure below, select the video and go to the (Movie Tools)
Options tab to fine-tune a video presentation. The Options tab and the Movie
Options dialog box offer all kinds of commands for making a video play the
way you want it to play. Click the Movie Options group button (see Figure
below) to open the Movie Options dialog box. Here are different ways you
can fine-tune a video presentation:

 Controlling the volume: Click the Slide Show Volume button (on the
Options tab) or the Sound Volume icon (in the Movie Options dialog
box) to control how loud the video sound is.
 Playing the video automatically or when you click: Open the Play
Movie drop-down list on the Options tab and choose Automatically or
When Clicked to tell PowerPoint when to start playing the video.
 Hiding the video until you give the order to start playing: You
can hide the video until you start playing it by selecting the Hide
during Show check box (on the Options tab) or the Hide While Not
Playing check box (in the Movie Options dialog box).
 Continuously playing, or looping, the video: Play a movie
continuously or until you go to the next slide by selecting the Loop
until Stopped check box (on the Options tab or Movie Options dialog
box).
 Playing the video at full-screen: Make a video fill the entire screen
by selecting the Play Full Screen check box (on the Options tab) or the
Zoom to Full Screen check box (in the Movie Options dialog box). Be
careful of this one. Videos can look terribly grainy when they appear
on the big screen.
 Rewinding the video when it’s finished playing: Rewind a video if
you want to see the first frame, not the last, when the video finishes
playing. Select the Rewind Movie After Playing check box (on the
Options tab) or the Rewind Movie When Done Playing check box (in
the Movie Options dialog box) to make the start of the video appear
after the video plays; deselect this option to freeze frame on the end
of the video when it finishes playing.
15.13 Exercise

Q1. Answer the following.

1 How to use footer?

2 How to animate parts of a slide?

3 How to insert a sound file on slide?

4 Write steps to insert and play a video on slide?

 Unit V

Lesson 16
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

Structure

16.1 Objectives

16.2 History of Internet?

16.3 What is the Internet?

16.4 How does information travel through the Internet?

16.5 Connecting using an ISP

16.6 How does the connection work from home

16.7 What is the World Wide Web?

16.8 How does the web work?

16.9 The advantages of Internet

16.10 The disadvantages of Internet

16.11Exercises

16.1 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 Learn about history of Internet

 Define Internet

 How information travel through Internet

 Learn about World Wide Web

 Understand advantages and disadvantages of Internet

16.2 History of Internet?

It’s the cold war and the US government had a problem; if we have a
nuclear war how are we going to maintain communications? If one city is
destroyed on the US eastern seaboard, all communications in the east will
be lost. A US military agency called Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) was charged with solving the problem. They devised a
communication system that would still work if one or more "nodes" of the
system were destroyed. A kind of communications web, that if one link of
the web was broken, information could flow around the broken link to get to
its final destination.

Later, in 1969, ARPA linked university computers and researchers to the

network to assist them in conducting basic research through information
sharing. This project became known as the ARPAnet. In 1977 ARPAnet
engineers realized that the new communications network was going to grow
into something much larger than originally anticipated so new
communication technology would be required. They devised a
communication protocol known as TCP/IP, or transmission control
protocol/internet protocol. TCP/IP remains the fundamental way computer
file are moved around the Internet today.

Under TCP/IP a file is broken into smaller parts called "packets" by the file
server. Each packet is assigned an IP (Internet protocol) address of the
computer it has to travel to. As the packet moves through the network it is
"switched" by a number of servers along the way toward its destination. The
IP address tells those servers which way to switch the packet. Each time the
packet is switched a "wrapper" is added to the packet – this way we can tell
how many computers and which computer handled the file while it was in
transit. In Australia, a file coming from the States can be switched up to 15
times, that is fifteen computers were required to deliver the packet to the
destination computer.

The packets do not necessarily travel together on the Internet. Packets from
the same file may travel via different paths through different servers, but
toward the same destination. Packaging technology allows us to use limited
bandwidth most efficiently. It means parts of a file can be shared across a
number of phone lines instead of having to find one phone line to put a large
file into. In this respect TCP/IP can be liken to a group of 10 hitchhikers
(packets) who can not get a lift all together, but easily get lifts if they break
up, going by different cars and maybe by different roads… but agree to meet
up at a particular point in the future.
On January 1, 1983, all of the ARPAnet was switched to TCP/IP and became
what is now known as the Internet. The US National Science Foundation
(NSF) funded most of the early development of the Internet, but on April 30,
1995, the U.S. government released the Internet to commercial networks
and service providers and shut down the old National Science Foundation
backbone.

In March 1989, Tim Berners-Lee at the European Laboratory for Particle

Physics (CERN) proposed a new set of protocols for Internet information
distribution. They were; http (hyper text transfer protocol), ftp (file transfer
protocol), pop (post office protocol), smtp (simple mail transfer protocol)
and nntp (newsgroups protocol). These five protocols became known as the
World Wide Web protocols and the W3 protocols and were soon adopted by
the early Internet community. A consortium of organizations was formed to
oversee Internet development and became known as the W3 Consortium.

No organization or individual owns the Internet.

Today however, we have specific software to address each of the W3

protocols. We have "browsers" to help us locate and look at web pages. We
have e-mail clients to help us create, send and receive e-mail. We have
newsreaders just to read news, FTP clients just to download program files
and Chat clients to help us do Internet Relay Chat. Today you don’t have to
be a rocket scientist to work out where to find information and what to do
when you get there.

16.3 What is the Internet?

Strictly speaking, the Internet is a communications protocol, a language which

computers use to talk to each other, called TCP/IP. This language is designed to
enable computers to exchange data reliably and efficiently, though not necessarily
quickly. More generally, the term is used to signify the network of computers
connected using TCP/IP: the connecting wires and the equipment used to route the
information (the network infrastructure), and the computers themselves. Even
more generally, the Internet is often used to indicate the community of users and
computers collectively. Though a very broad definition, this is perhaps the most
useful and interesting the Internet is really an information-based society.

16.4 How does information travel through the Internet?

The Internet is based on packet-switched protocols. Information is carried in

packets, which can be imagined as small parcels being passed from computer to
computer. Large chunks of data are usually broken up into several smaller packets
before being sent through the network. The delivery mechanism, or protocol, that is
used to encode the packet ensures safe transit, and provides a way of
reconstructing the data when it reaches its destination. The protocols used on the
Internet are referred to as TCP/IP, standing for Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol. As a switched network, the physical connections between
computers do not matter as far as Internet traffic is concerned — the protocols
ensure that guaranteed information delivery is more important than speed or use of
a particular route. This means that a sequence of packets might arrive out of order,
with some travelling through the net by a faster, shorter route than others.TCP/IP
provides the means for your software to piece together those packets into
meaningful data. The ability to take different routes through the network is a
fundamental part of the original design of TCP/IP, as it allows the Internet to route
around damaged areas of the network.

16.5 Connecting using an ISP

An ISP, or Internet Service Provider, is a company that provides you with a point of
access to the Internet. When you connect to your ISP, your computer (or your own
network) becomes an extension of the Internet itself whilst you remain connected.

16.6 How does the connection work from home?

To connect from home you need several things. Apart from a computer (obviously!)
you'll need a phone connection, a modem or ADSL router, and some Internet
software. Things will be easier if you're using a relatively recent operation system,
such as Windows Vista/XP or MacOSX, but it’s possible to connect with older or
more obscure systems. With a modem and the appropriate software, you can dial
up another modem connected to another computer, and establish a network
connection with it. Usually, this computer is linked into the Internet, and so you're
online. With an ADSL modem or router, a similar procedure happens, but a filter
splits the telephone line into voice and data (low and high frequencies) and your
router negotiates a connection with the ADSL equipment in the telephone
exchange.
Frequencies used on an ADSL line: PSTN is the normal telephone ("voice") usage,
and the upstream/downstream areas are for data. Note the unequal proportions of
the data range (i.e. asymmetric DSL).

16.7 What is the World Wide Web?

The Web consists of many millions of internet-connected computers, each with

information on them that their owner has decided to share. These documents can
be formed of anything from plain text to multimedia or even 3D objects. These
computers, called servers, deliver this information over the Internet to client
computers (such as your PC at home) using a protocol called HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol). The HTTP protocol is very simple; essentially it just provides a
mechanism that allows a client to request a document, and a server to send that
document. As the web has become more and more popular, its capabilities have
increased to include such things as graphics, animations, scripts and even complete
computer programs, all embedded into the pages of the documents. Essentially, the
web is the easiest to use of all the internet toolkit this is partly why it has become
so popular. Various mechanisms allow the viewer to move around (navigate) the
document easily. Clicking on a hyperlink moves you to another part of the
document, or to another document altogether.

16.8 How does the web work?

The backbone of the web is the network of web servers across the world. These are
really just computers that have a particular type of software running on them -
software that knows how to speak the HTTP protocol and knows which information
stored on the computer should be made accessible through the web. It's possible to
turn almost any computer into a web server by downloading and installing server
software (the most popular is Apache, see http://www.apache.org/), though it's not
recommended unless you know what you're doing!
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is actually quite simple. The web browser
(or client) makes a request of a webpage to the server, and the web server passes
the page back to the browser (see Figure, “How HTTP works: retrieving a web
page”). More cleverly, it also passes back any images, sounds or other media items
back to the browser too. The web browser is also particularly clever in the way it
displays what it retrieves. Web pages are written in HTML, and the browser knows
how to display these correctly, whether you have a huge flat screen or a tiny screen
on a handheld device or phone. The HTML language gives the browser hints on how
to display things, and the browser decides the final layout itself.

16.9 The advantages of Internet

Following are the advantages provided by the Internet:

1. Information: The biggest benefit offered by the Internet is information.

It functions as a valuable resource of information. You can find any
type of information on any subject with the help of the search engines
like Yahoo and Google.
2. Communication: The primary goal of the Internet is communication. It
has done extremely well in this field, however the development
process is still going on to make it more dependable and quick. By
sending an e-mail, we can contact a person who is physically present
thousand miles away within the fraction of a second’s time.
3. Entertainment: Internet functions as a popular medium of
entertainment. A wide variety of entertainment including video games,
music, movies, chat room, news and others can be accessed through
the Internet.
4. E-commerce: E-commerce is the idea that is implemented for any
form of commercial strategy or business transactions that entails
transmission of data from one corner of the world to another. E-
commerce has become a fantastic option through which you can shop
anything.
5. Formation of communities Internet helps in formation of communities
or forums. Here a number of people can participate in different types
of debates and discussions express their views and gather valuable
knowledge.
6. Services: A variety of services are offered via Internet, for example
job searching, online banking, buying movie tickets, hotel reservations
 and consultation services etc. When you avail these services offline,
they become more expensive.

16.10 The disadvantages of Internet

Following are the disadvantages of Internet:

1. Spamming: Spamming denotes distribution of unsolicited e-mails in

large numbers. They are meaningless and they unnecessarily block the
whole system. These activities are treated as illegal.
2. Theft of personal details while using the Internet, there is high
probability that your personal details like name, address and credit
card number may be accessed and used for fraudulent purposes.
3. Pornography: Pornography is definitely harmful for your children.
There are numerous pornographic sites available over the Internet and
watching any of those can have very bad influence on the mental
health of your children.
4. Virus threat: Virus is a program that interrupts the usual operation of
your personal computer system. PCs linked to the Internet have high
probability of virus attacks and as a result of this your hard disk can
crash, giving you a lot of trouble.

Exercise

Q Answer the following Questions

1) What do you mean by Internet?

2) Explain briefly about World Wide Web?

3) How does information travel through the Internet?

4) Define HTTP

5) What are the advantages and Disadvantages of Internet?

 Lesson 17

INTRODUCTION TO E-COMMERCE

Structure

17.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2 OBJECTIVES

17.3 VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF E-COMMERCE

17.4 MYTHS ABOUT E-COMMERCE

17.5 COMMON E-COMMERCE TERMINOLOGIES

17.6 E-COMMERCE TECHNOLOGY

17.7 TYPES OF E-COMMERCE

17.8 Exercise

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Today, some considerable time after the so called ‘dot com/internet

Revolution’, electronic commerce (e-commerce) remains a relatively new,
emerging and constantly changing area of Business Management and
Information Technology. There has been and continues to be much publicity
and discussion about e-commerce. However, there remains a sense of
confusion, suspicion and misunderstanding surrounding the area, which has
been exacerbated by the different contexts in which electronic commerce is
used, coupled with the myriad related buzzwords and acronyms. This lesson
aims to consolidate the major definitions that have arisen from electronic
commerce and to provide an understanding of its common terminologies and
give some technologies in e-commerce.

17.2 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Know the various definitions of e-commerce
 Know some common terminologies in e-commerce and
  Discuss some e-commerce technologies

17.3 VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF E-COMMERCE

In order to understand electronic commerce it is important to identify the

different terms that are used, and to assess their origin and usage.
‘Electronic Commerce is sharing business information, maintaining business
relationships and conducting business transactions by means of
telecommunications networks’. He maintains that in its purest form,
electronic commerce has existed for over 40 years, originating from the
electronic transmission of messages during the Berlin airlift in 1948. From
this; Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) was the next stage of e-commerce
development. In the 1960s a cooperative effort between industry groups
produced a first attempt at common electronic data formats. The formats,
however, were only for purchasing, transportation and finance data, and
were used primarily for intra-industry transactions. It was not until the late
1970s that work began for National Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
standards, which developed well into the early 1990s. EDI is the electronic
transfer of a standardized business transaction between a sender and
receiver computer, over some kind of private network or value added
network (van). Both sides would have to have the same application software
and the data would be exchanged in an extremely rigorous format. In
sectors such as retail, automotive, defense and heavy manufacturing, EDI
was developed to integrate information across larger parts of an
organization’s value chain from design to maintenance so that
manufacturers could share information with designers, maintenance and
other partners and stakeholders. Before the widespread uptake and
commercial use of the internet, the EDI system was very expensive to run
mainly because of the high cost of the private networks. Thus, uptake was
limited largely to cash-rich multinational corporations using their financial
strength to pressure and persuade (with subsidies) smaller suppliers to
implement EDI systems, often at a very high cost. By 1996 no more than
50,000 companies in Europe and 44,000 in the USA were using EDI,
representing less than 1 per cent of the total number of companies in each
of the respective continents. Electronic commerce has been re-defined by
the dynamics of the internet and traditional e-commerce is rapidly moving to
the internet. With the advent of the internet, the term e-commerce began to
include:

1. Electronic trading of physical goods and of intangibles such as

information.
2. All the steps involved in trade, such as on-line marketing, ordering
payment and support for delivery.
 3. The electronic provision of services such as after sales support or on-
line legal advice.
4. Electronic support for collaboration between companies such as
collaborative on-line design and engineering or virtual business
consultancy teams.

Some of the definitions of e-commerce often heard and found in publications

and the media are:
Electronic commerce (EC) is where business transactions take place via
telecommunications networks, especially the internet. Electronic commerce
describes the buying and selling of products, services, and information via
computer networks including the internet. Electronic commerce is about
doing business electronically.

E-commerce is defined as the conduct of a financial transaction by electronic

means. E-Commerce is one of the most important facets of the Internet to
have emerged in the recent times. E-commerce or electronic commerce
involves carrying out business over the Internet with the assistance of
computers, which are linked to each other forming a network. To be specific
e-commerce would be buying and selling of goods and services and transfer
of funds through digital communications i.e the internet especially the World
Wide Web.

Electronic commerce or e-commerce refers to a wide range of online

business activities for products and services. It also pertains to “any form of
business transaction in which the parties interact electronically rather than
by physical exchanges or direct physical contact.” E-commerce is the use of
electronic communications and digital information processing technology in
business transactions to create, transform, and redefine relationships for
value creation between or among organizations, and between organizations
and individuals.

E-commerce is usually associated with buying and selling over the Internet,
or conducting any transaction involving the transfer of ownership or rights to
use goods or services through a computer-mediated network.

17.4 MYTHS ABOUT E-COMMERCE

One of the myths about e-commerce is that it is a comparatively recent

phenomenon. Even in the early days of the internet when connections
between individual computers were achieved by hand dialing using a
telephone, there were a number of internet companies which had been set
up to sell photographs and other graphic images of compromised ladies and
gentlemen. The earliest e20 commerce applications were those associated
with pornographers; indeed, a number of commentators have opined that
the demands made upon the internet by pornographers have speeded the
development of a number of technologies such as streaming video and the
deployment of new business models.

Another myth about e-commerce is that the development of e-commerce

systems is radically different from other commercial systems. I would say
that it is somewhat different in that you have to worry about many of the
problems that occur with distributing processing in a network; however,
many of the functions required in the majority of e-commerce systems can
be found in their conventional counterparts. Indeed, many e-commerce
systems which are fronted by web servers still contain computers which
were common ten years ago and are programmed in languages such as
COBOL and C – languages which are not automatically associated with
internet software development. Much of the analyses required for an e-
commerce system are the same that you would carry out for a conventional
system and also quite a lot of the design; however, they do differ in that the
design of such systems is a lot trickier, for example to guarantee response
times from a collection of computers communicating over the internet is a
tough task.

17.5 COMMON E-COMMERCE TERMINOLOGIES

In e-commerce a lot of terms are used. Below are some major terms used
and their various definitions.

Ad Clicks:
Number of times that a viewer clicks on an ad banner.

Address Verification:
Process used by a credit card processor or other party to verify that a
customer's ordering address matches their records.

Automated Clearing House:

An ACH transaction is an electronic fund transfer through the Federal
Reserve Bank from a checking or savings account

Authorization:
The process of checking the validity and available balance of a customer's
credit card before the transaction can be accepted.
Bandwidth:
The amount of information (web pages, text, graphics, video, sound, etc)
that is downloaded through a connection.
Banner:
An interactive ad placed on a webpage that is linked to an external
advertiser's website or another internal page within the same website. "Card
Not Present" Merchant Account: An account that allows merchants to
process credit cards without a face to face transaction with the purchaser.

Certificate Authority:
A Certificate Authority (CA) is a third party which verifies the identity of
merchants and their sites. The certificate authority issues a certificate (also
called a digital certificate or an authentication certificate) to an applicant
company, which can then put the certificate up on its site.

Commerce Server:
The server that manages and maintains all transactional and backend data
for a commerce website.

Cookies:
Cookies collect information as a user surfs the web and feed the information
back to a web server. An online vendor's site will send cookies (which is
most simply an identification number) to a user's computer, where it is
stored in a file on the user's hard drive and serves as a digital identifier tag
that notifies the vendor whenever that user re-enters the vendor's website.

Cross Promotion:
The promotion of a website through other traditional forms of advertising
such as magazines, newspapers, radio, TV, billboards, etc.

Delayed Settlement Processing:

Once a transaction has been authorized, the merchant must ship the hard
goods before a transaction can be settled. Delayed settlements are stored
online until the merchant selects the transactions for settlement.

Digital Certificate:
A Digital Certificate issued by a Certificate Authority certifies that a merchant
and a particular website are connected, just as a photo on your driver's
license connects your identity with your personal details. A digital certificate
verifies to the shopper that the virtual store is actually associated with a
physical address and phone number which can increase the shoppers
confidence in the authenticity of the merchant.
Distribution Channel:
The method through which a product is sold including retailers, catalogers,
internet commerce websites, etc.

Domain Name:
The unique name of an internet website.

Download:
The transfer of information from the internet to the browsing computer.

Drop Ship:
The shipping of a product directly from the manufacturer to the customer
without requiring inventory carrying by the retailer.

Electronic Software Distribution:

Software that can be purchased and downloaded directly from the internet.

Hit:
Each time a Web server sends a file to a browser, a "hit" is recorded in the
server file logs.

Home Page:
The first page through which a viewer usually enters a website.

HTML:
Hyper Text Markup Language is the standardized language which allows web
browsers to interpret websites.

HTTP:
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is a protocol which allows computers to
communicate with each other.

Keywords:
Words that may be used by viewers searching for information. Keywords can
be purchased from search engine companies so that an appropriate ad
banner may be displayed when a viewer searches on a particular word.

Merchant Account:
A "bank account" established with a payment processor for the settlement of
credit card transactions. Any merchant who wants to take credit card orders
must establish a merchant account. Internet merchants need a "Card Not
Present Merchant Account.
“Off-Line Transaction Processing”:
Capture of order and credit card information for later authorization and
transaction processing through a traditional card swipe terminal or through a
computer.

Order Confirmation:
An email message notifying a customer that an order has been received and
will be processed.

Order Management System:

A system that accepts orders and initiates a process that results in the
outbound shipment of a finished good.

Real Time Credit Card Processing:

On-line authorization of a credit card number in real time informing the
merchant that the card has been approved.

Settlement:
Once the goods have been shipped to the customer, the merchant can key a
transaction for settlement at which time the customer's credit card is
charged for the transaction and the proceeds are deposited into the
merchant account.

SSL:
Secure Socket Layer is an encryption technology on the server that
scrambles important data such as credit card numbers and order information
when it is being stored or passed from one computer to another.

Shipping Confirmation:
An email message that notifies a customer that an order has been shipped.

URL:
Uniform Resource Locator which describes the "address" for a document on
the internet.

Web bugs (or pixel tags):

Web bugs are images--usually invisible because they are only one pixel wide
by one pixel high--that are embedded in web pages and HTML-formatted
emails. Advertising networks often use web bugs on web pages to add
information to personal profiles stored in cookies and to collect statistics
about how many hits the site gets.
17.6 E-COMMERCE TECHNOLOGY

A wide variety of E-commerce technology is available to beginning e-

commerce merchants. It can be overwhelming determining the best
solutions for your ecommerce website. E-commerce technology options
include:
 Affiliate Marketing- a method of marketing where other websites can
sign up to sell your products for a commission.
 Content Management- tools for managing additions and changes to
web site content.
 Customer Service Management- the management of the relationships
with customers, including the capture, storage and analysis of
customer information.
 E-mail Marketing Services- services that facilitate the sending of mass
emails to your customer base. It is important that your customers give
you permission to send e-mails to them- this is called permission
based emailing.
 Inventory Management- the management of the inventories including
ordering, quantities, and release dates.
 Mobile Commerce- systems that can offer sales and promotions on
mobile devices such as web enabled cell phones.
 Payments Processing- allows your ecommerce website to accept credit
card and electronic check payments in real time to help prevent fraud.
 Search Engine Marketing- a set of Internet marketing strategies that
are designed to promote a Website’s visibility and Web traffic.
 Search Tools- search systems that are specific to searching on your
ecommerce website.
 Shipping Rates- systems that connect with existing shipping systems
to provide exact shipping rates for selected products on your
ecommerce site.
 Web Analytics- the collection, measurement and analysis of user
activity on a website to understand and help achieve the intended
objective of the website.
 Web Design- the design of the look and feel of your e-commerce
website or the customization of the look of an ecommerce system.
 Web Hosting-a web hosting company is a company that specializes in
hosting web sites for other companies on their computers.
 Web Site Performance Monitoring- systems that automatically check
that your website is up and working.
17.7 TYPES OF E-COMMERCE

The major types of e-commerce are:

1. Business-to-Business (B2B)
2. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
3. Business-to-Government (B2G)
4. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)

1. BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS (B2B) E-COMMERCE

B2B e-commerce is simply defined as e-commerce between companies. This

is the type of e-commerce that deals with relationships between and among
businesses. About 80% of e-commerce is of this type, and most experts
predict that B2B ecommerce will continue to grow faster than the B2C
segment. The B2B market has two primary components: e-frastructure and
e-markets. E-frastructure is the architecture of B2B, primarily consisting of
the following:

 logistics - transportation, warehousing and distribution (e.g., Procter

and Gamble);
 application service providers - deployment, hosting and management
of packaged software from a central facility (e.g., Oracle and
Linkshare);
 outsourcing of functions in the process of e-commerce, such as
Webhosting, security and customer care solutions (e.g., outsourcing
providers such as eShare, NetSales, iXL Enterprises and Universal
Access);
 auction solutions software for the operation and maintenance of real-
time auctions in the Internet (e.g., Moai Technologies and OpenSite
Technologies);
 content management software for the facilitation of Web site content
management and delivery (e.g., Interwoven and ProcureNet); and
Web-based commerce enablers (e.g., Commerce One, a browser-
based, XML-enabled purchasing automation software).

E-markets are simply defined as Web sites where buyers and sellers interact
with each other and conduct transactions. The more common B2B examples
and best practice models are IBM, Hewlett Packard (HP), Cisco and Dell.
Cisco, for instance, receives over 90% of its product orders over the
Internet. Most B2B applications are in the areas of supplier management
(especially purchase order processing), inventory management (i.e.,
managing order-ship-bill cycles), distribution management (especially in the
transmission of shipping documents), channel management (i.e.,
information dissemination on changes in operational conditions), and
payment management (e.g., electronic payment systems or EPS). The
impact of B2B markets on the economy of developing countries is evident in
the following:

Transaction costs: There are three cost areas that are significantly reduced
through the conduct of B2B e-commerce. First is the reduction of search
costs, as buyers need not go through multiple intermediaries to search for
information about suppliers, products and prices as in a traditional supply
chain. In terms of effort, time and money spent, the Internet is a more
efficient information channel than its traditional counterpart. In B2B
markets, buyers and sellers are gathered together into a single online
trading community, reducing search costs even further. Second is the
reduction in the costs of processing transactions (e.g. invoices, purchase
orders and payment schemes), as B2B allows for the automation of
transaction processes and therefore, the quick implementation of the same
compared to other channels (such as the telephone and fax). Efficiency in
trading processes and transactions is also enhanced through the B2B e-
market’s ability to process sales through online auctions. Third, online
processing improves inventory management and logistics.

Disintermediation: Through B2B e-markets, suppliers are able to interact

and transact directly with buyers, thereby eliminating intermediaries and
distributors. However, new forms of intermediaries are emerging. For
instance, e-markets themselves can be considered as intermediaries
because they come between suppliers and customers in the supply chain.

Transparency in pricing: Among the more evident benefits of e-markets is

the increase in price transparency. The gathering of a large number of
buyers and sellers in a single e-market reveals market price information and
transaction processing to participants. The Internet allows for the publication
of information on a single purchase or transaction, making the information
readily accessible and available to all members of the e-market. Increased
price transparency has the effect of pulling down price differentials in the
market. In this context, buyers are provided much more time to compare
prices and make better buying decisions. Moreover, B2B e-markets expand
borders for dynamic and negotiated pricing wherein multiple buyers and
sellers collectively participate in price-setting and two-way auctions. In such
environments, prices can be set through automatic matching of bids and
offers. In the e-marketplace, the requirements of both buyers and sellers are
thus aggregated to reach competitive prices, which are lower than those
resulting from individual actions.
Economies of scale and network effects: The rapid growth of B2B e-markets
creates traditional supply-side cost-based economies of scale. Furthermore,
the bringing together of a significant number of buyers and sellers provides
the demand-side economies of scale or network effects. Each additional
incremental participant in the e-market creates value for all participants in
the demand side. More participants form a critical mass, which is key in
attracting more users to an e-market.

2. BUSINESS-TO-CONSUMER (B2C) E-COMMERCE

Business-to-consumer e-commerce, or commerce between companies and
consumers, involves customers gathering information; purchasing physical
goods (i.e., tangibles such as books or consumer products) or information
goods (or goods of electronic material or digitized content, such as software,
or e-books); and, for information goods, receiving products over an
electronic network. It is the second largest and the earliest form of e-
commerce. Its origins can be traced to online retailing (or e-tailing). Thus,
the more common B2C business models are the online retailing companies
such as Amazon.com, Drugstore.com, Beyond.com, Barnes and Noble and
ToysRus. Other B2C examples involving information goods are E-Trade and
Travelocity. The more common applications of this type of e-commerce are
in the areas of purchasing products and information, and personal finance
management, which pertains to the management of personal investments
and finances with the use of online banking tools (e.g., Quicken). B2C e-
commerce reduces transactions costs (particularly search costs) by
increasing consumer access to information and allowing consumers to find
the most competitive price for a product or service. B2C e-commerce also
reduces market entry barriers since the cost of putting up and maintaining a
Web site is much cheaper than installing a “brick-and-mortar” structure for a
firm. In the case of information goods, B2C e-commerce is even more
attractive because it saves firms from factoring in the additional cost of a
physical distribution network. Moreover, for countries with a growing and
robust Internet population, delivering information goods becomes
increasingly feasible.

Types of B2C e-commerce

Not all electronic commerce is about retail. Here is an extended list of types
of B2C electronic commerce. When you are looking at sites you should try to
identify which of the following is taking place:

1. Storefront (Retail) - products offered for sale with revenue on sale.

2. Shopping mall - multiple retailers with revenue from commission or
space hire.
3. Auction - vendors or buyers pay fixed price or percentage
 4. Portal - aggregation of services and content with mixed revenues
5. Name your price - site offers buyers to sellers for commission or fixed
fee.
6. Comparison pricing - site compares retailers and receives introduction
fee or advertising.
7. Demand sensitive pricing - site combines group demand to buy in
bulk.
8. Free products or services - site makes money from collecting data
from visitors.
9. Business exchanges - site facilitates transactions between companies
for a fee
10. Recruitment - job hunters or companies pay to meet
11. Affiliate schemes - site offers introduction fees to other sites
12. Service rental - site allows software services to be rented
13. Membership - fee for regular content or services
14. Gambling - lose money by paying fees
15. Classified advertising - advertise for a fee Components of a system
for a B2C retailer
16. Shop front (web front-end, search, browse)

3. BUSINESS-TO-GOVERNMENT (B2G) E-COMMERCE

Business-to-government e-commerce or B2G is generally defined as
commerce between companies and the public sector. It refers to the use of
the Internet for public procurement, licensing procedures, and other
government-related operations. This kind of e-commerce has two features:
first, the public sector assumes a pilot/leading role in establishing e-
commerce; and second, it is assumed that the public sector has the greatest
need for making its procurement system more effective. Web-based
purchasing policies increase the transparency of the procurement process
(and reduce the risk of irregularities). To date, however, the size of the B2G
e-commerce market as a component of total e-commerce is insignificant, as
government e-procurement systems remain undeveloped.

4. CONSUMER-TO-CONSUMER (C2C) E-COMMERCE

Consumer-to-consumer e-commerce or C2C is simply commerce between
private individuals or consumers. This type of e-commerce is characterized
by the growth of electronic marketplaces and online auctions, particularly in
vertical industries where firms/businesses can bid for what they want from
among multiple suppliers. It perhaps has the greatest potential for
developing new markets. This type of e-commerce comes in at least three
forms:
  auctions facilitated at a portal, such as eBay, which allows online real-
time bidding on items being sold in the Web;
 peer-to-peer systems, such as the Napster model (a protocol for
sharing files between users used by chat forums similar to IRC) and
other file exchange and later money exchange models; and classified
ads at portal sites such as Excite Classifieds and eWanted (an
interactive, online marketplace where buyers and sellers can negotiate
and which features “Buyer Leads & Want Ads”).
 Consumer-to-business (C2B) transactions involve reverse auctions,
which empower the consumer to drive transactions. There is little
information on the relative size of global C2C e-commerce. However,
C2C figures of popular C2C sites such as eBay and Napster indicate
that this market is quite large. These sites produce millions of dollars
in sales every day.
E-commerce can be said to consist of:
 E-tailing or "virtual storefronts" on Web sites with online catalogs,
sometimes gathered into a "virtual mall" As a place for direct retail
shopping, with its 24-hour availability, a global reach, the ability to
interact and provide custom information and ordering, and multimedia
prospects, the Web is rapidly becoming a multibillion dollar source of
revenue for the world's businesses. A number of businesses already
report considerable success.
 The gathering and use of demographic data through Web contacts In
early 1999, it was widely recognized that because of the interactive
nature of the Internet, companies could gather data about prospects
and customers in unprecedented amounts -through site registration,
questionnaires, and as part of taking orders. The issue of whether data
was being collected with the knowledge and permission of market
subjects had been raised.
 Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), EDI is the exchange of business
data using an understood data format. It predates today's Internet.
EDI involves data exchange among parties that know each other well
and make arrangements for one-to-one (or point-to-point) connection,
usually dial-up.
 E-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospects and
established customers (for example, with newsletters) E-commerce is
also conducted through the more limited electronic forms of
communication called e-mail, facsimile or fax, and the emerging use of
telephone calls over the Internet. Most of this is business-to-business,
 with some companies attempting to use e-mail and fax for unsolicited
ads (usually viewed as online junk mail or spam) to consumers and
other business prospects. An increasing number of business Web sites
offer e-mail newsletters for subscribers. A new trend is optin e-mail in
which Web users voluntarily sign up to receive e-mail, usually
sponsored or containing ads, about product categories or other
subjects they are interested in.
 Business-to-business buying and selling Thousands of companies that
sell products to other companies have discovered that the Web
provides not only a 24-hour-a-day showcase for their products but a
quick way to reach the right people in a company for more
information.
 The security of business transactions Security includes authenticating
business transactions, controlling access to resources such as Web
pages for registered or selected users, encrypting communications,
and, in general, ensuring the privacy and effectiveness of transactions.
Among the most widely-used security technologies is the Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL).

17.8 Exercise

1. Define E-commerce.
2. What are different types of E-Commerce.
3. What do you mean by the following:

Off-Line Transaction Processing, Merchant Account, HTTP, Order

Confirmation, Settlement
References:

1. V.Rajaraman “ Computer Fundamentals”.

2. Taxili “Fundamentals of computers”.
3. Computer fundamentals “ PGDCA course Kashmir University “.