FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA,

MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

COURSE TITLE
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

COURSE CODE
FUTM-ITE 127

COURSE UNIT: 2
Department of Industrial and Technology Education
Federal University of Technology, Minna
Niger State, Nigeria

By
Yisa, Stephen Ndalazhi

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Unit 1
Industrial Safety
1.0 Introduction
The primary objective of industrial and technology education is to equip individuals with the skills
and knowledge needed for self-sufficiency, employability, and meaningful societal contribution.
Learners are trained to function effectively as both employees and entrepreneurs across academic
institutions and industrial environments where hands-on tasks are performed. These settings often
involve the use of machinery, tools, and materials that pose potential risks to people and property.
As such, it is essential that individuals are thoroughly educated in safety procedures and workshop
regulations to ensure high productivity and secure operations.

2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define industry
2. Define safety
3. Define industrial safety
4. Identify four reasons for safety in industry
5. Explain industrial layout
6. Enumerate four objectives of industrial layout
7. List and explain five considerations for industrial layout
8. Mention ten general rules and regulation of industry

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Definition
Industrial and technology education is designed to empower individuals with practical skills and
comprehensive knowledge that promote self-reliance, increase employability, and encourage
meaningful participation in society. Through this educational pathway, students are equipped to
operate as skilled professionals whether as employees or entrepreneurs in schools, training centers,
and industries where hands-on activities take place. These environments often involve the use of
machinery, equipment, and materials that can pose safety risks. Therefore, a strong emphasis is
placed on teaching proper safety protocols and workshop guidelines to ensure efficiency, protect
lives and property, and support consistent, high-quality work.

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Industry: Industry can be defined as an organized and well-equipped establishment for making
goods and services. It could also, be define as a structure or building well equipped where
designing, construction and manufacturing of good are carried out for sale and commercial
enterprise.

Safety: Safety refers to the reliable assurance that using a particular substance, device, or machine when
operated according to specified conditions and quality standards will not lead to harm or injury.

Safety is a state of being certain that adverse effect will not be caused by some agent under defined
conditions. No matter the number of sophisticated tools, equipment and machines an industrial
firm may possess, efficient operations and reasonable profits in such firm will depend largely on
the quality of its workers. In other words, production will be efficient to the degree that the workers
in the production line are physically and psychologically disposed to perform their production
roles. It follows, therefore, that safety and health of an employee should be of paramount concern
to his employer.

Industrial Safety: Industrial safety can be defined as the rules and regulations set aside to guide
all the operations and activities of both employer, employees, equipment, tools, materials,
infrastructure and environment within the industrial settings to minimize hazards and prevent
accident. Industrial safety comprises hazards identification, risk assessment, preventive measures,
compliance, emergency response and continuous monitoring.

3.1 Needs for Safety in Industry

In industrial settings, the mantra "Safety First" underscores a universal truth: the safest approach
is always the correct one. Phrases like “The right way to do a job is the safety way” and “Those
who work safely today live to work another day” highlight the critical need for caution and care in
daily operations. These expressions not only emphasize the value of safe practices but also hint at
the severe consequences of industrial accidents. Aside from warfare, such accidents represent one
of the most damaging challenges faced by modern industrial societies. They lead to significant
economic and social losses, disrupt individual and team productivity, and slow down the overall
improvement of living standards.

The core aim of industrial safety is to minimize the risk of injury for individuals involved in
manufacturing and operational activities. By implementing safety measures and protocols, the

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welfare of workers is safeguarded. Additionally, these practices help protect machinery,
infrastructure, and other valuable assets from damage—ensuring a safe, efficient, and productive
industrial environment.

Needs for Safety in Industry

1. Safeguarding Personnel: A well-executed industrial safety program protects employees

from accidents and supports their overall health and well-being.
2. Minimizing Accidents: Enforcing safety measures within the workplace significantly
reduces the likelihood and frequency of industrial accidents.
3. Regulatory Compliance: Adhering to safety standards helps industries meet legal and
operational requirements, while also supporting the organization’s goals and objectives.
4. Identifying Hazards: Industrial safety practices improve the detection and understanding
of potential risks and dangerous conditions within the workplace.
5. Assessing Risks: Safety implementation enables thorough evaluation of hazard probability
and potential impact, ensuring informed decision-making and preventive action.

Strategies of Implementing Industrial Safety in Industry

1. Training and Education: Promoting a safe industrial workplace begins with ensuring that
employees understand potential hazards and the correct operating procedures. This is
achieved through well-structured initiatives such as training sessions, workshops, and
seminars that equip staff with the essential knowledge and practical skills to comply
confidently with established safety protocols.
2. Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Encouraging regular and correct usage of
personal protective gear is fundamental to maintaining safety in industrial settings.
Equipment such as helmets, gloves, safety boots, and goggles serves as a critical barrier
against workplace hazards, significantly reducing the risk of injury during operational
activities.
3. Routine Inspections: Performing scheduled safety inspection plays a vital role in
reinforcing industrial safety standards. These systematic checks help uncover potential
hazards, ensure the reliability of machinery, and confirm that all safety procedures are
consistently applied across the workplace.
3.2 Industrial Layout

Industrial Layout: Industrial layout is the deliberate and systematic organization of machinery,
equipment, workstations, storage areas, and personnel pathways within a production facility. Its
core purpose is to enhance operational efficiency, ensure safety, and minimize waste by

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streamlining material flow and optimizing spatial usage. Guided by principles of engineering and
operations management, a well-designed layout facilitates smooth production processes and
contributes to overall productivity.
Key Objectives of Industrial Layout
1. Workflow Optimization: Streamlines movement of materials, components, and personnel
through the production process with minimal delays and bottlenecks.
2. Resource Utilization: Ensures efficient use of space, machinery, energy, and labor by
positioning elements where they are most effective.
3. Safety Enhancement: Reduces the likelihood of accidents by minimizing unnecessary
cross-traffic, ensuring clear evacuation routes, and providing proper spacing around
hazardous equipment.
4. Waste Reduction: Curtails excess motion, transport, and idle time, which supports lean
manufacturing principles and improves productivity.
Considerations for Industrial Layout
i. Equipment Placement: Evaluate the location of fixed installations like lifts and
compressors alongside movable machinery to optimize space and workflow.
ii. Storage Organization: Arrange storage zones for easy access and neatness, enhancing
both operational efficiency and the overall appearance of the shop.
iii. Workstation Design: Position benches and counters strategically so technicians can
perform precision tasks away from vehicles, ensuring cleaner workflows.
iv. Loading Bay Clearance: Ensure loading areas have sufficient space to accommodate
vehicles and equipment without obstruction.
v. Customer Waiting Area: Create a clean, well-lit, and welcoming space where clients can
wait comfortably during service.
vi. Lighting and Ventilation: Provide ample lighting to support detailed work, and install
proper ventilation systems to protect occupants from hazardous fumes or airborne particles.
vii. Accessible Entrances and Exits: Clearly mark and maintain entry and exit points for easy
vehicle access and emergency evacuation readiness.
viii. Electrical Compliance: Verify that all electrical installations meet legal standards and
support technician efficiency.
ix. Safety Equipment Readiness: Store protective gear like gloves and goggles in designated,
easily reachable spots to ensure quick access when needed.
x. Evacuation Planning: OSHA mandates at least two visible evacuation routes. These
should be supported by a clearly documented fire evacuation plan.
Self-Assessment Exercise 2
1. Define industrial safety
2. Enumerate four objectives of industrial layout
3. Identify five considerations in industrial safety

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3.3 General Safety Rules in Industries

a. Keep all hand tools clean and in safe working condition.

b. Report any defective tools, equipment or machines to the instructor or supervisor.
c. Do not remove any safety devices without the permission of the supervisor or instructor.
d. Do not operate or energize any circuit without first receiving instruction on how to do so
safely.
e. Report all accidents to the instructor regardless of nature or severity.
f. Do not use any solvent without first determining its properties and how to use it safely.
NOTE: Solvents should be used only in well-ventilated spaces.
g. Make sure the industry floor is well tidy.
h. Turn off power before leaving test equipment, machines or circuits being worked on.
i. Do not carry sharp-edged or pointed tools in your pockets.
j. Do not indulge in horse play or play practical jokes in any work area.
k. Wear proper clothing and safety glasses when required.
l. Do not wear rings or jewelry when working with electrical devices.
m. Switch off machine before taking measurement.
n. Do not operate any machine without work permit.
o. It is recommended to use polarized 3-prong plug.
p. Be certain that floor is insulated or wear rubber shoes.
q. Exercise good judgment and common sense.
r. Do not throw water on a live conductor or equipment in the case of fire.
s. Do not use a fire extinguisher on electric equipment unless it is marked for that purpose.
t. Do not bring flame near an accumulator.

4.0 Conclusion
Industrial safety can be defined as the rules and regulations set aside to guide all the operations
and activities of both employer, employees, equipment, tools, materials, infrastructure and
environment within the industrial settings to minimize hazards and prevent accident. Studying and
understanding industrial safety help the students to work safely in any types of industry they find
themselves. It reduces the rate of accidents in the workshop. It educates students on the needs for
safety in industry, understand industrial layout and things to consider when establishing industry
and identify the rules and regulation in industry.

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Unit 2: Types of Industries

1.0 Introduction
In every industry where planning and designing are necessary, such as architecture, manufacturing,
engineering, construction, environment, estate management, etc., industry or workshop is so much
important that will aid the production and other activities. Types of industry or workshops in
industrial and technology education are:
1. Automobile Technology Industry
2. Building Technology Industry
3. Electrical and electronic Industry
4. Metalwork Technology Industry
5. Woodwork Technology Industry.

2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
9. Explain automobile technology industry
10. List ten safety rules in automobile technology industry
11. Explain building technology industry
12. List five safety rules in building technology industry
13. Explain electrical and electronic technology industry
14. List ten safety rules in electrical and electronic technology industry
15. Explain metalwork technology industry
16. List five safety rules in metalwork technology industry
17. Explain woodwork technology industry
18. List ten safety rules in woodwork technology industry

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Automobile Technology Industry

Automobile Technology Industry

The automobile technology industry encompasses a wide range of activities, including design,
manufacturing, maintenance, repairs, diagnostics, and other vehicle-related services. Given the

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complexity of these operations, the risk of property damage, personal injury, or even loss of life is
a significant concern.

Automotive workshops are fast-paced and filled with ongoing mechanical and technical tasks,
making them inherently hazardous environments. Therefore, implementing effective safety
measures is essential. Proper safety practices help safeguard personnel, reduce the likelihood of
accidents, boost operational efficiency, and extend the lifespan of tools, equipment, and materials.

From handling heavy loads and using powerful machinery to working with toxic chemicals and
inhaling harmful fumes, the potential for accidents is ever-present—making workplace safety a
critical priority in the automobile sector.

Safety Rules and Regulations in Automobile Technology Industry

1. Efficient Workshop Layout: Ensure the workshop is well-designed to promote safe and
smooth operations.
2. Proper Organization: Maintain a tidy and orderly workspace to prevent hazards and
confusion.
3. Structured Maintenance Management: Implement scheduled equipment checks and
servicing procedures.
4. Use Eye Protection: Always wear safety goggles especially when working beneath
vehicles or around flying particles like dust, debris, or shavings.
5. Wear Protective Footwear: Use sturdy, closed-toe shoes or boots to shield your feet from
heavy or sharp objects.
6. Secure Long Hair: Tie back long hair or cover it with a hat to prevent it from getting
caught in machinery.
7. Avoid Wearing Jewelry: Remove rings, watches, necklaces, and other accessories that
may pose a safety risk.
8. No Horseplay: Never engage in playful or distracting behaviour within the workshop.
9. Operate Equipment only if Trained: Use tools and machines only when properly trained
and authorized.
10. Turn Off Machines Before Servicing: Power down and unplug all equipment before
carrying out maintenance.
11. Wear Protective Clothing: Always wear an overall or workshop attire to safeguard your
body from dirt, heat, and chemicals
12. Check Tools Before Use: Inspect all equipment to ensure they’re functional and safe.
13. Avoid Pocketing Sharp Items: Never carry sharp tools or objects in your pockets to avoid
injury.

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 14. Use Full Face Protection When Needed: When grinding or welding, wear a full-face
shield to protect against sparks and debris.
15. Work at a Safe Pace: Don’t rush working too fast can lead to skipped safety steps or
mistakes.
16. Keep Safety Guards Intact: Ensure all rotating machinery has its shields or guards
securely in place.
17. Store Oily Rags Properly: Place oily cloths in a closed, designated metal container to
prevent fire risks.
18. Keep the Floor Clear: Never leave tools, components, or equipment like creepers lying
around to avoid trips and falls.
19. Lift Correctly: Use your legs not your back when lifting heavy objects to prevent injury.
20. Ensure Proper Lighting and Ventilation: Always make sure your workspace is well-lit
and ventilated, especially during tasks that generate fumes or dust.
21. Control Harmful Fumes: Activate ventilation fans whenever fumes are present. If a
vehicle is running indoors, use an exhaust hose to direct emissions safely. Exposure to toxic
substances like carbon monoxide or asbestos (common in brake/clutch dust) can cause
serious health issues, including poisoning or cancer.
22. Use Equipment only if Trained: Never operate a vehicle lift or other specialized
machinery unless you've received proper instruction and authorization.

3.2 Building Technology Industry

The building technology industry is a dedicated facility for activities related to the design,
construction, and maintenance of building structures and services. It encompasses operations such
as architectural design, bricklaying, structural assembly, and routine upkeep. These tasks require
the use of various tools, machinery, and chemical substances. Due to the frequent handling and
movement of heavy materials, the work environment presents significant safety hazards and
physical risks to workers.

A building technology workshop is a dedicated space designed for practical training and
experimentation in construction and architecture. It offers a hands-on setting where experts,
apprentices, and learners actively participate in creating, assembling, and maintaining building
components and services. The facility houses essential equipment, materials, and machinery used
for various trades, including masonry, carpentry, plumbing, electrical work, and the incorporation
of cutting-edge building technologies.

Safety rules in Building Technology Workshops

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 1. Always wear the appropriate personal protective equipment before starting any task.
2. Avoid horseplay or distracting behavior inside the workshop.
3. Select the correct tools specifically designed for the task at hand.
4. Examine tools for damage or defects prior to use to ensure they’re safe and functional.
5. Do not operate machinery or engage in tasks if you're feeling tired or mentally drained.
6. Grip tools and equipment securely while working to maintain control.
7. Focus entirely on the task without attempting to multitask.
8. Keep all tools properly maintained and make sure cutting edges are sharp.
9. Use safe lifting techniques: bend your knees, straighten your back, and lift with your legs.
10. Store heavy items at lower levels to minimize physical strain during lifting.

3.3 Electrical and Electronic Technology Industry

The electrical and electronic industry or workshop refers to a space designed with various tools,
equipment, and materials arranged systematically to support the production, servicing, design,
repair, troubleshooting, and maintenance of electrical and electronic devices. An effective
industrial layout ensures that all resources are properly organized to enhance their performance
and to safeguard both the equipment and the individuals who work with them.
The electrical and electronic industry is a sector of engineering and manufacturing concerned with
the design, development, production, installation, maintenance, and servicing of systems and
equipment that operate using electrical energy or electronic technologies. It encompasses a wide
range of activities—from high-voltage power systems and control devices to low-voltage
consumer electronics and embedded systems.

The electrical and electronic industry operates in one of the most hazardous environments, making
robust safety practices absolutely essential. As such, enforcing safety rules and regulations must
be prioritized to prevent accidents and ensure workplace safety. For these measures to be
effectively applied within electrical or electronics workshops and operations, the following steps
and precautions should be considered.
1. Ventilation: Ensure adequate inflow and outflow of both natural artificial air to disperse
dust and fumes especially those generated during soldering, which can pose health risks
with prolonged exposure.
2. Fire Safety: Equip the workshop with accessible and operational fire extinguishers to
respond quickly to fire emergencies.
3. Circuit Protection: Avoid overloading electrical outlets by using surge protectors and
regularly checking wires and devices for signs of damage or wear.
4. Eye Safety: Always wear protective goggles when cutting wires, desoldering, or handling
components that may spark, snap, or shatter.

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 5. Liquid Safety: Keep drinks and open liquid containers away from electronic components
to prevent spills, damage, and short circuits.
6. Proper Labeling: Label tools, containers, and components clearly to reduce errors,
improve organization, and prevent workplace accidents.
7. Cable Management: Organize wires using spools, Velcro ties, or cable organizers; store
connectors and adapters in labeled bags or bins.
8. ESD Protection: Store sensitive electronic parts in antistatic containers or bags to prevent
electrostatic discharge damage.
9. Component Sorting: Categorize parts such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, and integrated
circuits by type and specification using labeled compartments.
10. Inventory Labeling Systems: Use color codes, numerical labels, or printed tags to align
components with datasheets or inventory records.
11. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Always wear certified, workshop-approved
safety gear to minimize risks during electrical work.
12. Tool Appropriateness: Use the correct tools for each task to boost efficiency, reduce
ergonomic strain, and enhance overall safety.
13. Extension Safety: Don’t overlook the safety of extension cords; confirm they’re properly
rated and protected for workshop use.
14. Wire Integrity: Ensure there are no exposed (naked) wires in the workspace to prevent
electric shocks and equipment damage.
15. Safety Education: Train and educate staff regularly on electrical safety regulations and
workshop protocols.
3.4 Metalwork Technology Industry

Prioritizing safety is essential across all industries and particularly so in a metalwork technology
workshop due to the nature of its operations. Activities such as metal cutting, welding, fabrication,
and finishing inherently pose risks to both personnel and property. These tasks revolve around the
transformation of raw metal materials into finished products, involving processes that require
precision and caution.

To reduce hazards and promote a secure working environment, the first and most critical step is
designing the workshop layout in line with industry standards. Adequate provisions should be
made for distinct work zones, including areas for cutting, welding, assembling, and finishing. A
well-organized layout not only boosts efficiency but also supports safe practices by minimizing
clutter, reducing accidents, and allowing smooth workflow.

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By equipping the space with the appropriate tools and integrating safety features such as
ventilation systems, protective gear stations, and clear signage, the workshop can operate
effectively while protecting everyone involved.

Safety Rules and Regulation in Metalwork Technology Industry

1. Wear Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Never underestimate the importance of
PPE. Before starting any task, ensure you're wearing the recommended gear—such as
gloves, goggles, helmets, and protective clothing—to guard against potential hazards.
2. Inspect All Tools Before Use: Always check the condition of tools before using them.
Damaged or malfunctioning tools can lead to accidents, so it’s vital to confirm they’re in
good working order.
3. Stay Alert Around Hot Surfaces: Operations like cutting, welding, and forming metal
often produce heat. Be vigilant and cautious around hot surfaces to avoid burns and
injuries.
4. Use Chemicals with Caution: Chemicals are commonly used in metalworking for
treatments and finishes. Since many of these substances are hazardous, they must be stored
and handled properly to avoid exposing workers or the workshop to serious risks.
5. Don’t Work When Fatigued: Fatigue increases the likelihood of mistakes, which can
result in injuries, fires, or damage. Always take breaks and rest adequately to maintain
focus and safety.
6. Follow Proper Instructions and Procedures: Before beginning any task, carefully
review and follow the given instructions. Understanding the process helps prevent errors
and ensures work is done correctly and safely.

3.5 Woodwork Technology Industry

A woodwork technology workshop refers to a facility equipped with specialized tools, materials,
machinery, and chemicals for crafting and maintaining wood-based products. These workshops
often house heavy-duty machines such as power saws, drills, and planers each featuring fast-
spinning blades or cutters that can lead to serious injuries if not handled properly. The potential
dangers these machines present make it vital to implement effective safety rules and regulations
to govern daily operations.

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The workshop environment is inherently hazardous, which makes strict safety protocols essential.
Exposure to woodworking by-products like wood dust or chips can lead to respiratory issues.
Accidents can occur suddenly and without warning, underscoring the need for constant vigilance.
Prioritizing safety not only protects workers but also ensures the smooth functioning of the
industry as a whole.

One of the key safety considerations in any industry is the design and organization of the
workshop. A well-planned layout significantly enhances productivity and ensures smooth
operations. On the other hand, a poorly arranged workspace can result in damage to tools,
machinery, materials and may even cause serious accidents leading to injuries, loss of life, property
damage, and delays in production. For this reason, it is essential that woodwork shops are properly
structured and neatly arranged, allowing every tool and material to be safely stored and enabling
free, unhindered movement throughout the workshop.

Safety Rules and Regulation in Woodwork Technology Industry

1. Always read and follow the manufacturer's instructions when using machinery.
2. Use tools that are appropriate for the task at hand.
3. Inspect all tools before use to ensure they are in good condition.
4. Avoid operating machinery or performing tasks when fatigued.
5. Maintain a firm grip on tools and equipment during use.
6. Stay focused and never multitask during operations.
7. Keep tools in working order, ensuring blades are consistently sharp.
8. Do not engage in horseplay or any activity that may distract others.
9. Wear approved personal protective equipment (PPE) at all times.
10. Refrain from wearing loose clothing or jewelry around machines.
11. Confirm that all machine safety guards are properly adjusted before use.
12. When lifting objects, bend your knees, keep your back straight, and lift using your legs.
13. Label all workshop chemicals clearly and appropriately.
14. Install safety posters in visible locations to reinforce safety practices.
15. Ensure fire extinguishers are functional and easily accessible.
16. Place heavy items on low shelves or close to the floor to reduce lifting strain.
17. Do not exceed the limits of electrical circuits.

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 18. Regularly inspect power tools for signs of damage before each use.
19. Unplug any equipment before making repairs or adjustments.
20. Store flammable materials away from heat sources or appliances that might spark.
21. Properly dispose of workshop waste like sawdust in covered metal containers to limit
exposure.
22. Ensure electrical cords are well insulated and positioned to prevent tripping hazards.

4.0 Conclusion
In every industry where planning and designing are necessary, such as architecture, manufacturing,
engineering, construction, environment, estate management, etc., industry or workshop is so much
important that will aid the production and other activities. Types of industry or workshops in
industrial and technology education are: Automobile Technology Industry; Building Technology
Industry; Electrical and electronic Industry; Metalwork Technology Industry and Woodwork
Technology Industry.

An accident is an unplanned or undesired occurrence airing from unsafe acts or unsafe conditions
which may or may not result to bodily injuries or damage of property.
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS IN INDUSTRY
Two may factors have been identified as responsible for nearly all industrial accidents. The first
factor is the worker himself his heredity and his physical and psychological or personality
characteristics. The second factor is the work environment itself, that is the physical structures,
materials, tools and equipment around or used in the wok situation often lead to accidents if they
are not well kept or cared.
HUMAN FACTOR
Most of the time the worker and employee themselves are responsible for the accidents that they
encounters at work. Human factors as a cause of industrial accidents can be categorized as: -
a. Personality
b. Unsafe acts
a. PERSONALITY
The following personality factors have been identified.

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i. Physical unfitness
V. Over confidence
ii. Mental unfitness
Vi. Laziness
iii. Lack of concentration
vii. Playfulness
iv. Disobedient
vili. Impatience
ix. Others
UNSAFE ACTS
An unsafe act is any violation of commonly accepted safe procedures. The unsafe act includes;
i. Operating a machine or equipment without authority.
ii. Working at unsafe speeds.
ii. Making adjustments while a machine is in operation
iv. Taking shortcuts.
V. Improper posture when lifting loads.
vi. "Horseplay"" or fooling around work area.
vii. Non-use of proper personal protective equipment such as goggles, respirators, masks etc.
viii. Improper dressing.
b. UNSAFE PHYSICAL (ENVIRONMENTAL) CONDITION
An unsafe working environment is a threat to the life of a worker and potentially a liability to an
employer. Unsafe physical conditions may prevail in the work situation as a result of the following.
i. Poorly constructed stairs, slippery floors or poorly installed machines.
ii. Inadequate illumination and ventilation.
ii. Lack of or inadequate emergency exits in the building.
iv. Lack of inadequate fire extinguishers.
V. Inadequate work area.
vi. Defective tools, equipment or materials.
vii. Poor house-keeping.
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ix. Ineffective guarding: guards on machines not affording adequate protection or not allowing for
proper use of machines; machines not guarded at all.
ACCIDENT PREVENTION
In an accident prevention, interest should be on what happens before, rather than of what happens
during or after the phase in which the unplanned incident occurs. Accidents should be studied not
only as part of a large segment of time but also as one feature in a situation that include more than
one person and immediate environment.
The larger context contains not only the potential victim and the tangible object or circumstance
to which he or she is not safely adjusted, but also all the people, feelings, ideas and surroundings
that make up the quality of work environment and experience. The state of mind was the cause of
the unsafe behavior. Accident proness may be increased by tension and pre-occupation that are set
up in on eperson after seeing another involved in accident.
Accidents reduce productivity, wastes time, labour and materials. Accidents can be prevented if
we recognize the cause and adopts appropriate ways of eliminating them.
REASONS FOR PREVENTING ACCIDENTS
If accidents are not prevented, they could result in;
i. Damage of materials, equipment and tools.

ii. Lost of production time

iii. Lost of money and time spent on the investigation of such accidents.

iv. Compensation claims

v. Lost of skilled man power through death or incapacitation.

vi. Poor public image for the organization with high accident rate.

WAYS TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS

Supervisors should make hazard hunting inspections, warn all subordinates of the dangers of their
work and show them the correct ways through the following ways.
i. Indoctrinate new employees into roper safety culture.
ii. Experience workers should be put in-charge of the new ones.
ii. New workers should be closely watched and supervised.
iv. Ensure good housekeeping.
v. Ensure compl1ance with safety rules and regulations.
vi. Ensure that guards, safety devices and safety signs are always mounted at strategic positions.

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 vii. Encourage maintenance culture for the machineries and equipment.

vii. Ensure that all fire extinguishers are routinely serviced and displayed unobstructed.
1X. EXits, emergency doors, gangways and escape routes should be kept free from obstruction.
X. The sick should be referred to clinic immediately.
xi. Encourage workers to report all identified hazards immediately.
FIRE
Fire is a state of burning which is highly destructive if not protected and prevented in time in any
industrial setup. Fire can also be seen as a chemical reaction accompanied by the evolution of heat
and in most cases by an appreciable amount of heat and in most cases an appreciable amount of
light. Before fire can occur, three major elements must be present.
1. Combustible substance (fuel)
a. Solids - Carbon, Paper, rubber, wood, magnesium.
b. Liquids - Gasoline, Oils, carbon-disulphide.
C. Gases-hydrogen, carbonmonoxide, butane etc.
2. Air (Oxygen).
3. Source of ignition (Heat)
CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL FIRE
i. Electrical faults

ii. Smoking

iii. Friction

iv. Poor house keeping

v. Arson

vi. Welding and cutting

vii. Burners

viii. Open flames, etc.

FIRE PREVENTION, PROTECTION AND FIGHTING

Fire Prevention: is the process of eliminating hazardous conditions in order to prevent fire
outbreak. For example the removal of cloth from vicinity of a hot surface or non-storage of
flammable liquid within the vicinity of naked light.

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Fire Protection: is the provision of fixed installations such as smoke detectors, sprinkler systems,
trenches, etc.
Fire Fighting: on the other hand is the action of stopping the spread of fire or extinguishing fire.
METHOD OF FIRE EXTINCTION
The Fire Triangle.
Fire needs three ingredients: fuel, heat and oxygen. When a fuel such as wood or flammable gas
is heated by a spark or other source of fire is combined rapidly with oxygen and burst into flame.
You can think of fire's here ingredients as a triangle. For a fire to start and keep burning, all those
sides of the triangle must be in place. Remove just one side and the fire goes out. If you are certain
that a small fire at your work place poses no immediate threat, you can put it out by removing one
side of the fire triangle.
FIRE
FUEL
The Fire Triangle
Fight the fire with appropriate fire equipment without endangering yourself or others around you.

METHOD OF FIRE EXTINCTION

i. Starve it: Removal of fuel.
A fire's fuel might be paper, wood, oil or gas. Removing the fuel from fire can be dangerous, but
there are exceptions. For example, you can extinguish burning gas that flows from a pipe by turning
off the gas valve or by separating the burning fuel (wood) from the unaffected part.
ii. Cool it: Remove Heat
Wood, paper and cloth fires are best cooled with water. Other types of fires require special
chemicals to reduce heat and flame. Extinguishers are clearly marked according to the type of tires
they can put out.
Warning! Never use water on grease, electrical fires ¥ flammable liquid fires.
ii. Smother it: Remove Oxygen
There are many ways to remove fire's oxygen supply. Covering the burning rubbish will seal off
the air flow and smother the flames. You can also smother a fire with gravel or sand. Some fire
extinguishers use chemicals, powders or liquefied gases to blanket a fire and remove its oxygen
supply (CO2, Fire blankets).

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Remember: The best way to prevent fire is to keep fuel, heat and oxygen apart. If a fire starts and
you are sure it poses no immediate threat, starve 1t, cool it or smother it to extinguish the flames.
If you are in doubt about a fire's seriousness, don't fight it, get out!.
FIRE PREVENTION
This should not be considered as being synonymous with fire protection but instead, a term to
indicate measures directed towards avoiding the inception of fire.
The prevention of fire, reduction of fire and casualty loses depend upon the followings.
1. Prevention of personal injuries from fire or panic.
2. Fire protection engineer
3. Regular, periodic inspections
4. Early detection and extinguishments.
5. Damage control - limiting the damage resulting from fire and fire extinguishments.
FIRE PREVENTION ACTIVITIES
The best time to stop fire is before it starts. Even though buildings are properly designed and
provided with protective devices and construction elements intended to render fire safety features,
only regular periodic inspection can assure their full value.
Fire extinguishers should be placed in close proximity to all activities constituting a potential fire
hazard. In addition to fire equipment, electrical equipment, machineries and processing equipment,
house-keeping conditions and other fire causes should be checked at regular intervals.
MATCHES AND SMOKING
Carelessly discarded cigarettes and cigars are a major source of fire, smoking should be prohibited
in wood working workshops, textile mills, flour mills etc and where flammable liquid or other
flammable products are manufactured stored or used. Even in these operations, enclosed or
removed area can be set aside to satisfy their smoking needs in a safe manner. "No Smoking" areas
should be marked with conspicuous sign and exclusive use rigidly enforced; everyone including
supervisors and visitors should adhere to the regulations.
HOUSE KEEPING
Collection and storage of combustibles: Many industrial fire are the directly result of
accumulations of oil soaked and paint saturated clothing, rags, waste and combustible refuse. Such
materials should be deposited in non-combustible receptacles having self-closing covers that are
provided for the purpose and removed from the work areas. Exhaust systems of effective design
will remove gases, vapour, dusts and other airborne contaminants, Many of which may be fire
hazards, exhaust systems and machine enclosures will help to prevent accumulation of flammable
materials on the floors or on machine parts, such materials are mostly hazardous when airborne
rather than when they are settled.

19
VENTILATION AND ILLUMINATION
Ventilation here is defined as the process of supplying air to, and removing air from any space by
natural or mechanical means. Ventilation is needed both for personal comfort and very often to
meet process conditions. If machinery or processes radiate or generate bad fumes, extra ventilation
should be supplied to the work area. Through ventilation, the noxious chemical, by -products and
excessive heat given off in certain industrial operation can be controlled.
LIGHTING
The proportion of industrial accidents attributed to poor lighting has been estimated to be 15 to
25%. Good lighting contributes greatly to safety as well as increasing efficiency ((norale. Day light
is an ideal type of illumination. However, light from overhead diagonal windows causes less glare
than that from outside windows only. Artificial lighting has become the major source of
illumination because natural light is undependable especially.in the rainy season when the sky is
heavily laidened with rain that it becomes so dark for industrial work. Lighting requirements for
industrial operations vary considerably. Care must be taken throughout the lighting system to avoid
glare. There are three common sources of artificial light for industry. The incandėscent lamp, the
fluorescent lamp and high mercury vapour lamp. Industrial sectors need to have standby generators
to take care of at least lightings in case of power failure.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE AND THE TYPE OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER
There are four classes of fire (European Classification)
i. Class A Fire involving free burning materials such as wood, textiles, paper, coal etc. class A
fires are extinguished mainly by cooling. Types of fire extinguishers include Water, Dry Chemical
Powder.
ii. Class B Class B fires are sometimes referred to as wet fires. These are fires involving flammable
liquids or liquefiable solids such as petrol, kerosene and fuel oil. The types of fire extinguisher
needed to extinguish such fires include Dry chemical Powder, Carbon dioxide and foam.
ii. Class C
Class C fires involve gases such as acetylene, carbon monoxide, hydrogen methane, propane etc.
the first consideration in controlling class c fires is to shut-off the gas supply to the fire while
efforts are directed towards preventing its spread to other property. Sufficient ventilation should
be created.
iv. Class D These are files involving combustible metals such as Aluminium, zinc, Iron and
Sodium etc. fire extinguishers such as Bromo Chloro fluoror methane (BCF), carbon dioxide and
Dry Chemical Powder are more suitable.
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS AND INSTALLATION
A. Portable fire extinguishers such as:
i. Water

20
ii. Foam
ili. Carbon Dioxide
iv. BCF
V Dry Chemical Powder
B. Automatic fire fighting system such as
i. Automatic CO2 system.
ii. Automatic Halon gas system.
iii. Automatic fire alarm system.
C. Hydrant Systems
The hydrant systems are installed in high rise buildings stores, ware houses and power stations etc.
D. Fire Detecting Systems
i. Automatic Sprinkler system.
ii. Automatic smoke detector.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS COLOUR CODE
Types of fire for which
S/N Type of Fire Extinguisher applicable
Colour
1 Water Red For use on fires involving wood, paper fabrics etc not
for use on Electrical appliances.

2 Foam Yellow For use on fires involving petrol, paints, oil grease etc
not for electrical appliances.

3 Dry Chemical Blue For use on fires involving flammable liquids,

machinery, electrical appliances.
4 Carbon Dioxide Black For use on fires involving machinery and electrical
appliances.
5 BCF Green For use on fires involving machinery and electrical
appliances.

NECESSARY STEPS TO TAKE IN THE EVENT OF FIRE OUTBREAK

21
i. Raise an alarm
ii. Operate the installed fire alarm system/device (if any).
ili. Evacuate the building through the fire exit to a predetermined point for a roll call. Do not rush
and avoid using the lift.
iv. Move down calmly and do not go back for a forgotten article.
V. Notify fire brigade as early as possible
vi. Fight the fire with every available fire equipment without endangering yourself or others around
you.
HOW TO OPERATE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Before we can discuss on how to operate fire extinguisher during a fire outbreak, we must first and
foremost examine the extent of the fire outbreak, to know if it is possible for us to extinguish the
tire with portable fire extinguisher or not.
Portable fire extinguishers are first Aid fire (fire at its incipient stage) equipment and once the fire
is large, we need more sophisticated equipment to combat the fire. Once this aspect has been taken
care of we have to be courageous in our attempt to extinguish the fire.
1. The Water Gas Fire Extinguisher (Red Colour)
Remove the extinguisher from the hanger.
Move to the vicinity of the scene of fire and keep it upright.
Remove the head cap.
Hold the discharge hose with your left hand.
Strike the head of the plunger with your right hand and immediately lift up the cylinder with the
same hand.
Move close to the fire and mind your safety and aim at the base of the fire and not flame.
NOTE:
Make sure you do not inhale mush of the powder as t will affect your respiratory system. Always
use respirator to prevent much intake of the powder.
Do not use on burning liquids or live electrical equipment.
The type of extinguisher is most suitable for wood, paper, textile and similar class o fires.
2. Dry Chemical Powder Types (Blue in Colour)
Remove from the hanger and move to the scene of fire.
Remove the safety pin or clip.

22
Squeeze the nozzle lever with your left hand.
Strike the plunger head (knob) with your right hand and lift up the cylinder with the same hand.
Move close to the fire and mind your safety. Aim at the base of the fire not the flame.
This type of extinguisher is of a multipurpose use. Best use in metal fires.
3. The Carbon Dioxide extinguisher (Black in Colour)
Remove from the hanger and move to the scene of the fire.
Pull out the safety pin
Hold the discharge horn with your left hand
Hold the discharge lever (valve) with your right hand and lift up the cylinder.
Move close to the fire and mind your safety.
Depress the discharge valve and aim at the base of the fire.
This type of fire extinguisher is best used on gaseous fires.
Do not mind the sound of the extinguisher while in use. It must not be used on live electrical
equipment. Always use respirator.
NOTE: -
4. The Foam Extinguisher (Yellow in Colour)
This follows the same operation as in 1 and 2 above. This is best used in fire involving flammable
liquids or liquefiable solid (petrol, kerosene and oil fuel).
SAFETY COLOUR CODING
GREEN
i. Applied to non-hazardous parts of machine and equipment surface, like name plates
and bearing surfaces.

ii. Designates safe area of equipment and is also used to show location of safety equipment
and first aid materials.

YELLO
Applied to operating levers, wheels handles and hazardous parts that may cause stumbling, falling,
snagging or stripping
ORANGE
i. Applied to electrical switches, interior surfaces of doors, fuses and electrical power
boxes and movable guards and parts.

23
 ii. Indicates dangerous parts of equipment which may cut, crush, and shock or otherwise
physically injure someone.

RED
i. Applied to buttons or levers of electrical switches used for stopping machinery and to
all equipment such as gasoline cans, which are fire hazards.

ii. Designates fire hazards and fire - fighting equipment. They are also applied to other
fighting equipment such as fire alarms, fire axes and emergency exits.

BLUE
i. Used to identify equipment which is being repaired or is defective and should not be
operated.

ii. Designates "out of order" or defective.

IVORY
I. Applied to table edges, vice jaws and edges of tool rests where exits light reflection is
important.

iii. No particular designation except to help show tool and equipment moving edges more
clearly.

IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS CONDITION IN A WORK ENVIRONMENT AND ITS

CONTROL MEASURES.
Every organization is set up with the sole objective of making profit and, this cannot be achieved
under a hazardous work environment with its attendant fire outbreaks, damage to properties and
equipment and loss of lives. In this regard, it is pertinent that potential hazards that could lead to
accidents (fire outbreaks, etc) are identified, with a view to determining ways of eliminating such
hazards.
HAZARD
Hazard is something that can be identified and measured as a potential source of danger. In essence,
if such is not removed or eliminated, the likelihood of accident resulting is feasible. Some
examples of hazardous conditions includes the following:
Naked electricity wires.
Electricity gadgets which are not switched off when not in use.
Testing of electrical faults without the relevant equipment.
Abuse of vehicle
Broken or faulty equipment.

24
Slippery floors.
Exposure of petrol.
Contaminated source of drinking water.
Poor waste disposal system.
Storage of combustible and flammable substances in office without proper identification.
METHODS OF HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
There are several methods or ways by which hazards can be identified. Some of these methods
includes:
1. Health and Safety Inspections: From the normal routine inspections of work centres, hazards
čan be identified. Inspection therefore has to be more frequent and thorough in work centres.
2. Observation: it is possible that hazards can be identified, by mere observing activities that go on
in a work environment. It thus becomes necessary that workers have to be familiar with their job
and the work environment to be able to distinguish between normal and abnormal situations.
3. Hazard Analysis: This will enable workers to know exactly constitutes hazards, to be able to
identify one at a glance what
4. Job Safety Analysis: Knowing the constituents of job would enable workers detect or determine
unsafe act and conditions in job situations.
5. Accident Records and Medical Records: A mere look at these records especially if they are on
the high side will make and sundry appreciate whether or not a work environment is hazardous.
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS
Hazard can be classified thus:
1. Biological Hazards: these are associated with virus, bacteria or fungi activities. Examples
include, tetanus, tuberculosis or skin related diseases
Such as ring worm, eczema, etc.
2. Chemical Hazards: These are associated with organic and inorganic substances e.g. toxic fumes,
corrosive substances. Asbestos fibre, etc leading to bronchial health problems, cancer etc.
3. Physical Hazards: They are also associated with natural phenomena. Examples includes,
Radiation, Atmospheric variations, Abnormalities of air pressure and oscillatory vibration.
4. Psycho - Social Hazards: These are stress related health and emotional problems.
5. Mechanical Hazards: These are hazards associated with machine especially where such
equipment are faulty or not well maintained. Also it could be that the machines are unfamiliar to
the worker or unsuitable for the job.

25
6. Occupational Hazards: These are jobs related and vary from one Occupation to another. E.g.
i. Constant exposure to noise especially in power station.
ii. Exposure to dust and particles for welders and carpenters.
7. Environmental Hazards: These are hazards associated with the work environment and includes
the following:
i. Air pollution
ii. Poor lighting or illumination. le/oi
iii. Very low or high temperature.

TECHNIQUES FOR ELIMINATION OF HAZARDS

The elimination of hazards can be done through the identification of the major elements that make
up a hazardous situation, and finding ways of managing them.
Thus in doing this the following have to be examined.
1. The Worker: A worker's physical and emotional handicaps, lack 'of knowledge or improper
attitude could constitute hazards and invariably give rise to accidents. Smoking in the office
constitutes a hazard, as fire outbreak could result from it.
2. The Equipment: Unsuitable, defective or poorly maintained equipment pose great danger to the
workers, and thus are hazardous.
3. Environment: Extremely hot or cold job sites poses a great hazard to the workers and give rise
to low productivity. A work environment which is dusty, noisy, filthy or which is subjected to
dusty, noisy, filthy or which is subjected to intense vibration is dangerous. to the workers sensory
organs and thus constitutes hazard, leaving the environment with highly inflammable material
could easily lead to fire incidents. Thus to control the hazard, there is need to manage the
following:
i. The Worker: the worker has to be managed properly to ensure that he is assigned job that he is
able and capable of doing safely: The supervision has to be thorough to ensure that safety standards
are maintained or followed.
This also ensures that only capable and authorized workers carry out jobs, suçh as electrical repairs
to avoid explosions and electrocuted .and fire outbreaks. Motivation is equally important to reduce
the emotional stress inherent in some jobs when carrying out major works and repairs, the worker
should be adequately provided with personal protective wears and equipment for their safety at
work.
ii. The Equipment: The equipment have to be properly maintained and must be known to the
Workers to avoid misuse. There is also the need for work measurement to ensure the work load 1S
not to0 much for the equipment, to avoid overloading, explosions and unexpected trippings. Fire
and safety standards, including maintenance schedule have to be followed properly.

26
iii. The Environment: The environment has to be inspected regularly to ensure that it is free of
combustible and inflammable materials, naked electricity wires, stagnant water, filth, pollutants
etc. this will equally aid in ensuring that safety signs and stickers are placed at appropriate places.
iv. Removal or Substitution: removal or Substitution of the hazard is another good management
and control procedure:
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE) FOR EMPLOYEES IN INDUSTRY.
These are equipment and wears that protect the workers from directly bodily harm or injuries. It is
a statutory requirement.
TYPES OF PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND THE PARTS OF THE BODY PROTECTED.
BODY PART PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
HAZARD(S)
GROUP

S/N Body part PPE Hazards

1 Eye and Face Safety glasses, splash-proof goggles, Dust, electric flash,
impact goggles, face shield, welder's mask rays etc.
etc.

2 Head Hard hat, Bandana cap, Acid-proof hood Falling object

etc.

3 Ears Plugs and muffs Noise

4 Hands and Gloves (leather, Asbestos, synthetic and Cuts, abrasion, burn,
Arms metal mesh) sleeves and gauntlets. electric shocks

5 Feet and Legs Safety shoes. Synthetic boots, shin guards, Falling objects, rough
wooden soled shoes surface, slippery
surface, sparks from
welding.

27
 6 Trunk Aprons, vest, body hardness etc Chemical stains.

7 Respiratory Respirators - mechanical filter chemical Dust fumes

system cartridge, respirators, hoods

SAFETY POSTERS
Safety poster is a form of communication medium. The user should have in mind quite clear the
specific message he wants to communicate through the poster.
This includes one of the following
1. To remind employees of some specific safety practices that they have previously been taught or
hazard they expose themselves to ignorantly.
2. To remind employees of human traits that causes accidents.
3. To underline the basic need of maintaining safe working practices and to stress, that accidents
are a sign of an unskilled worker.
4. To encourage the right sort of behavior to reduce accidents and perhaps stress the need to wear
safety clothing and foot wear To encourage employee to work and think as a team in preventing
accidents.
Safety posters aimed at specified hazard, with a clear message and sited in the right place, it helps
in preventing accidents.
FIRST AID
First Aid can be defined as the immediate temporary treatment carried out in case of emergency,
sudden illness or accident prior to the arrival of a doctor or the transpiration of the patient to the
hospital.
GENERAL RULES OF FIRST AID
1. Removing the patient from danger or the danger from the patient depending on which is
applicable. In worker environment, it could be interpreted as removing the worker from the unsafe
situation or act (or hazardous situation).
2. Untying any tight clothing around him e.g. uniform belt, shoes, helmets etc.
3. Clearing the mouth and nose of any obstruction such as vomits, blood, saliva or anything that
goes in from outside to block it.
4. Starting artificial respiration, if the breathing ceased.

28
5. Treating the most urgent condition first.
This is arranged in descending order. The list is endless as far as the rule are concerned, but
situations and time of occurrence also contribute in prolonging the list of these rules all in an
attempt to save life and prevent further injury or complication.
IMPORTANCE OF FIRST AID TREATMENT IN INDUSTRY
1. The life of the injured worker is saved and therefore making him or her to be useful to himself
or herself, family, community and the nation at large.
2. It helps to prevent further complication of the injury to disease or death. E.g. injured person
from a cut by a sharp edge of a machine can be infected with tetanus if the first aid treatment is
not provided as quickly as possible.
3. It saves a lot of time, comprising a situation where the affected worker will have to either wait
for an ambulance, arrival of doctor or travel to clinic for immediate attention. Time is important
in any production process.
4. First Aid Treatment in a workplace helps a lot in reducing the healing8 resuscitating time of the
affected worker. A worker who is in a primary stage of a problem and quickly assisted with the
first aid treatment recovers quicker to his or her counterpart that reaches the state of comma.
5. Financial resources are conserved in many ramifications, either by reserving some money
because it is treated locally or loss of hours in search for medical help.
6. First Aid Treatment greatly assists any doctor or health worker in an attempt to provide a
secondary treatment to the injured worker.
INDUSTRIAL SANITATION AND HEALTH
A part from accidents there are various other ways through which the health and life of a worker
may be endangered. It may be necessary here therefore to look at industrial sanitation and health
as they equally affect the physical and psychological well-being of the worker.
A clean, sanitary work environment and well equipped with facilities required from employee
comfort and convenience, enhances the efficiency of the employees. Furthermore, it gives the
workers a sense of wel1-being knowing that their health and welfare are well protected.
The following four facilities and services are paramount importance in any industrial organization
and contribute in no small measure to boast workers health and morale.
1. Water
2. Food services
3. Sewage and refuse disposal
4. Medical services
WATER

29
Good drinking water is one single necessity which even a private self-employed individual cannot
do without at his or her place of work. In an industrial situation an adequate supply of safe drinking
water appears even more necessary because of the increased number of people that would require
it. Apart from drinking, workers need water for washing hands and bathing where possible. Water
is also necessary for sewage disposal.
SEWAGE AND REFUSE DISPOSAL
The importance of efficient sewage disposal facilities in an individual plan needs no emphasis.
Efficient public sewage disposal system is no very common for the most parts of Nigeria.
Therefore, in isolated area (and infact in most urban towns in Nigeria). Industrial plants have to
provide their own sewage disposal units, there should be adequate water supply and sanitary pipes
and fittings for the safe disposal of sanitary sewage from toilets, wash rooms, kitchens and
showers.
Where pit latrine have to be used (e.g as a temporary measure during construction work), pits
should be provided one for every en workers. The pit should have good covering lid and disinfected
regularly.
Refuse bins with covers, should be provided a strategic positions in the industrial plant to avoid
littering of industrial wastes and domestic refuse. The bins should be cleared regularly and the
contents burned or thrown outside the work premises. In throwing away refuse, public health
regulation should be given due consideration.
FOOD SERVICES
Nutrition is a factor in industrial health and safety which no well-meaning employer would
overlook. Most industrial plants in this country especially the manufacturing firms have come to
realize the need to provide cafeteria where good meals are served. This saves the worker and the
firm the time and trouble off where a leaving the work premises to look for food elsewhere. In
addition, cafeteria is run by the company itself, reasonable profits are made to justify operating
such food services.
The cafeteria should be clean and attractive to encourage employees to eat in them.
Since most Nigerians would prefer our local dishes, it would be advisable such that staple foods
as garri, yam and rice be included in the menu of the cafeteria if possible. This would be in addition
to snacks for those who would care for them.
Adequate measures should be taken to ensure that meal are prepared and served under the most
hygienic conditions. The safety inspector or supervisor should enforce this condition very strictly.
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance can be defined as act of taking good care of equipment, tools and materials to
prolonging its lifespan and prevent it from sudden breakdown.
Maintenance also simply means: taking appropriate steps and precautions to ensure that a given
piece of capital asset, equipment or infrastructure attains its maximum possible life span.

30
Three important and related concepts readily associated with maintenance include:
a. Preventive Maintenance
b. Predictive Maintenance
Corrective Maintenance
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
This describes the maintenance task undertaken by operational staff for the purpose of preventing
a breakdown of an equipment or asset. This may involve inspection, cleaning, testing, lubricating
and routine check. This type of maintenance does not wait until the machine or equipment or
infrastructure has collapsed or broken down before being attended to, The effort is rather to prevent
a breakdown. "Prevention" they say, "is better than cure"
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
This resembles the preventive maintenance in that it seeks to prevent a breakdown but unlike it,
the maintenance takes place when there is a warning signal, a symptom/signal of danger or
something bad, in the operation of the machine or equipment. Thus, as soon as the warning signal
is received or the symptom is perceived, the operational staff will intervene to arrest the dangerous
situation. The speed and accuracy with which the maintenance intervention its applied, determines
the extent to which a breakdown is forestalled.
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE
In this type of maintenance, the effort is to rectify damaged or worn out equipment to a serviceable
condition through minor or major repairs. Corrective maintenance may involve replacing damage
or deteriorated assemblies or Components by serviceable ones or making repairable components
serve longer by the use of correct tools or materials. Actually, corrective maintenance on
equipment is simply repair works - similar to the diagnostic, prescriptive, operative and corrective
aspects of medicine for humans and animals.
OTHER TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
The objective of a maintenance programme is not just to repair a broken down piece of equipment
but to ensure that a system operates at level of efticieney acceptable to the organization.
In order to guarantee effective maintenance, six other methods of equipment maintenance have
been identified.
1. Vendor Contract: whereby the equipment supplier sells a contract to maintain the equipment for
a given period of time
2. Vendor per Call Contract: whereby the vendor support the equipment and is paid for time and
materials consumed.
3. Third Party Contract: whereby maintenance is provided by specialized companies on equipment
not supplied by them.

31
4. Third Party per Call Contract: whereby the third party is paid for time and material used.
5. In-house Contract: whereby the maintenance is done internally by the organization that owns
the equipment. (This type of maintenance has the advantages of prompt attention being given to
the machine/equipment and low cost potential. However, these advantages may be achieved only
if the organization has high quality personnel and adequate supply of spare parts$).
6. Combination: whereby a combination of the above method is adopted. (The advantages of the
combination is that it captures the advantages of each method and eliminates the disadvantages).
THE MAINTENANCE CULTURE
For us to have the culture of maintenance we must believe on the following:
i. Nothing is useless
ii. There is no end to the use to which an equipment can be put.
iii. A machine or equipment must be aided to exhaust is natural life span.
iv. It is unwise and indeed an economic sabotage to allow an equipment deteriorate to a point of
collapse/breakdown before it will be taken care of.
V. Every warning signal in any equipment or machine must be promptly attended to.
vi. Each individual should be personally responsible for any equipment left in his/her care.
FACTORS MILITATING AGAINST EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE
ACTIVITIES IN NIGERIA.
EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE
Several factors have persistently militated against effective maintenance effective maintenance
programme at optimum cost in Nigeria.
i. Most establishment have the erroneous conception of maintenance as a task mean for
technicians alone. The result is that engineers who possess or should possess expert
knowledge and skills consider themselves "too big' for maintenance jobs.

ii. The establishment that de-emphasize training, re-training and continue education can
hardly possess an effective maintenance programme.

iii. Indiscipline and ignorance on the part of users of equipment often lead to persistent
equipment breakdown. In such situations maintenance becomes problematic.

iv. Absence of effective inventory system leads to frequent short of materials and spare
parts.

v. Lack of data and poor information processing is a handicap to effective maintenance.

32
 vi. Unavailability of fund to procure spare parts or finance maintenance facilities limits
the potentials of an establishment to undertake successful maintenance programmes.

vii. Inadequate incentives in terms of salaries, allowances and mobility or the maintenance
staff.

viii. Shortage of skilled manpower.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL MEASURES

Keeping the environment healthy is the responsibility of the government, society and each
individual. Today, many new problems must be solved in order to save our natural resources and
to protect from environmental dangers. All of us must have knowledge of environmental problems,
we must all do our part to make the world a safer place, not just for ourselves and our neighbours
but for future generation.
The following industrial pollutions will be looked into:
i. Air Pollution
ii. Noise Pollution
iii. Water Pollution
iv. Radiation Pollution
AIR POLLUTION
The air that you breadth contains gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in certain
amounts. But many people live in areas where the air contains pollutants that may be harmful to
their health. Air pollution is a very common problem in cities. Automobile exhaust and industrial
wastes are often the cause of air pollution in cities. The five basic pollutants of air are carbon
monoxide, sulfur
Oxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons (organic compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon) and
small particles that float in the air.
Automobiles cause the greatest amount of air pollution. Industries are responsible for the second
largest amount. Fuels .that are used in some industries may give off large amount of sulfur oxide,
nitrogen oxide and harmful par5icles of dust and ash (particulates). Sulfur oxide is made when
fuels containing sulfur such as coal, are burned. Certain industrial processes may give off more of
one pollutant than another. This depends on the kind of fuel used and the product that is being
made.
Ways to Control Air Pollution
1. Constant maintenance of the machines to enable them function effectively.

33
2. Fuel mixture should neither be too rich nor too lean in terms of gasoline to air. (When of right
composition, the fuel burns to such an extent that the carbon monoxide released the exhaust and
the same applies to the oxide of the nitrogen and other poisonous compounds).
3. Oil and gasoline used must be the ones recommended by the manufacturer. Wrong usage of oil
and gasoline increase pollution.
4. Fume hood should be provided for welding booths, foundry areas, and spray painting booths
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution refers to sounds that can damage the ears and other parts of the body noise is
always with us. But most people are not aware of the growing amount of noise in our society. The
loudness of sound is measured in decibels. A healthy ear may hear as low as one decibels, normal
conversation is usually in the 60 decibels may cause permanent hearing loss if one is exposed to
them for too long. Very loud rock bands, motorcycles some house hold familiar forms of noise
appliances and some industrial machines create pollution.
SN SOURCE Decibels (dBA)

Whisper 20

Quiet library 30

Quiet office 50

Normal conversation 60

Vacuum cleaner 70

Noisy office 80

Power saw, lawn mower 90

Chain saw 90

Grinding operations 100

Passing truck |Rweting 100

machine
Gunshot blast 140

Jet aircraft 150

34
35