Paintings of shakuhachi: the dawn of the komusō era

Izumi Takeo, Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus Tōhoku University

Translation: Philip Flavin, Ph.D.

I would like to begin by thanking the organizers of this grate festival for inviting me.

Of the different genres that comprise shakuhachi music, I am particularly fond of the 本曲
honkyoku works formerly transmitted by the komusō. During the Edo period, the komusō
formed a religious sect known as the 普化宗Fuke-shū, and performed the 本曲 honkyoku
works as part of their religious discipline. I was interested in the komusō and began research
on their history; however, quickly realized that the large number of forgeries would hinder
any understanding through documentary sources. I then turned to Japanese painting, the
history of which I had studied at university. As primary sources, the representations of
shakuhachi performers in paintings allowed me to trace the history of performance lineages.
This was possible as the date of production for paintings can more or less be determined,
which then permitted me to identify what historical changes had occurred with these
performers.

This presentation will primarily focus on the era in which the komusō appeared, the 16th
through 17th centuries, which in Japan corresponds to the latter half of the Muromachi
through early Edo periods.

First, the shakuhachi entered ancient Japan from the Chinese continent. The 正倉院Shōsō-in,
an 8th-century treasure house located in Nara, preserves several flutes from this period. This
instrument was imported as part of 雅楽gagaku, a large ensemble music from Tang-dynasty
China, and has six fingers holes, five on the front and one on the back, which differs from the
contemporary shakuhachi with only five holes: four on the front and one on the back. This
instrument appears to have vanished at some point in the 11th century before the onset of
Japan’s medieval period.

Japan’s medieval period last from the 13th through 16th centuries, and the shakuhachi from
this era, as mentioned above, differ from the early shakuhachi with only five finger holes.
This is the same structure as the contemporary instrument. The reasons for this change,
however, remain unclear. There were also shakuhachi of different lengths, the shorter 一節切
hitoyogiri and longer 三節切miyogiri, for example. By the way,一節切hitoyogiri is a name
of shakuhachi that has one node and 三節切miyogiri has three nodes. Nonetheless, both were
referred to as shakuhachi. During the medieval period, numerous paintings of people from
different social classes were produced. Of great interest is that the early medieval paintings
have no depictions of shakuhachi performance. They only appear after the mid-medieval
period.

There is one genre of painting from this time known as 職人歌合shokunin uta-awase, which
roughly translates as ‘poetry contests of artisans’. They were handscrolls created for fictitious
poetic competitions, the theme for which was ‘artisans’. In one handscroll, entitled ‘Poetry
Contest of the Thirty-two Artisans’, the original for which was executed in the 16th century,

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contains and illustration of an artisan identified as a 薦僧komosō. This is the earliest
depiction of a shakuhachi performer from the medieval period. He has nothing on his head,
wears a simple robe of paper fibre, and is performing a rather long shakuhachi. Please note
that he was called 薦僧komosō , not 虚無僧komusō . I will explain why. He carries a small
wooden bucket and rolled up straw mat known as a 薦komo at his back, the assumption being
that this mat served as protection from the elements, rain and wind, during his wanderings.
This straw mat, or 薦komo, is what gave rise the name of 薦僧komosō, or ‘straw mat priest’.
So this is the reason why he was called 薦僧komosō . According to the text accompanying
the painting, to eke their living, these figures would perform the shakuhachi at the gates of
both rich and poor, and nothing else. Resembling mendicant monks, they performed
shakuhachi and collected alms for their living. Given that they were called ‘monks’, they
may have been affiliated with a temple somewhere, but this also is unclear.
In the diaries of the aristocracy and Buddhist clergy, however, there are the occasional entries
that mention people performing the shakuhachi. Families of professional musicians, Zen
monks, 田楽dengaku performers and others performed the shakuhachi as accompaniment to
song. The shakuhachi was also used to establish pitch, and in ensembles with other
instruments. It appears that many of these shakuhachi were short, and as an example, the
flute here, a 一節切hitoyogiri, supposedly belonged to the well-known Zen Buddhist priest,
Ikkyū.

With this in mind, it is possible to suggest that at this time there were two groups of
performers belonging to different levels of society: the 薦僧komosō, with a religious quality,
and those who performed for pleasure. The 薦僧komosō primarily performed the shakuhachi
as religious practice, while others performed for entertainment. From the medieval period
through the first half of the early modern period, it is possible to ascertain that these two
groups coexisted, which I will show through the following slides.

During the 16th century, a new genre of painting appeared, screens known as 洛中洛外図
rakuchū rakugai-zu that depicted the sights of Kyoto, Japan’s cultural centre, and the
surrounding areas. The earliest of these screens, the 歴博甲本Rekihaku kōhon, dates from the
first half of the 16th century, contains an illustration of two 薦僧komosō performing for alms
in front of a merchant’s shop in the city. Both of them have rolled up mats at their backs and
wear leggings and travel attire. The shakuhachi are also rather long. The same 歴博甲本
Rekihaku kōhon contains the illustration a very different shakuhachi performer; that of a
young man leisurely performing on the veranda of a house clearly belonging to a member of
the upper classes. This can only be interpreted as performance for pleasure. The next screen,
known as the 上杉本洛中洛外図Uesugi-bon rakuchū rakugai-zu byōbu, was painted by 狩
野永徳Kanō Eitoku in 1565. Like the earlier screen, there are two 薦僧komosō performing
for alms in front of a merchant’s residence. And also depicted is a 薦僧komosō walking with
three people on the grounds of the 三十三間堂Sanjūsangen-dō, a famous temple in the
eastern part of Kyoto.
Similar images can be seen in an earlier Eitoku work, the Rakugai meisho yūraku-zu byōbu.
In this work, four people are seated and one is performing shakuhachi on the veranda of a
building on the grounds of the Byōdō-in, a temple in Uji located immediately to the south of
Kyoto. Given that the shakuhachi was used to accompany song during the medieval period,

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some have suggested that this painting is a representation of that practice. The next example
is(?) of another type of painting to appear in the second half of the 16th century known as
Genre Scenes of the Twelve Months. The painting here contains illustrations of komosō with
mats at their waists, performing instruments that appear to be shorter, again for alms.

There are also represenations of people clearly performing shakuhachi for pleasure, and not
for alms from the medieval period. Eitoku’s father, 狩野松栄Kanō Shōei, painted a work
known as the 釈迦堂春景図Shakadō shunkei-zu, which depicts the scene of a pilgrimage to
the 釈迦堂Shakadō Temple located in Kyoto’s 嵯峨Saga district. In this work, a colourfully
dressed figure performs what appears to be an extremely fine lacquer-covered instrument at
the edge of a veranda of the main hall. Wearing a stylish hat, he is clearly a man of means
interested in the arts. People such as this also performed the shakuhachi as a diversion. It
seems that the instrument used by those who performed for pleasure was the 一節切
hitoyogiri, an instrument slightly shorter than the others.

This is another example, which is Horinji-ezu of in Arashiyama district, Kyoto. There are
several hitoyogiri performers in this picture, depicted around in the beginning of Edo period.
They looks very pleasurable.

These two groups, the religious shakuhachi and the secular, continued into the first half of the
Edo period, the Edo period having continued from the 17th century through 19th centuries, and
known as Japan’s early modern period. One important change, however, occurred: the 薦僧
komosō transformed into 虚無僧komusō.

I would like to begin with the secular performers as there are considerably more depictions of
them. This portrait here is a painting entitled 不及老人像Fukyū rōjin-zō that I discovered at
the 霊源院Reigen’in. Wearing a hat, he sits on tatami mats with a short sword at his waist,
and holding a shakuhachi in his right hand. He is also wearing a short informal monk’s stole,
known as a 掛絡keraku, which indicates he has taken Buddhist vows. At the same time,
however, it is clear he is not a 薦僧komosō, but somebody who pursues the shakuhachi for
pleasure. The inscription at the top of the painting, written by a high-ranking monk from the
大徳寺Daitoku-ji temple in Kyoto, indicates the painting was executed in 1621. The
instrument is the shorter 一節切hitoyogiri, but in the inscription, it is referred to as a
shakuhachi. Portraits of shakuhachi performers are extremely rare making this an unusual
painting. “ひとよぎり演奏”

From the mid-17th century, depictions of secular shakuhachi performers frequently appear in
genre paintings. The 四条河原町遊楽図屏風Shijō kawara yūraku-zu byōbu depicts the 鴨川
Kamogawa dry riverbed as it appeared in the mid 17th century: an immense space for
entertainment. In one of the entertainment booths, there is a group performing the
shakuhachi. The leader is performing a longer flute. While the 一節切hitoyogiri had been
popular during the medieval period, it appears that the longer shakuhachi used by the 薦僧
komosō came to be used during the early modern period. The next painting from the later half
of the 17th century, the 遊楽図屏風Yūraku-zu byōbu, depicts a dance, the leader for which is
the shakuhachi performer in the centre. The instrument he plays is also a longer one, which

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suggests that the longer 薦僧komosō shakuhachi had permeated the secular tradition. It
would be extremely interesting to know what sort of pieces they were performing; however,
at this point, this is unknown. “吾妻獅子”演奏

With the establishment of the Fuke sect of Zen Buddhism in the 17th century, the 薦僧
komosō transformed into 虚無僧komusō, which marks the birth of this tradition. This would
have unquestionably been before 1677, for in this year, the 江戸幕府Edo bakufu requested a
copy of the rules and regulations for the 普化Fuke sect, which was produced in a document
known as the 普化宗門掟Fuke-shūmon no okite. The new name of 虚無僧komusō appears
here, 虚無僧komusō fundamentally being a title permitted in the early modern period
military class, so to speak Samurai. According to 新井白石Arai Hakuseki, a well-known
Edo-period scholar, the reasons for the change were, “they were called 薦僧komosō because
they carried 薦komo, or straw mats’, at their back. They assurdly exchanged the single
character for 薦komo for two characters, 虚ko and 無mu.” This seems a plausible
explanation. Given the close pronunciation between 薦komo and 虚無komu, and that the self-
deprecating term 薦僧komosō implied homelessness, and the new characters, which mean
‘nihility’ or ‘nothingness’, suggest religious philosophy, the change seems reasonable.

There are other sources that show the shift from 薦僧‘komosō’ to 虚無僧‘komusō’. The 節用
集Setsuyō-shū, a dictionary produced at the end of the Warring States period, contains an
entry in which the characters for 普化fuke are given the reading of こもkomo. In 暮露虚無僧
本則Borokomusō honsoku of 1628, however, the reading has been changed as can be seen in
the title. The text, nevertheless, retains the self-deprecating form of 薦僧komosō. Even in the
late Edo period, the 嬉遊笑覧Kiyū shoran, published in 1830, still uses the reading of こもそ
うkomosō. There are various other examples that can be given as well.

When speaking of paintings, 岩佐叉兵衛Iwasa Matabei’s 傘張り虚無僧図Kasahari

komusō-zu depicts two people performing the shakuhachi for alms. This work allows for an
understanding of the 虚無僧komusō’s appearance at this time. Important to note is that they
are not carrying the rolled straw mats at their backs. This suggests that they have escaped the
connotations of their earlier title of 薦僧komosō, and taken a new identity as 虚無僧komusō.
Why did the straw mats vanish? The reason is that they could belong to some 普化宗Fuke-
shū temple, with no need to wander about for a long time any more.
They wear conical hats deep over their eyes, which conceals their identities. They wear
swords at their waists and are thus perhaps members of the military class. Their hair is grown
out, their dress is tidy, and their under robes are colourful. The length of their shakuhachi is
approximately the same as a 三節切miyogiri, and the bodies are straight. The medieval
shakuhachi was also straight, and remained so through the first half of the early modern
period. The root of the bamboo was not used. The depiction here is very realistic. This is one
of the earliest examples of a painting depicting the 虚無僧komusō.

This raises the question regarding their depictions in the 洛中洛外図rakuchū rakugai-zu
screens of the early modern period. The slide here is of a screen known as the 司馬本Shiba-
hon, which dates to the mid-17th century. One 虚無僧komusō wearing conical hats perform

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longish shakuhachi in front of a shop in the city. He has spare shakuhachi and long poles at
their backs. The shakuhachi are straight. If the wrappings are straw mats, or komo, it may be
that this painting represents the styles of a transitional period. This painting also reflects the
shift from 薦僧komosō to 虚無僧 komusō.

The 18th-century 洛中洛外図rakuchū rakugai-zu, known as the 歴博E本Rekihaku e-hon,

contains an illustration of two komusō performing the shakuhachi as they walk through the
city. The rolled up straw mat has vanished from their backs, and the shakuhachi gradually
thicken towards the base. They are also curved, which suggests that the bamboo root was
now being used as part of the instrument. Their hats are conical; however, after this point,
they gradually become rounder and more cylindrical as they transform into the present-day
天蓋tengai. 住吉具慶Sumiyoshi Gukei’s 都鄙図巻Tohi zukan dates from the same period,
and also contains representations of similar komusō figures.

From this period, the komusō becomes figures incorporated in images of the floating world of
pleasure. I would like to show some examples of the conditions surrounding this
extraordinary development. Originally, the komusō were supposedly religious; however, their
distinct attire came to be a popular style imitated in the pleasure quarters. Images of these
imposter komusō can be seen the 島原遊楽図Shimabara yūraku-zu screen, which depicts
scenes of Kyoto’s red-light district, and painted during the first half of the 18th century. The
figures here are actually young men, possibly male prostitutes, who are dressed like komusō.
This attire, supposedly limited to the komusō, and thus members of the military class, has
escaped this restriction. Despite the illegality of this, the figures here are making no attempt
to hide their transgression, and openly sporting this attire. This attests to the weakening of the
Fuke sect’s regulations and token status. Nevertheless, this painting shows that the hat has
transformed from the original conical shape to a rounder shaped form, the shakuhachi
incorporates the bamboo root, and also has the curve associated with the present-day
instrument.

I would like conclude by reviewing the changes in the komusō’s appearance during the Edo
period. Thank you!