Indian Knowledge System

Unit 1: Importance of Indian Knowledge System

Do We Need the Indian Knowledge System?

Many people wonder why we should care about the Indian Knowledge System (IKS). It’s
not just about old traditions; IKS is crucial for protecting our heritage, ensuring
economic security, and boosting national pride.
Take the neem tree, for example. For centuries, farmers in India have known that neem
leaves can repel insects. However, a US company patented a process using neem, even
though Indian scientists had been researching it for years. This situation highlights the
need for India to protect its traditional knowledge against foreign claims.
In contrast, India successfully challenged a US patent on turmeric, a plant widely used in
Indian medicine and cooking. After a lengthy legal battle, the US Patent Office revoked
the patent, proving that our traditional knowledge is valuable and deserving of
protection.
These cases show that the current patent system often allows biopiracy, where foreign
entities claim patents on our indigenous knowledge. Many plants, like Amla and Karela,
are part of this traditional knowledge and should be protected.
India's fight for its turmeric patent was not just about economics; it was about national
pride and showing that we can defend our knowledge. This requires documenting our
traditional practices and building scientific evidence to support our claims.
India has a rich civilizational history, with knowledge accumulated over thousands of
years. Despite this, there’s a common belief that all significant knowledge comes from
the West, which is misleading. India has made major contributions in areas like
mathematics, steel-making, and astronomy, influencing global development.
Unfortunately, much of this knowledge has been lost over time, especially due to
changes in our education system about 200 years ago. The new system favored Western
knowledge and neglected our traditional practices, leading to a loss of continuity in
knowledge transmission.
Historically, knowledge was passed down through generations in a teacher-student
relationship, often within families. However, the shift to modern education has
disrupted this process. We need to revive interest in our traditional knowledge and
integrate it into our education system to ensure its survival and relevance today.
Importance of the Indian Knowledge System

1. Identity
The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) plays a crucial role in shaping and preserving the
identity of the Indian subcontinent. It provides a sense of continuity and connection to
historical roots, instilling a deep sense of pride and belonging among Indians. The rich
traditions of philosophy, science, art, and literature that constitute IKS reflect the unique
intellectual and cultural heritage of India. Understanding and appreciating IKS helps in
fostering a strong national identity and pride in India's contributions to global
civilisation.
2. Culture
IKS is an integral part of Indian culture, encompassing various aspects of daily life,
rituals, customs, and social norms. It includes a wealth of knowledge about traditional
arts, music, dance, literature, and architecture. This cultural wealth not only enriches
individual lives but also strengthens community bonds and social cohesion. The practice
and preservation of cultural traditions derived from IKS ensure that the values, wisdom,
and artistic expressions of past generations continue to thrive and evolve.
3. Received Wisdom
IKS represents the accumulated wisdom of centuries, passed down through generations.
This received wisdom includes practical knowledge in fields like agriculture, medicine,
and environmental conservation, as well as philosophical and ethical teachings. The
preservation and study of this wisdom can provide valuable insights and solutions to
contemporary challenges. For example, Ayurvedic principles can inform modern
healthcare practices, and traditional agricultural methods can contribute to sustainable
farming.

4. Economical Value
IKS has significant economic value, both historically and in contemporary times.
Traditional knowledge systems have contributed to various sectors such as agriculture,
medicine, and trade. For instance, Ayurvedic medicine and wellness practices have
generated substantial economic activity, both domestically and internationally.
Traditional crafts and textiles, which draw upon ancient techniques and designs,
continue to be important economic drivers in rural areas. Additionally, the principles of
IKS can inform modern business practices and innovation, promoting sustainable and
ethical economic development.
Another example, a US company patented pigeon pea extracts for treating various health
issues, even though these uses were known in India for a long time. This highlights the
importance of gathering evidence from our traditional practices to protect our
knowledge. If we don’t preserve ancient knowledge, we risk losing economic benefits
tied to it.
Conclusion
The Indian Knowledge System is not only a repository of ancient wisdom but also a
living tradition that continues to influence and enrich modern society. Its importance is
multifaceted, contributing to the identity and cultural heritage of India, preserving and
transmitting received wisdom, and providing significant economic value. By embracing
and integrating IKS into contemporary life, we can foster a deeper understanding of our
past and create a more sustainable and enriched future.

Defining and understanding IKS

Definition of Indian Knowledge System (IKS)
The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) refers to the body of knowledge that has been
generated, refined, and transmitted in the Indian subcontinent over millennia. This
encompasses various fields such as philosophy, science, mathematics, astronomy,
medicine, architecture, the arts, and social sciences. IKS is deeply rooted in the cultural,
spiritual, and intellectual traditions of India, and it is characterised by a holistic and
integrative approach to understanding the world.

Breaking Down IKS

To understand IKS better, let’s look at the three words in the term:
Indian
Before the partition of India in 1947, the Indian subcontinent was a unified cultural and
historical entity. The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) developed and flourished across
the entire region, encompassing present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and other
neighbouring areas.
When we say "Indian," we refer to knowledge created by the people of the Indian
subcontinent, not just the modern nation of India. It includes India before participation,
which is called as Akhanda Bharat. Despite various rulers and changes over time, the
societies in this area share common cultural and social practices.
Additionally, only knowledge created by people who lived in this region counts as
"Indian knowledge." While many foreign travellers studied and wrote about India, their
accounts are seen as "about IKS," not part of it.
Examples:
Vedas: The Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda were composed in the
northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, encompassing areas that are now parts
of Pakistan and India.
Upanishads: Philosophical texts that form the basis of Hindu thought were composed in
various parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Indus Valley Civilization: Located in present-day Pakistan and northwest India, this
civilization is known for its advanced urban planning, architecture, and use of
standardized weights and measures.
Ancient Universities: Nalanda (Bihar) and Takshashila (now in Pakistan) were
prominent centres of learning, attracting students from across the world. They taught a
wide range of subjects including science, philosophy, and medicine.
Knowledge
The second part of IKS is "knowledge," which often comes from personal experiences
and wisdom gained over time. This can be learned through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. While knowledge can be shared in written form, much of
it in India has been passed down orally through traditions and folklore. For this subject,
"knowledge" refers mainly to formally documented sources, though both written and
oral knowledge are important.
System
The term "System" refers to how this vast amount of knowledge is organized and
accessed. With so much information available, it can be overwhelming for someone new
to IKS. Therefore, it's crucial to collect, categorize, and arrange this knowledge logically.
A structured approach helps connect different pieces of knowledge and shows how they
relate to each other, making it easier to understand the overall system. The term
"System" in Indian Knowledge System denotes the organized and structured manner in
which this knowledge has been developed, codified, and transmitted.
Summary
In short, IKS includes all the knowledge generated in the Indian subcontinent over time,
organised in a way that makes it accessible and understandable. It combines identity,
history, and culture into a comprehensive framework that can guide current and future
generations.

The IKS Corpus: A Classification Framework

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) corpus can be broadly classified into literary and
non-literary traditions. Here is a detailed elaboration based on the provided framework:
1. Literary Traditions
A. Sanatana Dharma
Sanatana Dharma, often referred to as Hinduism, forms a major part of the literary
tradition in the Indian Knowledge System. It can be further divided into Core and Other
categories.
i. Core
The core elements of Sanatana Dharma include the 14 Vidyasthana (knowledge bases):
1.​ Four Vedas:
 o​ Rigveda: Hymns and praises to various deities.
o​ Samaveda: Melodic chants and rituals.
o​ Yajurveda: Prose mantras and sacrificial rites.
o​ Atharvaveda: Hymns and spells addressing everyday life issues.
1. Rigveda (ऋग्वेद)
The Rigveda is the oldest of the four Vedas and is considered the foundation of Vedic
knowledge. It consists of over 1,000 hymns (called suktas) dedicated to various deities
such as Agni (fire), Indra (king of gods), Soma, Varuna, and others. These hymns are
mostly composed in poetic form and were chanted during rituals to invoke blessings for
health, prosperity, rain, victory in battles, and general well-being. The Rigveda provides
insights into the early Vedic society, its beliefs, nature worship, and moral values. It also
reflects the importance of natural forces and the harmony between humans and the
divine.

2. Samaveda (सामवेद)
The Samaveda is known as the Veda of melodies. While it borrows many verses from the
Rigveda, its primary focus is on how to sing or chant those hymns musically during
rituals. The word “Sama” means song or melody. It is closely associated with the
ritualistic performance of sacrifices, especially the Soma sacrifice, and was mainly used
by the priests called Udgātṛs. The Samaveda played a vital role in the development of
Indian classical music, as it introduced the principles of musical notes and rhythm. It
transformed spiritual chants into a beautiful, emotional offering to the divine through
sound.

3. Yajurveda (यजर्वे
ु द)
The Yajurveda is a manual for rituals and sacrifices. It contains prose mantras and
instructions for performing yajnas (Vedic rituals). Unlike the Rigveda and Samaveda,
which are poetic and musical, the Yajurveda is more practical and procedural. It guided
priests (mainly Adhvaryus) on how to conduct complex sacrificial ceremonies, including
the proper steps, the correct mantras to chant, and the materials to use. The Yajurveda
exists in two main forms: the Shukla Yajurveda (White Yajurveda) and the Krishna
Yajurveda (Black Yajurveda). It played a central role in maintaining the sacred order and
fulfilling religious duties through proper ritual practices.

4. Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेद)
The Atharvaveda is quite different from the other three Vedas. It deals with everyday
life, health, and practical knowledge. It contains hymns, spells, and charms for healing
illnesses, protecting against evil spirits, bringing good fortune, ensuring success in love
or work, and even resolving conflicts. It reflects the popular beliefs and practices of
ancient Indian society and includes magical formulas along with philosophical ideas.
While the other Vedas focus more on rituals and gods, the Atharvaveda bridges the
spiritual and material aspects of life, making it a unique and valuable source of early
Indian medicine, psychology, and sociology.

2.​ Six Vedangas (Auxiliary Sciences):

o​ Shiksha: Phonetics and pronunciation.
o​ Kalpa: Rituals and ceremonies.
o​ Vyakarana: Grammar.
o​ Nirukta: Etymology and explanation of difficult words.
o​ Chandas: Prosody and meter.
o​ Jyotisha: Astronomy and astrology.

3.​ Darsanas (Nyay and Mimansa)

The term "Darśana" in Sanskrit means "vision" or "viewpoint." In the context of

Indian philosophy, it refers to the different schools of thought that offer systematic
explanations about the nature of reality, the self, and the universe. There are six
classical Darśanas, each with its own unique perspective, yet all rooted in the Vedic
tradition. In the context of Indian philosophy, particularly within the Darśanas, the
relationship between Jeev (Individual Soul), Jagat (World), and Ishwar (God) is a
fundamental concept. These are often referred to as the "Shad-darśanas" or six
philosophical schools.

4.​ Puranas and Itihasas

Purāṇas

The Purāṇas are a genre of ancient Indian literature that encompasses stories, legends,
and genealogies of gods, goddesses, heroes, and sages. They are considered essential for
understanding the cultural and religious history of India. They serve to communicate
moral and ethical teachings through stories and allegories.

●​ Major Purāṇas:
o​ There are 18 major Purāṇas (Mahāpurāṇas) including the Vishnu Purāṇa,
Bhagavata Purāṇa, Shiva Purāṇa, and Devi Bhāgavata Purāṇa, among
others.
o​ These texts are written in a narrative style, often in the form of dialogues
between a narrator and an inquirer.

●​ Role in Chaturdasha Vidyāsthāna:

o​ In the context of Chaturdasha Vidyāsthāna, the Purāṇas provide an
encyclopedic understanding of the universe, blending religious teachings
with folklore, history, and ethics.
o​ They are considered supplementary to the Vedas, offering stories and
teachings that embody the principles found in the Vedas and Vedāngas.

Itihāsas

Itihāsas refer to the epic narratives that are historically oriented and provide a record of
ancient events, wars, and the lives of legendary figures. The two primary Itihāsas in
Indian tradition are the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa.

●​ Content and Purpose:

o​ Mahābhārata: An epic attributed to Vyāsa, the Mahābhārata is one of the
longest epic poems in the world. It narrates the story of the Kurukshetra
War between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, and it includes the
Bhagavad Gita, a philosophical dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna.
o​ Rāmāyaṇa: Composed by the sage Vālmīki, the Rāmāyaṇa tells the story of
Lord Rama, his exile, the abduction of his wife Sita by the demon king
Ravana, and Rama's quest to rescue her.
o​ The Itihāsas combine history with moral and spiritual lessons, portraying
the principles of Dharma (righteousness) through the lives of their
protagonists.
●​ Role in Chaturdasha Vidyāsthāna:
o​ The Itihāsas are revered as authoritative texts that supplement the Vedas.
They are often referred to as "Fifth Veda" because they encapsulate the
essence of Vedic teachings through narrative form.
o​ They play a crucial role in educating the populace about Dharma and
ethical living through illustrative stories of divine incarnations and their
exploits.
o​ The Itihāsas are not just historical records but also serve as sources of
philosophical, spiritual, and practical guidance.
 5.​ Dharmasastra and Smritis

Dharmaśāstra

Dharmaśāstra refers to a genre of Sanskrit texts that provide a codified system of laws
and ethical guidelines. These texts are considered authoritative in matters of religious
and social duties, laying down the rules for personal conduct, social interactions, and
legal disputes.

●​ Content and Purpose:

o​ Dharmaśāstras are prescriptive texts that cover various aspects of life,
including the duties of individuals based on their caste (varna) and stage
of life (ashrama).
o​ They address topics like rituals, duties of kings, judicial procedures,
inheritance laws, penances, and ethical conduct.
o​ The primary aim is to ensure that individuals and society as a whole
adhere to Dharma, thereby maintaining order and righteousness.
●​ Major Dharmaśāstras:
o​ Manu Smṛti: Often regarded as the most authoritative Dharmaśāstra, the
Manu Smṛti provides a comprehensive guide to laws and ethics, covering
aspects like marriage, governance, and criminal justice.
o​ Yajnavalkya Smṛti: This text is known for its detailed treatment of legal
matters, including property rights, contracts, and civil and criminal law.
o​ Parāśara Smṛti: Focuses on the duties and laws specific to the Kali Yuga,
the current age in Hindu cosmology.
●​ Role in Chaturdasha Vidyāsthāna:
o​ Dharmaśāstra serves as a manual for righteous living, outlining the moral
and legal codes that individuals must follow to maintain social harmony
and spiritual progress.
o​ These texts are crucial in the preservation and transmission of Dharma,
ensuring that societal norms and laws are upheld in accordance with
Vedic principles.

Smṛitis

Smṛitis are a broader category of texts that include the Dharmaśāstras but also
encompass other works that are based on human memory and tradition, as opposed to
the Vedas, which are considered Śruti (revealed knowledge).

●​ Content and Purpose:

o​ Smṛtis are composed by sages and scholars who interpreted the Vedas and
codified the rules for practical application in daily life.
o​ They cover various aspects of Dharma, including rituals, laws, social
customs, and moral conduct, and are often regarded as secondary to the
Vedas but still authoritative.
o​ The term "Smṛti" itself means "that which is remembered," indicating that
these texts are based on the collective memory and wisdom of society.
●​ Major Smṛtis:
 o​ In addition to the Dharmaśāstras mentioned above (such as Manu Smṛti
and Yajnavalkya Smṛti), there are other Smṛtis like Narada Smṛti and
Vishnu Smṛti, which also provide guidelines on law and morality.
o​ These texts vary in their focus, with some emphasizing legal codes, others
focusing on religious rituals, and still others addressing social and ethical
norms.
●​ Role in Chaturdasha Vidyāsthāna:
o​ Smṛtis play a pivotal role in the practical application of Vedic teachings.
They adapt the eternal principles of Dharma to the changing conditions of
society.
o​ As part of the Chaturdasha Vidyāsthāna, the Smṛtis ensure that the
knowledge of the Vedas is not just theoretical but also implemented in the
everyday lives of individuals.

Significance in the Chaturdasha Vidyāsthāna

The Dharmaśāstra and Smṛtis are vital components of the Chaturdasha Vidyāsthāna,
providing the legal, ethical, and moral framework necessary for the functioning of
society. They serve as practical guides for individuals and rulers alike, ensuring that the
principles of Dharma are upheld in every aspect of life. By codifying the rules of conduct
and law, these texts help maintain social order and spiritual discipline, making them
indispensable in the traditional Indian knowledge system.

ii. Other
The other elements within Sanatana Dharma encompass a wide range of subjects:
●​ Basic and Applied Sciences: Ancient Indian contributions to various fields of
science including physics, chemistry, biology, and more.
●​ Engineering and Architecture: Knowledge related to construction techniques,
town planning (e.g., Vastu Shastra), and civil engineering.
●​ Alchemy: Traditional practices and experiments in transforming substances.
●​ Kavya (Poetry and Literature): Classical poetry, drama, and literary works like
the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and works of Kalidasa.
●​ Arts: Traditional visual and performing arts including sculpture, painting, dance,
and music.
●​ Health and Wellness: Practices in Ayurveda, Yoga, and holistic wellness.
●​ Psychology: Ancient Indian texts on mental health and cognitive sciences.
●​ Public Administration: Principles of governance and administration from texts
like Arthashastra and Manusmriti.
●​ Code of Living: Ethical and moral guidelines from texts such as the Dharma
Shastras.
B. Other Dharmic Traditions
This category includes the knowledge systems of Jainism and Buddhism.
●​ Jainism:
o​ Acharanga Sutra: Fundamental principles and practices.
o​ Tattvartha Sutra: Philosophical doctrines.
o​ Kalpa Sutra: Historical texts.
●​ Buddhism:
o​ Tripitaka (Three Baskets):
▪​ Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic rules.
▪​ Sutta Pitaka: Discourses.
▪​ Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and doctrinal analysis.
C. Regional Traditions
This category includes knowledge developed in various major Indian languages,
reflecting the diversity of the subcontinent.
●​ Tamil: Sangam literature, Thirukkural.
●​ Telugu: Andhra Mahabharatam, literary works of Nannayya, Tikkana.
●​ Kannada: Vachana Sahitya, works of Basava.
●​ Bengali: Charyapada, works of Rabindranath Tagore.
●​ Marathi: Dnyaneshwari, works of Tukaram.
●​ Gujarati: Works of Narsinh Mehta, Dayaram.
●​ Punjabi: Guru Granth Sahib, works of Bhai Gurdas.
●​ Odia: Mahabharata by Sarala Das, works of Jayadeva.

2. Non-Literary Traditions
A. Oral Traditions
Non-literary traditions encompass various forms of oral knowledge passed down
through generations.
●​ Art:
o​ Traditional folk arts like Madhubani painting, Warli art.
o​ Performing arts including folk dances (e.g., Garba, Bhangra) and music
(e.g., Baul, Bhavageet).
 ●​ Food:
o​ Traditional culinary practices and recipes.
o​ Nutritional knowledge and food preservation techniques.

●​ Health:
o​ Indigenous healing practices and local medicinal knowledge.
o​ Folk remedies and natural treatments.
●​ Folklore:
o​ Mythological stories, legends, and tales.
o​ Oral epics and ballads, such as the Pabuji Ki Phad.

Conclusion

This classification framework provides a structured approach to understanding the vast

corpus of the Indian Knowledge System. By categorizing the knowledge into literary and
non-literary traditions and further breaking them down into specific areas, we can
appreciate the richness and diversity of this ancient wisdom. This framework also
highlights the interconnectedness of various domains within IKS, reflecting the holistic
nature of traditional Indian knowledge.

HISTORICITY OF IKS:
Dating Indian literature is difficult for researchers today due to several reasons. Indian
knowledge dates back several millennia earlier than Western knowledge, which mostly
originated in the Common Era, with some even more recently. Many Indian works are
from before 500 BCE. The methods of recording knowledge differed greatly between
these eras.
Another challenge is that early Indian repositories were oral before written records like
temple inscriptions and palm leaf manuscripts emerged. These written sources are
considered reliable, but they often appeared much later than the original compositions.
This leads to conservative and approximate dating of Indian knowledge, suggesting later
dates than originally thought.
In summary, using modern dating methods on ancient Indian sources faces limitations
due to these historical and methodological differences, complicating the accurate dating
of Indian literature.
Dating Indian knowledge presents challenges due to its ancient origins, predating
Western knowledge by millennia. Early Indian texts, like the Vedas and Puranas, were
orally transmitted before being written down in temple inscriptions and palm leaf
manuscripts. Modern dating methods often struggle due to these differences in
recording and preserving knowledge.
To overcome these challenges, researchers use various approaches. Archaeological
artifacts and astronomical references found in ancient texts provide clues. For instance,
software like Skymap Pro helps determine astronomical events mentioned in texts,
suggesting the Satapatha Brahmana may date back to around 3000 BCE.
Despite these efforts, dating Indian knowledge remains approximate. It's categorized
into periods: before 3000 BCE, 3000 BCE to 500 CE, and beyond. These periods highlight
India's early contributions to linguistics, literature, mathematics, and societal codes,
reflecting a vibrant society receptive to new ideas.
In essence, while modern methods face limitations, ongoing research strives to better
understand the historical and cultural richness of Indian knowledge systems.
During the period from 500 CE to 1800 CE, India experienced significant advancements
in mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and spirituality. Building on strong foundations
in mathematics, Indians made notable progress in related fields like architecture and
technology. This era is renowned for the construction of impressive temple complexes,
durable iron pillars, and musical pillars in temples that still stand today, showcasing
their technological prowess.
Indians continued to excel in astronomy and mathematics during this time, contributing
to various aspects of these disciplines. Alongside these achievements, advancements
were also made in areas such as alchemy and metalworking.
Overall, this period marked India's continued cultural and intellectual flourishing, where
innovations in science, mathematics, and technology played a crucial role in shaping the
society and its achievements.

UNIQUE ASPECTS OF IKS

Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) are primarily transmitted orally, which means
knowledge is condensed and memorized for preservation. Unlike written traditions that
allow detailed exploration of specific topics over many pages, oral traditions require
concise and focused delivery.
In IKS literature, such as philosophical texts like Nyaya or epics like the Puranas and
Itihasas, a single work often covers a wide range of subjects. For example, Nyaya
discusses not only philosophy but also logic, argumentation, and methods of acquiring
knowledge. The Puranas and Itihasas are comprehensive, touching on cosmology,
politics, aesthetics, morals, and more. Even works focused on mathematics may include
elements of poetry and philosophy.
What makes IKS unique is its ability to seamlessly integrate spiritual, religious, and
secular perspectives within a single text. Take the Bhagavadgita as an example: for a
devotee of Lord Krishna, it serves as a religious scripture; for a spiritual seeker, it offers
profound spiritual teachings. However, there's also a secular perspective that examines
it as a literary and philosophical work, beyond its religious context.
Overall, IKS literature's strength lies in its multi-dimensional approach, catering to
diverse interests while maintaining a unified narrative that enriches understanding
across spiritual, religious, and secular dimensions.
In Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS), texts often address both spiritual and material
dimensions, providing insights into various aspects of life and society.

Religious vs Material Dimensions: In IKS, there's a perspective that interprets

spiritual teachings in practical, material terms. For example, verses in texts like the
Bhagavadgita that speak of incarnations of gods to restore order can be seen through a
secular lens. This interpretation relates to concepts in fields like engineering and
management, where maintaining balance and stability in systems is crucial. Just as
regenerative points stabilize systems, incarnations in religious texts stabilize societal
order.

Spiritual vs Material Dimensions: IKS texts often integrate spiritual, religious, and
secular ideas. For instance, in the Bhagavadgita's Chapter 2, Krishna discusses the
concept of time and the soul's journey through multiple lifetimes. This spiritual teaching
can also be viewed from a practical angle: in fields like economics or business, the idea
of discarding old practices to innovate and remain competitive echoes the spiritual
concept of shedding old bodies for new ones.
Typical Presentation Style - Sutras, Encyclopedias: IKS often uses concise formats like
sutras (aphorisms) or encyclopedic structures to convey knowledge. Sutras are brief,
memorable statements that encapsulate complex ideas, while encyclopedias cover a
wide range of subjects comprehensively. This style allows for the integration of diverse
concepts into cohesive works, whether discussing literature, mathematics, or
engineering.
Overall, IKS literature's richness lies in its ability to address spiritual and material
concerns through various lenses, providing a holistic understanding of life and society
across different fields of knowledge.