A Mini Project Report
On
Effect and Awareness on Medications and Clinical Trials
Of Chronic Diseases
Student of
S.Y. B.Sc Biotechnology
Pillai College of Arts, Commerce and Science,
New Panvel
Submitted
To
Submitted By : Under the Guidance of:
Komal Thakre Ms Sonal Kharivale
ROLL NO: 4636 Project Guide
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This acknowledgment is a testament to my profound appreciation for all those who have
played a critical role in the successful completion of this endeavor. Initially, I would like
to express my heartfelt gratitude to Ms Sonal Kharivale, my project advisor, for her
invaluable expertise and insights. Her rigorous standards, encouragement, and patience
motivated me to achieve excellence and instilled in me a more profound comprehension
and admiration for the subject matter. I am eternally appreciative for her mentorship,
which has served as a guiding beacon.
I am also grateful to the faculty members of the Department of Biotechnology at Pillai
College of Arts, Commerce, and Science, New Panvel for their encouragement and for
creating an environment that encourages academic curiosity and innovation. Their
willingness to impart knowledge and provide guidance has been crucial to my personal
growth.
I am particularly grateful to my fellow respondents, who have been genuine
collaborators. Their critiques and perspectives have enhanced this undertaking,
transforming it into a collaborative endeavor rather than an individual pursuit. One of the
most notable aspects of this experience has been the camaraderie and mutual support that
we have shared.
In summary, this undertaking is the result of the collective endeavors and benevolence of
numerous individuals who have participated in this endeavor. I am deeply grateful for the
guidance, wisdom, and encouragement I have received, despite the fact that it is
impossible to mention every contribution. I am grateful for your assistance in facilitating
this endeavor and for influencing my academic trajectory in a significant manner.
Komal Thakre
September 15, 202
2
INDEX PAGE NO.
LIST OF FIGURE 1
LIST OF TABLES 1
ABSTRACT 2
INTRODUCTION 3
OBJECTIVE 6
METHODOLOGY 9
RESULTS 11
CONCLUSION 22
CITATION AND REFERENCES 24
1
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO FIGURE NAME
1 (A)
GLUCOSE METER
1(B)
TYPES OF CGM
2(A) OXIMETER
2(B) GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF
OXIMETER
4
SMART THERMOMETER
5 AGE
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NUMBER TABLE NAME
Table - 1 Data Summary
1
Abstract
The project investigated how biosensor devices can be used to monitor chronic disease patients and raise
awareness about medications and clinical trials. Specific biosensors, including continuous glucose monitors
(CGM), oximeters, and smart clinical thermometers can be used to provide data, data monitoring, and health
tracking in real-time. Thus, it is possible to actively manage health and non-invasively monitor to track vital
signs.
As part of the project, a survey was issued to 100 participants to explore the respondents' engagement level
(usage and perception) with biosensors, as well as challenges individuals may face when using these devices. The
results revealed that most users are aware of devices commonly used in research, for example, glucose meters
and pulse oximeters. Respondents did not rank, or feel aware of newly developed devices including biosensor
tattoos or hydration monitors. Respondents agree that tracking health is beneficial using devices addressing
chronic disease management; however, suggested possible enhancements to these devices including: usable &
pathogenic compatible options: issues with limited knowledge about devices, simplicity of the devices for use,
and/or potential technical problems with the devices themselves. In the same context, a subset of the participants
expressed concerns in the areas of device production and/or cost, integration of the devices with a digital health
platform, and expressed concerns about the accuracy of biosensors in general.
The findings from the project illustrate that while the capacity of biosensors to improve and enhance health
continues to be promising, so are the areas of challenges. Suggestions and next steps include increased public
education about the benefits of biosensors, increased simplicity regarding the use of biosensors in our daily lives,
and increased reliability with the devices. Next steps may also include the addition of biosensors to smartphones
or other information cloud-based technologies to increase improved user experience and robustness in tracking
and monitoring individual health.
In summary, biosensor devices continue to represent opportunities in regards to chronic disease management and
preventive healthcare. However, addressing the current barriers to practicing, which include usability, reliability,
and awareness by the public is important for the highest potential of practicing. With adequate movement in these
areas of usability, reliability, and awareness with cost, biosensor devices offer opportunities in personalized
healthcare and a more efficient healthcare future.
2
Introduction:
Biosensors have garnered significant attention due to their applications in clinical treatment, pharmaceuticals,
biomedicine, and healthcare. They are effectively used for disease detection, prevention, rehabilitation, health
monitoring, and overall human health management. Additionally, biosensors can identify bacteria, pathogens, and
viruses. Fitness trackers and step counters help individuals adopt and maintain healthier habits. These devices also
present new opportunities for clinical science by enabling the detection of chemicals in the body without invasive
blood draws. They continuously monitor multiple variables simultaneously. Traditionally, continuous monitoring of
body chemistry would require hospitalization, but these biosensors allow individuals to access real-time
information about their body's chemical processes from any location. They track various body functions by
monitoring chemical changes, and the data can be easily collected through a mobile app, allowing users to share it
with doctors, caregivers, or others as needed.
Types of common Biosensors
Continuous glucose monitoring systems: CGM systems are
devices that continuously track blood sugar levels 24/7,
measuring glucose levels in the fluid surrounding cells before
converting them into blood glucose readings. Typically, modern
CGM devices use
Fig .1 (A) : GLUCOSE METER
a tiny flexible sensor that is placed under the skin to
measure interstitial fluid glucose levels at regular intervals.
The sensor will transmit the data wirelessly to a monitor,
showing the fluctuation of glucose levels over hours to
days (Fig. 2A). The sensors in current CGM systems are
classified as minimally invasive sensors, meaning they
involve inserting a needle into the skin to measure glucose
in ISF without taking blood. On the other hand,
Fig .1 (B): TYPES OF CGM
"invasive" means taking blood through a blood vessel puncture, not how deep the sensor is inserted. Presently,
CGM systems use electrochemical principles with glucose oxidase as the glucose sensing molecule alongside
hydrogen peroxide to monitor glucose levels in real-time, aiding diabetic patients and doctors in making educated
medical choices. The majority of CGM systems can connect to a range of devices such as personal smart devices or
transfer data to a cloud database. The standout characteristic of the CGM system is its alert systems for high and
low blood sugar levels. This implies that the current CGM system can monitor glucose levels constantly within the
body, not only in real-time but also predict future glucose concentrations.
3
Oximeter: A pulse oximeter is a non-invasive and low cost, optical device, based on a two wavelength
photoplethysmography (PPG) system, used for the continuous monitoring of arterial oxygenation. Pulse oximetry
has been found to work on the finger, the ear, the bridge of the nose, the nasal septum, the temple over the temporal
artery, and on the foot or palm in infants. Arterial oxygen saturation measurement plays a central role in the
diagnosis of sleep-related respiratory disorders such as obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA), monitoring and treatment
of respiratory diseases by detecting hypoxaemia, assisting the
titration of supplemental oxygen treatment in preterm
neonates, and many more . Pulse oximetry is now routinely
used in a wide range of clinical settings, ranging from
hospital care to primary care to home monitoring. Pulse
oximeters have been shown to be an effective tool for
identifying the need for hospitalization in initially non-severe
and possibly
Figure 2(A) OXIMETER
high-risk COVID-19 patients, or for discharging known or
suspected Covid patients.Hence, pulse oximetry is now
widely used in clinical and consumer settings, underlining
the need to ensure it is as accurate and reliable as possible.
Figure 2(A) shows how pulse oximeters determine the
functional arterial oxygen saturation by analyzing
variations in light absorption in the arterioles over time,
which have more HbO2 compared to HHb. The
photoplethysmogram (PPG) is utilized to
Figure 2(B)GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF OXIMETER
identify alterations in blood volume and to distinguish between the absorption of arterial blood and that of other
absorbers (skin, bone, venous blood). An ideal wavelength selection is when there is a significant contrast in the
extinction coefficients (ε) of HbO2 and HHb, as shown in figure 2(B) (Webster). Another factor used to select the
wavelength is how flat the absorption spectra are at the chosen wavelength. In pulse oximetry, the two common
wavelengths are 660 nm (red) and 940 nm (near infra-red). Pulse oximetry measures arterial oxygen saturation as
SpO2, while SaO2 is commonly used for arterial oxygen saturation analyzed from extracted blood with blood gas
analysis.
4
Smart Thermometers: Smart thermometers are hi-tech electronic instruments that measure the temperature of the
human body and post the user's result in real time through linked apps or other digital platforms. They usually plant
microchips with wireless technology almost on to phones or tablets that then change the curve graph showing with
time thus it results in their use for personal and clinical health monitoring to be very useful.
Figure 3: SMART THERMOMETER
Wise thermometers at home are turning out to be more frequent as a way of doing routine health checks, especially
when children feel feverish or are sick. They have been addressed, and their parents were taught that education in
the monitoring process of thermometers are fundamental to modern, technology-based healthcare as they not only
provide quick feedback but also are sometimes well- managed health programs. They are designed for enhanced
accuracy and convenience, frequently featuring options like tracking multiple users, alerting to potential fevers, and
offering insights into health patterns.
Their connection with mobile apps enables users to share temperature data with healthcare providers, facilitating
remote health management. As part of the growing field of biosensors, smart thermometers enhance personalized
and efficient healthcare, equipping users with the means to take charge of their health proactively.
5
Objective
The motivation behind this research arises from the unexplored possibility that biosensors may offer for health
monitoring and personalized medicine. Motivated by wearable technology and microsensors, devices that
continuously monitor vital health parameters - heart rate, glucose levels, and oxygen saturation - are already being
created. These developments will therefore promise to enhance early detection and management of chronic
conditions while at the same time providing real-time insights into a person's health.
Since this is an aging world that has increased prevalence in chronic diseases, it underlines the fact that health care
delivery systems are no longer effective in meeting the urgent and specific needs of treatment. The ability of
biosensor devices to empower patients in self-management and monitoring of health facilitates a proactive
approach that has a potential to reduce the workload of healthcare workers and can improve patient outcomes.
Therefore, it will set a ground for evaluating true potential, limitations, and possible applications of biosensor
devices in relation to advancing the understanding of the future of healthcare.
The main goal of this research was to find out the status quo of biosensor devices that are used in healthcare by
means of a detailed and comprehensive survey. This included the analysis of the latest developments in biosensing
technology, the detection of emerging trends, and the evaluation of the potential impact of these developments on
health monitoring in the future. The focus was on the comprehension of the present-day functionalities of the most
widely used biosensor devices which include blood glucose meters, pulse oximeters, smart thermometers, and other
health-tracking technologies.
A key aim was to pinpoint which of the devices are the most frequently used by the users and also how often they
are included in the health routines of the users. By capturing the frequency of use, the study was able to acquire a
more obvious image of the role these devices have in everyday health monitoring and disease management.
Besides, the survey aimed at evaluating users' experiences through focusing on the insults, complications, and
technical problems that existed during the use of these biosensor devices.
The study's purpose was to grasp users' all-around thoughts about the biosensors' functionality, reliability, and ease
of use. It also looked into how users feel about the merging of these devices with digital health technologies such
6
as smartphones, apps, and cloud computing systems, and whether these integrations make their experiences easier
or more complicated.
The study examined the determinants of user contentment and the adoption of biosensor technologies, among
which were the necessity of device portability, ease of data access, and real-time health monitoring. The capability
of biosensors to provide personalized health recommendations was also examined, as it indicates a leap forward in
technology.
Lastly, through investigation on the users' feedback and the possible directions that may be taken by biosensor
technology, the study endeavors to foresee how the future advances of this industry will make healthcare practices
more efficient, enhance chronic disease management and bonuses to the life-cover insurance schemes. This overall
overview will facilitate the healthcare providers, researchers, and technology developers to have a better grasp of
the present scenario of biosensors and their prospective growth and utilization in health monitoring systems.
Problems Faced During the Study and Explanation
Limited User Familiarity with Advanced Devices
In the study conducted some participants didn't have knowledge about biosensor technology. While they were
familiar with used devices like blood glucose monitors and pulse oximeters, less known biosensors such as
hydration monitors and sleep trackers were not as widely recognized. This unfamiliarity impacted the depth of
feedback as participants lacked experience or knowledge to draw upon when discussing inquiries related to
emerging technologies.
Limited Diversity in the Sample Population
The research encountered a difficulty in gathering a group of participants. Most of the respondents belonged to age
brackets and had similar backgrounds which restricted the opportunity to investigate how biosensor devices are
utilized by demographics like older adults or people living in rural areas. This homogeneity may impact the
applicability of the results since various groups could face challenges related to biosensor usage.
7
Methodology
The study was done by a survey based methodology, which made data collection easy and accessible to
participants. 100 participants responded to the survey and gave us valuable insights into their use of biosensor
devices for health monitoring. The form had a mix of multiple choice, Likert scale and open ended questions to
gauge users’ familiarity, frequency of use and experience with different biosensor technologies.
The survey covered different aspects of biosensor use, type of devices used, challenges faced and level of
integration with digital health platforms. After the survey period, the data was analyzed to see the patterns and
trends on the acceptance, usability and perceived effectiveness of biosensor devices
This approach provided a comprehensive understanding of user experiences and emerging trends in the adoption of
biosensors in daily health management.
Questions asked
The questionnaire covers:
Demographics: : Age, gender, other personal details were collected to understand the respondents and how these
might impact their use of biosensor devices.
Usage: Questions to measure frequency of biosensor device use, types of devices used (e.g. blood glucose meters,
pulse oximeters, smart thermometers)
Perception and Beliefs: Respondents were asked about their views on the benefits and limitations of biosensor
devices, willingness to adopt in the future and trust in integrating biosensors with digital health platforms like
smartphones and cloud.
Barriers to Use: The survey looked at barriers to adoption and use of biosensors such as device accuracy, ease of
use, affordability, privacy and technological integration (e.g. connectivity issues or lack of knowledge on how to
use them)
Sampling Method
The sample was not randomly selected, it included a diverse group of 100 participants, varying in age, gender, and
occupation. This provided valuable insights into the usage and perception of biosensor devices across different
8
demographic groups. While self-selection in this non-probability sampling method may introduce some
bias—since individuals with a higher interest in health technology may have been more inclined to participate—it
was an efficient way to gather a substantial amount of data for this exploratory study.
Target Population
1. A general consumer: layman who consumes or wiling to consume the biosensor devices for personal health
monitoring and many of them track metrics like blood glucose, heart rate, sleep patterns.
2. Healthcare Enthusiasts: People passionately following new health technologies and updates on medical devices;
may already have some knowledge about as wellmay be using biosensor technology.
3.Healthcare Professionals: Although not the primary focus, some responses were gathered from healthcare
professionals who interact with or recommend biosensor devices as part of their practice
4.User of the Technology: Individuals comfortable with digital health and who have experience using mobile apps
or other digital platforms, including with a device in relation to activity on their health.
Data Collection Information
An online survey was used to collect data based on the availability and convenience of the participants. You get
online surveys in the form of emails and social media platforms. The data-gathering phase is anticipated to last
around two weeks and online reminders would be sent out to increase response rates.
9
Results:
Figure 4 : Total number of Responses
Demographic Results:
According to the data , the majority of the respondents were between the ages of 18-24, whereas the age group of
35-45 and 45-55, shared an equal proportion of the respondents.
Figure 5 : Age
10
QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS:
11
12
13
14
15
16
To this
many respondents view health-checking devices as essential for monitoring daily activities, such as heart rate,
sleep, and physical activity, by providing real-time data and enabling a proactive approach to self-management.
The ability to monitor health from home, especially for monitoring chronic health conditions such as blood
pressure, was described as being of significant value. Several respondents believe that health monitoring devices
will become smaller, simpler to operate, and utilize mobile apps or cloud-based services connected to their health
device in the future. Respondents expressed accuracy, affordability and a user-friendly design as critical
components in wider-adoption of health-checking devices.
17
DATA SUMMARY
Sr No. QUESTIONNAIRE PROMINENT RESULT PERCENTAGE
1 Which biosensor devices have you used Pulse Oximeters 69.6%
before?
2 How often do you use these devices? Sometimes 74.5%
3 Have you had any problems using these No 99%
devices? (Yes/No)If yes, what
problems?
4 Do you recognize this device? Yes 97.1%
(Oximeter)
5 Do you recognize this device? Yes 66.7%
(Blood Glucose Meter)
6 Do you recognize this device? No 84.3%
(Biosensor Tattoo)
7 Would you be open to using such Yes 65.7%
devices if required?
8 Do you like the idea of using these Yes 80.4%
devices with phones or computers?
9 Is it important for the device to be small Very important 66.7%
and easy to carry?
10 How do you perceive the integration of Very useful 52.9%
biosensors with digital health
technologies (e.g., smartphones, cloud
computing)?
11 How do you like to see the results? Numbers on a screen 77.5%
12 What is most important when using a It is easy to use 64.7%
health-checking device?
13 How do you feel about health-checking Somewhat interested 54.9%
devices that offer personalized health
recommendations?
14 How important do you think continuous Very important 71.6%
health monitors will be in near future?
15 Would you recommend others to use Yes 78.4%
health-checking devices?
18
INTERPRETED RESULTS:
Current Awareness and Usage of Biosensors
It's evident from examining how people see and utilize health-monitoring biosensors that their awareness is mainly
restricted to simple gadgets like blood glucose meters and smart thermometers. These instruments are commonly
known and utilized for regular health monitoring, including taking blood pressure and body temperature readings.
Their recognized significance in treating common health disorders like fever and diabetes is perhaps the reason for
this awareness.
Nevertheless, responses do not often include many modern biosensors, such as wearables with continuous
monitoring capabilities (e.g., smartwatches that track heart rate variability or devices that monitor sleep patterns).
This reveals a lack of knowledge about more recent, cutting-edge technologies that could completely change health
monitoring. The limited mention of such devices suggests that the general population may not be fully aware of the
advancements in biosensor technology or their potential applications beyond basic health checks.
The data reveals that while individuals are aware of conventional health-monitoring instruments, they still have a
limited understanding of how biosensors might provide more thorough health insights, particularly in preventative
care. Promoting the wider use of biosensors in everyday life requires raising awareness of these technologies.
Frequency of Use
The frequency with which individuals utilize biosensors is one of the most significant measures of their acceptance.
Many of the participants stated that they utilize biosensors just "sometimes," suggesting that their involvement with
health monitoring is irregular. This implies that most people's daily or weekly activities do not yet completely
include biosensors.
A small percentage of participants reported using biosensors on a regular basis, suggesting that biosensors are often
thought of as instruments for certain uses (e.g., while feeling poorly or treating chronic disorders like diabetes).
The lack of routine usage is indicative of a larger reluctance to integrate biosensors into daily life, which may be
brought on by things like ignorance of the devices' full potential, a sense of complexity, or the health of those who
do not feel the need for continuous monitoring.
Due to the possibility of early discovery, this gap in frequent usage offers a chance to educate people about the
importance of regular health monitoring, especially for those without chronic diseases.
This gap in routine use suggests an opportunity to educate individuals about the value of consistent health
monitoring, even for those without chronic conditions, as it could lead to earlier detection of potential health issues
and more proactive healthcare management.
Challenges and Problems with Usage
A few participants mentioned that they had trouble utilizing biosensors. This suggests that there are still problems
with usability, dependability, and data interpretation even with these gadgets' potential. Common issues can include
consumers not completely comprehending the data these sensors offer, or devices malfunctioning. Some users may
be discouraged from completely integrating new health technology into their life due to the learning curve that
comes with them.
19
When asked whether they would suggest these gadgets, those who said "maybe" probably weren't sure if the
advantages of these instruments outweighed the drawbacks. This demonstrates the need for enhanced user
interfaces, more understandable instructions, and better manufacturer customer service.
Improving biosensors' usability is crucial to making sure that more individuals can easily incorporate these tools
into their daily healthcare practices. Resolving problems like ambiguous data interpretation or technical hiccups
may greatly increase user happiness and trust, increasing the likelihood that they will refer others to biosensors.
Conclusion
The information collected demonstrates ambivalence, but generally positive, expectations for the future of
biosensing. In general, there is considerable interest in the ways in which biosensors can assist in self-managing
health, however, education and comprehension are not optimal. The information provided can help to inform
strategies to enhance uptake of biosensors and optimize their role in healthcare.
Survey participants often expressed interest in more education and information about biosensors, their purpose, and
understanding their use. A common sentiment was the desire for clearer and more digestible understandings of the
data produced by biosensors. This indicates that while people are intrigued by the idea of monitoring health using
biosensors, they lack the understanding of how to use those interventions functionally. In addition, the lack of
understanding is likely a barrier to full adoption and use of the devices, particularly for older adults and others who
are less familiar with technology.
One of the important barriers to panels for wider use of biosensors described in the responses is complexity of the
interfaces at present. Some of the responders likened an experience of confusion with the devices and were often
frustrated by the comparative difficulty of engagement with the devices. The design thinking into the developer
process is to alleviate use, (or, generate devices that make engagement intuitive) and broad accessibility. By
assuring the design of such devices requires user engagement, the users would be able to interact more easily and
overcome one barrier from use and/or engagement.
The future of health monitoring lies in the widespread adoption of biosensors. To get there, we need to improve
usability, increase public awareness, and better integrate these tools into healthcare routines. Through education,
improved device design, and a focus on preventive care, biosensors can empower individuals to take control of
their health, ultimately transforming healthcare into a more proactive, personalized system.
Many respondents underscored various issues related to the accuracy and reliability of certain biosensors as
impediments to more widespread use and acceptance. Inconsistent readings, device malfunctions and other
imperfections necessitate the development of more reliable, accurate products. Improved biosensor accuracy and
reliability are essential, as they are increasingly used to manage chronic diseases, as well as to detect chronic
disease biomarkers. For instance, in kidney and liver diseases, biosensors are being adopted for conditions with a
wide range of disease stages. As biosensors continue to be adopted for other chronic diseases and for chronic
disease biomarkers; i.e., as a broad array of chronic diseases and new markers are tested for early detection, it is
essential that machine learning algorithms be engaged to improve accuracy, while minimizing the most common
sources of error. Value should be found in new proxy algorithms. This will require significant advances in sensor
design, including sensitivity and selectivity enhancements as offered by new sensor matrixes and by operator
corrections. New text studies of classes of molecules are being demanded. Third, several respondents pointed to the
low level of public awareness of the role of biosensors in preventive health care as a primary barrier, despite some
positive opinions on the potential of the technology.
20
More public health advocacy, especially through campaigns and educational programs targeting different age
groups, is needed. Participants suggested that much could be done at conferences, in community programs and in
partnership with providers. This will require quality, medical-grade biosensors that are resistant to privacy invasion
and degradation. An infrastructural protocol will be needed. Finally, respondents remained mostly supportive of
efforts to bring biosensors closer into mainstream health care. This could mean linking biosensor data to an EHR to
share real time information with a care provider. By engaging and paying for bio-sensor check-ups, we may
succeed in normalizing the use of biosensors in monitoring wellness and illness.
While the future of biosensors in the field of health monitoring is promising, areas for improvement are evident.
Biosensors can be more efficiently incorporated into healthcare routines by simplifying device functionalities,
enhancing reliability, and improving public knowledge and awareness. As scientific improvements will continue to
enhance functionality, biosensors' capabilities for changing personal health management and preventive care will
increase. In education, new designs will expand, and biosensors may be commonplace in the future of healthcare.
21
References and Citations
Haleem, A., Javaid, M., Singh, R. P., Suman, R., & Rab, S. (2021). Biosensors applications in medical field: A
brief review. Sensors International, 2, 100100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sintl.2021.100100..
Bhatia, D., Paul, S., Acharjee, T., & Ramachairy, S. S. (2024). Biosensors and their widespread impact on human
health. Sensors International, 5, 100257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sintl.2023.100257
Cappon, G., Acciaroli, G., Vettoretti, M., Facchinetti, A., & Sparacino, G. (2017). Wearable continuous glucose
monitoring sensors: A revolution in diabetes treatment. Electronics, 6(3), 65.
https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics6030065
Fernandez, M., Burns, K., Calhoun, B., George, S., Martin, B., & Weaver, C. (2007). Evaluation of a new pulse
oximeter sensor. American Journal of Critical Care, 16(2), 146–152. https://doi.org/10.4037/ajcc2007.16.2.146
Lee, I., Probst, D., Klonoff, D., & Sode, K. (2021). Continuous glucose monitoring systems - Current status and
future perspectives of the flagship technologies in biosensor research. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 181, 113054.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2021.113054
Al-Halawani, R., et al. (2023). Physiological measurement, 44(05), 05TR01.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/acd51a
Bollella, P., & Katz, E. (2020). Biosensors—Recent advances and future challenges. Sensors, 20(22), 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.3390/s20226645
Mehrotra, P. (2016). Biosensors and their applications – A review. Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial
Research, 6(2), 153–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobcr.2015.12.002
22
