PAPER

INTERMEDIATE OF TRANSLATION

TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS OF TRANSLATION

BY

ASRI ASTUTI

200220030

ENGLISH STUDY PROGRAM

TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY

SEMBILANBELAS NOVEMBER UNIVERSITY

KOLAKA

2023
TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………. 3

DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………. 4

Teaching and learning process of translation

1. Language understanding…………………………………………………4
2. Text analysis ………………………………………………………….... 5
3. Translation strategy…………………………………………………….. 10
4. Translation exercises………………………………………………….... 17
5. Evaluation and correction ……………………………………………… 18
6. Cultural understanding ……………………………………………….... 19
7. Tool selection ………………………………………………………...... 20

SUMMARY ……………………………………………………………………….. 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………….. 22
 INTRODUCTION

Translation is a vital step in going global, and getting it right from the start is key for the success
of any global expansion strategy.

In the continuous quest for generating more leads and boosting sales, businesses are looking
beyond their home markets and expanding their global footprint.

Translation is a vital step in this process, and getting it right from the start is key for the success
of any global expansion strategy. After all, if the audience in a new target market can’t understand
what you’re saying or you’re not conveying the right message, they’re not likely to do business
with you.

In this guide, we’ll explore what translation is, the different types of translation, the challenges
and opportunities involved, and how technology can help businesses master the ins and outs of
this complex process.

Translation is a mental activity in which a meaning of given linguistic discourse is rendered from
one language to another. It is the act of transferring the linguistic entities from one language in to
their equivalents in to another language. Translation is an act through which the content of a text
is transferred from the source language in to the target language (Foster, 1958). The language to
be translated is called the source language (SL), whereas the language to be translated into or
arrived at is called the target language (TL). The translator needs to have good knowledge of both
the source and the target language, in addition to a high linguistic sensitivity as he should transmit
the writer's intention, original thoughts and opinions in the translated version as precisely and
faithfully as possible.

Due to its prominence, translation has been viewed differently. According to Ghazala (1995),
"translation is generally used to refer to all the process and methods used to convey the meaning
of the source language in to the target language" (P.1. Ghazala's definition focuses on the notion
of meaning as an essential element in translation. That is, when translating, understanding the
meaning of source text is vital to have the appropriate equivalent in the target text thus, it is
meaning that is translated in relation to grammar, style and sounds (Ghazala, 1995).
Translation is a process and a product. According to Catford (1995), translation is the replacement
of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)
", (p 20). This definition shows that translation is a process in the sense that is an activity.
Performed by people through time, when expressions are translated in to simpler ones in the same
language (Rewording and para-phrasing). It can be done also from one language into another
different language. Translation is, on the other hand, a product since it provides us with other
different cultures, to ancient societies and civilization life when the translated texts reach us
(Yowell and Mutfah, 1999).
 DISCUSISON

Teaching and learning process of translation

The process of teaching and learning the subject of translation involves the acquisition and
instruction of skills to translate texts from one language to another. This course is typically pffered
in language or literature-related programs and aims to develop students’ understanding and
abilities in accurately and appropriately translating texts.

Here are the general steps involved in teaching and learning process of the translation subject:

1. Language understanding

Language understanding is the first step in the process and learning translation is to
comprehend the source language and the target language to be used in translation. Student need
to have a strong knowledge:

Understand Vocabulary and Grammar

Vocabulary and grammar understand when you want to translate English sentences into
Indonesian, so you learn the vocabulary used based on tenses. If you haven’t mastered both, it
is very difficult to translate the meaning from English to Indonesian precialy. Moreover, just
one word already has many different meanings,

Idioms

An idiom is a group of words portray a meaning that cannot be guessed from knowing
the meaning of the individual words. In other words, the only way to know what an idiom
means is to know the idiom. Their very nature means that you can’t work out the meaning of
the phrase from the phrase alone.

Sentence structures in both language

Language translators have the ability to translate sentence structure or sentence

structure by understanding the grammar and syntactic rules in the source language and target
language. Here are some common steps taken by translators to translate sentence structure:
 Understand the source language: The translator must have a good understanding of the source
language, including its grammar, vocabulary and syntactical rules. This involves reading and
understanding the text in the source language.

Sentence analysis: The translator analyzes the sentence structure in the source language to
identify important components such as subject, predicate, object, adverb, and other auxiliary
phrases. They also pay attention to the relationship between words in sentences.

Selection of target sentence structure: Based on their understanding of the source language,
translators choose the appropriate sentence structure in the target language. They must consider
the syntax and style rules used in the target language.

Adjustment of words and phrases: The translator then adjusts the words and phrases from
source language to the target language, so that the translated sentence has a structure that
matches the target language.

Check and revision: After completing the translation, the translator checks the sentence
structure again to ensure the correctness and fluency of the translated sentence. If there are
errors or discrepancies, they revise the translation.

This process requires a deep understanding of the two languages involved good syntactical analysis
skills, and sensitively to cultural and figurative differences that can affect sentence structure.
Experienced translators will be skilled in interpreting sentence structures with precision so that the
message in the original text is preserved in translation.

2. Text Analysis

a. Reading

You begin the job by reading the original for two purposes: first, to understand
what it is about; second, to analyses it from a 'translator's* point of view, which is not
the same as a linguist's or a literary critic's. You have to determine its intention and the
way it is written for the purpose of selecting a suitable translation method and
identifying particular and recurrent problems,
 Understanding the text requires both general and close reading. General reading
to get the gist; here you may have to read encyclopedias, textbooks, or specialist papers
to understand the subject and the concepts, always bearing in mind that for the
translator the function precedes the description - the important thing about the neutrino
in context is not that it is a stable elementary particle preserving the law of conservation
of mass and energy, but that now the neutrino has been found to have mass, the
Universe is calculated to be twice as large as previously thought, lChair', chaise* Stuhl,
Sessel7 sedia, silla? siul - they all present somewhat different images, lax bundles of
shapes that differ in each culture, united primarily by a similar function, an object for
a person to sit on plus a few essential formal features, such as a board with a back and
four legs. A knife is for cutting with, but the blade and the handle are important too -
they distinguish the knife from the scissors.

Close reading is required, in any challenging text, of the words both out of and
in context. In principle, everything has to be looked up that does not make good sense
in its context; common words like serpent (F), to ensure they are not being used
musically or figuratively (sly, deceitful, unscupulous) or technically (EEC currency) or
colloquially; neologisms - you will likely find many if you are translating a recent
publication (for 'non-equivalent1 words, see p. 117); acronyms, to find their TL
equivalents, which may be non-existent (you should not invent them, even if you note
that the SL author has invented them); figures and measures, convening to TL or
System International (SI) units where appropriate; names of people and places, almost
all words beginning with capital letters -'encyclopaedia* words are as important as
'dictionary1 words, the distinction being fuzzy- (Words like 'always*, 'never',
*ali\'must1 have no place in talk about translation – there are ‘always’ exceptions.) You
can compare the translating activity to an iceberg: the tip is the translation – what is
visible, what is written on the page – the iceberg, the activity, is all the work you do,
often ten times as much again, much of which you do not even use.

b. The intention of the text

In reading, you search for the intention of the text, you cannot isolate this from
Understanding it, they go together and the title may be remote from the content as well
as the intention. Two texts may describe a battle or a riot or a debate, stating the same
facts and Figures, but the type of languages and even the grammatical structures
(passive voice, Impersonal verbs often used to disclaim responsibility) in each case
may be evidence of Different points of view. The intention of the text represents the
SL writer’s attitude to the subject matter. A piece about floors may be ‘pushing’ Floor
polishes; about newspapers, a Condemnation of the press; about nuclear weapons, an
advertisement for them -always there Is a point of view, somewhere, a modal
component to the proposition, perhaps in a word- * Unfortunately’, ‘nevertheless’,
‘hopefully’.

What is meant by ‘That was clever of him? Is it ironical, openly or implicitly?

{In a Text showing that BBC Radio 2 is a pale imitation of commercial radio, the irony
may only Be implicit and obscure to a non-British reader, and the translator may want
to make the point more explicitly,) “CUmenie, noire justice repressive?*, writes a
journalist meaning LOur repressive judicial system is far from lenient1, or is it a bluff,
mainly nonsense, for amusement? It may be ‘iceberg1 work to find out, since the tone
mav come through in a literal translation, but the translator has to be aware of it,

Again, in a detailed, confused piece about check-ups on elderly patients who

may have to undergo chemotherapy the author’s intention is to show that patients must
have a thorough physical check-up before they start a course of drugs: if physical
problems are cleared up first, there may be no need for psychiatry.

A summary of this nature, which uses only a few key words from the original,
appears to be isolated from the language, simply to show what happens in real life, and
it is indispensable to the translator. But he still has to ‘return1 to the text. He still has
to translate the text, even if he has to simplify, rearrange, clarify, slim it of its
redundancies, pare it down.

c. The intention of the translator

Usually, the translator’s intention is identical with that of the author of the
SI – text. But he may be translating an advertisement, a notice, or a set of
instructions to show his client how such matters are formulated and written in the
 source language, rather than how to adapt them in order to persuade or instruct a
new TL reader-ship. And again, he may be translating a manual of instructions for
a less educated readership, so that the explanation in his translation may be much
larger than the 'reproduction'.

d. Text styles

Following Nida, we distinguish four types of (literary or non-literary) text:

1. Narrative: a dynamic sequence of events, where the emphasis is on the verbs

or. for English, 'dummy' or 'empty' verbs plus verb-nouns or phrasal verbs ('He
made a sudden appearance', lHe burst in1).
2. Description, which is static, with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives,
adjectival nouns.
3. Discussion, a treatment of ideas, with emphasis on abstract nouns (concepts),
verbs of thought, mental activity ('consider1, 'argue', etc.), logical argument and
connectives,
4. Dialogue, with emphasis on colloquialisms and phaticisms.

e. The readership

On the basis of the variety of language used in the original, you attempt to
characterize the readership of the original and then of the translation, and to decide how
much attention you have to pay to the TL readers, (In the case of a poem or any work
written primarily as self-expression the amount is, I suggest, very little,) You may try
to assess the level of education, the class, age and sex of the readership if these are
'marked \

The average text for translation tends to be for an educated, middle-class

readership in an informal, not colloquial style. The most common variety of 'marked'
error in register among student translators tends to be Colloquial' and 'intimate1, e.g.
useofphrasessuchas 'more and more'for'increasingly' (de plus en plus), 'above air for
'particularly' (surwut); 'job' for 'work1; 'got well for 'recovered' and excessively familiar
phrasal verbs ('get out of, 'get rid of). Torte other common error, use of formal or
official register (e.g. 'decease' for 'death*), also shows signs of translations. These
tokens of language typify the student-translators instead of the readership they are
translating for; they may epitomize their degree of knowledge and interest in the subject
and the appropriate culture, i.e. how motivated they are. All this will help you to decide
on the degree of formality, generality (or specificity) and emotional tone you must
express when you work on the text.

f. Stylistic scales

The scale of formality has been variously expressed, notably by Martin Joos
and Stevens. I suggest *

Officialese The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categoric- ally

prohibited in this establishment.'

Official The consumption of nutriments is prohibited. Formal Tou are requested

not to consume food in this establishment.'

Neutral "Eating is not allowed here.1

Informal Tlease don't eat here.'

Colloquial 'You can't feed your face here/

Slang 'Lay off the nosh/

Taboo 'Lay off the fucking nosh/

As always, the distinctions are fuzzy. In not so informaHanguage, translate demoms en

moins by 'decreasingly1, tout a fait by 'entirely', d'un seut coup by 'at one attempt' or
'simultaneously.1

Similarly, I suggest the following scale oi generality or difficulty:

Simple

The floor of the sea is covered with rows of big mountains and deep pits.

Popular
The floor of the oceans is covered with great mountain chains and deep

trenches.'

Neutral (using basic vocabulary only)

lA graveyard of animal and plant remains lies buried in the earth's crust/

Educated

The latest step in vertebrate evolution was the tool-making man/

Technical

'Critical path analysis is an operational research technique used in management/

Opaquely technical (comprehensible only to an expert)

'Neuraminic acid in the form of its alkali-stable methoxy derivative was first

isolated by Klenk from gangliosides/ (Letter to Nature^ November 1955, quoted

in Quirk, 1984.)

I suggest the following scale of emotional tone:

Intense (profuse use of intensifiers) ('hot')

'Absolutely wonderful. . . ideally dark bass . . . enormously successful. . .

superbly controlled1 Warm

'Gentle, soft, heart-warming melodies'

Factual ('cool')

'Significant, exceptionally well judged, personable, presentable, considerable1

Understatement (‘cokT)

‘Not. . . undignified’

Note that there is some correlation between formality and emotional tone, in
that an official style is likely to be factual, whilst colloquialisms and slang tend to be
emotive. In translating, the effusiveness of Italian, the formality and stiffness of
German and Russian, the impersonality of French, the informality and understatement
of English have to be taken into account in certain types of corresponding passage.

g. Attitude

In passages making evaluations and recommendations, you have to assess the

standards of the writer. If he writes ‘good’, ‘fair*, ‘average’, ‘competent, ‘adequate1,
‘satisfactory1, ‘middling’, ‘poor1, ‘excellent’, are his standards-relative to the context
– Absolute, generally accepted in his culture, or arbitrary? Often there is only a thin
line in the critical difference between a positive and a negative opinion, which is not
clarified by the ‘middle’ words I have listed.

Similarly, approximately the same referent may often be expressed positively,

neutrally or negatively in many languages; thus ‘plump/fat*; rondeletjgras; mollig/dkh;
‘slim/slender/thin1; svelte Imincelmaigre; schlankldiinnfmager. (The process develops
as writers become more aware of their language.) Regime (‘government’) is neutral in
French but negative in English.

h. Setting

You have to decide on the likely setting: Where would the text be published in
the TL? What is the TL equivalent of the SL periodical, newspaper, textbook, journal,
etc? or who is the client you are translating for and what are his requirements? You
may have to take account of briefer titles, absence of sub-titles and sub-headings,
shorter paragraphs and other features of the TL house-style,

You have to make several assumptions about the SL readership. From the
setting of the SL text, as well as the text itself, you should assess whether the readership
is likely to be motivated (keen to read the text), familiar with the topic and the culture,
and ‘at home’ in the variety of language used. The three typical reader types are perhaps
the expert, the educated layman, and the uninformed. You then have to consider
whether you are translating for the same or a different type of TL readership, perhaps
with less knowledge of the topic or the culture, or a lower standard of linguistic
education. Finally, if you are translating a poem or an important authoritative statement,
should you consider the TL reader at all, apart from concessions or cultural ^scraps to
help him out (e.g, translating ‘a half-holiday1as un apris-midi litre)}

i. The quality of the writing

You have to consider the quality of the writing and the authority of the text, two
critical factors in the choice of translation method. The quality of the writing has to be
judged in relation to the author’s intention and/or the requirements of the subject-
matter. If the text is well written, i,e. T the manner is as important as the matter, the
right words arc in the right places, with a minimum of redundancy, you have to regard
every nuance of the author’s meaning (particularly if it is subtle and difficult) as having
precedence over the reader’s response – assuming they are not required to act or react
promptly; on the contrary, assuming hopefully that they will read your translation at
least twice. Deciding what is good writing is sometimes criticized as ‘subjective1 but
it is a decision, like many others, not subjective but with a subjective element (‘the area
of taste! Which you have to make, using any experience of literary criticism you may
have had but bearing in mind that the criterion here is meaning: To what extent does
the web of words of the SL text correspond to a clear representation of facts or images?
If a text is well written, the syntax will reflect the writer’s personality –complex syntax
will reflect subtlety (Proust, Mann) – plain syntax, simplicity. Words will be freshly
used with unusual connotations. A badly written text will be cluttered with stereotyped
phrases, recently fashionable general words and probably poorly structured. Note that
language rules and prescriptions have nothing much to do with good writing. What
matters is a fresh reflection of the reality outside language or of the writer’s mind.

The authority of the text is derived from good writing; but also independently,
unconnectedly, from the status of the SL writer. If the SI. Writer is recognized as
important in his field, and he is making an ex-cathedra or official statement, the text is
also authoritative. The point is that ‘expressive* texts, i.e. serious imaginative literature
and authoritative and personal statements, have to be translated closely, matching the
writing, good or bad, of the original. Informative texts, statements that relate primarily
to the truth, to the real facts of the matter, have to be translated in the best style that the
translator can reconcile with the style of the original.

j. Connotations and denotations

Bear in mind that whilst all texts have connotations, an aura of ideas and
feelings suggested by lexical words (crudely, ‘run’ may suggest ‘haste’, ‘sofa1 may
suggest ‘comfort’), and all texts have an ‘underlife’ (viz. As much of the personal
qualities and private life of the writer as can be derived from an intuitive/analytical
reading of a text), in a non-literary text the denotations of a word normally come before
its connotations. But in a literary text, you have to give precedence to its connotations,
since, if it is any good, it is an allegory, a comment on society, at the time and now, as
well as on its strict setting.

From a translator’s point of view this is the only theoretical distinction between
a non-literary and a literary text. In fact, the greater the quantity of a language’s
resources (e.g. polysemy, word-play, sound-effect, metre, rhyme) expended on a text,
the more difficult it is likely to be to translate, and the more worthwhile. A satisfactory
restricted translation of any poem is always possible, though it may work as an
introduction to and an interpretation of rather than as a recreation of the original.

k. The last reading

Finally, you should note the cultural aspect of the SL text; you should underline
all neologisms, metaphors, cultural words and institutional terms peculiar to the SI. Or
third language, proper names, technical terms and Untranslatable’ words.
Untranslatable words are the ones that have no ready one-to-one equivalent in the TL;
they are likely to be qualities or actions – descriptive verbs, or mental words -words
relating to the mind, that have no cognates in the TL, e.g. words like ‘fuzzy’,
‘murky1’‘dizzy’, Snug\LSnub’; many such English words arise from Dutch or from
dialect. You underline words that you have to consider om of as well as within context,
in order to establish their semantic range, their frontiers; unlike Humps, you cannot
normally decide to make any word mean what you want, and there are normally limits
 to the meaning of any word. The purpose of dictionaries is to indicate the semantic
ranges of words as well as, through collocations, the main senses.

I should say here whilst the meaning of a completely context-determined word

may appear to be remote from its no n-con textual (core) meaning there must be some
link between the two meanings. Thus it might appear to be beyond reason that the
French word communication could possibly mean ‘fistula1, but it can be translated as
such if the fistula is a way of communication between the aorta and the pulmonary
artery. Sometimes the link is a secret code. I am not claiming that you should carry out
this analysis on every part of the text; much of it may be intuitive or unnecessary in the
case of a particular text. Underline only the items where you see a translation problem,
and bear in mind that it is often helpful to study such an item first in context, then in
isolation, as though it were a dictionary or an encyclopedia entry only, and finally in
context again.

3. Translation Strategies
What is a strategy? The word strategy is used in many contexts. In translation studies
many theorists have used the term translation strategies widely but with some considerable
differences in the meaning and the perspective from which they look at it. A list of more general
definitions of the word strategy is given below:

• A strategy is a long-term plan of actions designed to achieve a particular goal

(Wikipedia Committee, n. d.).
• A systematic plan, consciously adapted and mentioned, to improve one's learning
performance (Instruction Curriculum Reading Glossary, n. d.).
• A strategy is a planned, deliberate, goal-oriented (has an identifiable outcome)
procedure achieved with a sequence of steps subject to monitoring and modification
(Curriculum Learning Literate-Futures Glossary, n. d.).
• A set of explicit mental and behavioral steps used to achieve a specific outcome
(Deep Trance, n.d.).

Clearly, these definitions are general and can be related to different fields of study.
This study mainly concerns translation strategies, although the above-mentioned
definitions can be narrowed down to this research field, as well. Translation strategies have
their own characteristics, through which one can gain an appropriate understanding of
them.

Chesterman (1997) believes, as quoted by Bergen (n. d.), that the taxonomy of
translation strategies can be presented simply. It includes a basic strategy which is: change
something. In his statement, Chesterman (1997) does not refer to the replacement of
elements in the source text words by their equivalent in the target text; it means that this
replacement cannot be the only task of a translator and it is not sufficient. The normal types
of changes made by the translators can be classified as:

a) The words which are used in the source text

b) The structure of these words

c) The natural context of the source text

Thus, as Bergen (n. d.) mentioned, according to Chesterman (1997), local

translation strategies can be categorized into semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic changes;
each group has its own subcategories. Also, there is no obvious distinction between them,
so it is difficult to say which exact strategy is being used. In the following subsections,
Chesterman's (1997) classification of translation strategies is described, according to
Bergen (n. d.):

• Syntactic strategies

These local strategies change the grammatical structure of the target text in relation
to the source text. Although most of the strategies are applied because a literal translation
is not appropriate, Chesterman (1997) presents his first syntactic strategy, literal
translation. He believes that, according to many translation theorists, this is a "default"
strategy.

1. Literal translation: It means the translator follows the source text form as closely
as possible without following the source language structure.
 2. Loan translation: This is the second syntactic strategy in his classification which
refers to the borrowing of single terms and following the structure of the source text which
is foreign to the target reader.

3. Transposition: Another term that Chesterman (1997) has borrowed from Vinay
and Darbelnet (1958) is transposition that refers to any change in word class, for example
adjective to noun.

4. Unit shift: This is a term that has been borrowed from Catford (1965) in the levels
of morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence and paragraph.

5. Paraphrase structure change: This strategy refers to changes which take place in
the internal structure of the noun phrase or verb phrase, although the source language
phrase itself maybe translated by a corresponding phrase in the target language.

6. Clause structure change: This is a term which refers to a strategy in which the
changes affect the organization of the constituent phrases or clauses. For example, changes
from active to passive, finite to infinite, or rearrangement of the clause constituents.

7. Sentence structure change: It is a term that refers to changes in the structure of

the sentence unit. It basically means a change in the relationship between main clauses and
subordinate ones.

8. Cohesion change: The way in which the parts of a sentence join together to make
a fluent, comprehensible sentence is called textual cohesion. Cohesion change is a term
referring to a strategy which affects intra-textual cohesion, this kind of strategy mainly
takes place in the form of reference by pronouns, ellipsis, substitution or repetition.

9. Level shift: By the term level, Chesterman (1997) means the phonological,
morphological, syntactical and lexical levels. These levels are expressed variously in
different languages.
 10. Scheme change: This strategy is another term in Chesterman's (1997) classification.
It refers to rhetorical schemata such as parallelism, alliteration and rhythm and rhyming in
poetry. Parallelism refers to similar arrangement of collocations, phrases or sentences.

• Semantic strategies

The second group in Chesterman's (1997) classification is semantic strategy which has its own
subcategories.

1. Synonymy: It is the first subcategory in this group. In this strategy the translator selects the
closest synonym, which is not the first literal translation of the source text word or phrase.
2. Antonymy: In this strategy, the translator uses a word with the opposite meaning. This
word mostly combines with a negation.
3. Hyponymy: It means using a member of larger category (e.g. rose is a hyponym in relation
to flower), and also hypernym is a related superordinate term, which describes the entire
category with a broader term (e.g. flower is a hypernym in relation to rose).
4. Converses: This strategy refers to pairs of opposites expressing similar semantic
relationships from the opposite perspectives (e.g. send-receive take-give).
5. Trope change: The formal name that is used for a figure of speech or metaphor is
called trope which means using a term or phrase to compare two things that are unrelated
with the purpose of revealing their similarity. This relates to a type of strategy called trope
change strategy.
6. Abstraction change: The other kind of strategy in the list is abstraction change. This
strategy concerns shifting either from more abstract terms to more concrete ones or vice
versa.
7. Distribution change: This is a kind of strategy in which the same semantic component is
distributed over more items (expansion) or fewer ones (compression).
8. Emphasis change: This strategy increases, decreases or changes the emphasis of thematic
focus of the translated text in comparison to the original.
9. Paraphrase strategy: This is the last strategy in the list. According to the overall meaning
of the source text, it creates a liberal approximate translation, some lexical items may be
ignored in this sort of strategy.
• Pragmatic strategies

1. Cultural filtering: According to Chesterman (1997 as cited in Bergen n. d.), the first sort of
strategy in this group is cultural filtering. It may be described as the concrete realization,
at the level of language, of the universal strategy of domestication or target culture-oriented
translation. This strategy is generally used while translating culture-bound items.
2. Explicitness change: In explicitness change strategy some information of the source text
maybe added; or deleted to make the text more or less explicit.
3. Information change: The next type of strategy is information change which is similar to the
previous strategy; however, here the changed information is NOT implicit in the source
language text.
4. Interpersonal change: This strategy is used to affect the whole style of the text to make it
more or less informed, technical etc.
5. Speech act: There is another strategy the changes the nature of the source text speech act,
either obligatory or non-obligatory (e.g. from reporting to a command, or from direct to
indirect speech).
6. Visibility change: This is a strategy that increases the "presence" of either the author of the
source text or its translator (e.g. footnotes that are added by the translator).
7. Coherence change: Another strategy is coherence change which is similar to cohesion
change which was mentioned in the previous section ( syntactic strategies). The only
difference is that, cohesion change concerns micro-structure level (e.g. a sentence or a
paragraph), but coherence change concerns a higher textual level (i.e. combining different
paragraphs to each other in a way different from the source text).
8. Partial translation: This is a strategy that refers to translating a part of a text, not the entire
text (e.g. song lyrics or poetry).
9. Trans-editing: As Bergen also stated, according to Stetting (1989), another strategy which
can be mentioned in this section is trans-editing that refers to extensive editing of the
original text when necessary (i.e. changing the organization of the source text information,
wording or etc).
The above-mentioned strategies present the classification of Chesterman (1997) cited by Bergen
(n. d.). It is clear that all strategies can specific cases of "changing something," which is, as
Chesterman (1997) believes, the basic strategy of translation.

The levels on which these translation strategies work differ from each other; and as Bergen (n. d.)
stated, this may lead to terminological confusion among researchers who are concerned with
translation studies.

As Venuti (2001) states, from Vinay and Darbelnet's (1958) point of view, translators can select
two main methods of translating which are called: direct/literal translation and oblique
translation.

When literal translation is not possible because of lexical and syntactical differences between the
two languages, oblique translation is used.

Oblique translation includes seven subcategories which are as follows:

1. Borrowing: that is used to tackle a meta-linguistic difference. It is the simplest strategy of

translation that means using source language terms in the target text.
2. Calque: This is a special type of borrowing in which the borrowed expression is literally
translated into the target language.
3. Literal translation: that means rendering a source language text into the appropriate
idiomatic or grammatical equivalent in the target language.
4. Transposition: that is substituting one word class with another without changing the
meaning of the message.
5. Modulation: this means changing in point of view (e.g. changing part of speech).
6. Equivalence: this refers to rendering two situations by different stylistic and structural
methods; these two texts include the source text and its equivalent text which is the target
text.
7. Adaptation: that refers to those situations when cultural differences occur between the
source language and the target language. Thus, translation can be considered as a special
kind of equivalence which is situational equivalence
The above-mentioned strategies fit the classification of Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), which shows
some similarities with Chesterman's classification; however, as we can see above Chesterman's
(1997) classification is clearly more detailed. All the above-mentioned strategies are theories
which are named differently by different theorists. However; if one wants to examine the
applicability of these strategies, there would be no clear borderline between them. Moreover, they
are just some of the strategies that can be used by a translator, and it seems that there are different
options that a translator may have while doing the translation. However, there is no hierarchical
order of more or less often used strategies. Baker (1992) offers a taxonomy of eight translation
strategies, which are used by professional translators.

Baker's taxonomy: Mona Baker (1992: 26-42) lists eight strategies, which have been used by
professional translators, to cope with the problematic issues while doing a translation task:

1. Translation by a more general word

This is one of the most common strategies to deal with many types of nonequivalence. As
Baker believes, it works appropriately in most, if not all, languages, because in the semantic
field, meaning is not language dependent.
2. Translation by a more neutral/ less expressive word
This is another strategy in the semantic field of structure.
3. Translation by cultural substitution
This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with a target language
item considering its impact on the target reader. This strategy makes the translated text
more natural, more understandable and more familiar to the target reader.
The translator's decision to use this strategy will depend on:
1. The degree to which the translator is given license by those who commission the
translation
2. The purpose of the translation
4. Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation
This strategy is usually used in dealing with culture-specific items, modern concepts, and
buzz words. Using the loan word with an explanation is very useful when a word is repeated
several times in the text. At the first time the word is mentioned by the explanation and in
the next times the word can be used by its own.
 5. Translation by paraphrase using a related word
This strategy is used when the source item in lexicalized in the target language but in a
different form, and when the frequency with which a certain form is used in the source text
is obviously higher than it would be natural in the target language.
6. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words
The paraphrase strategy can be used when the concept in the source item is not lexicalized
in the target language.
When the meaning of the source item is complex in the target language, the paraphrase
strategy may be used instead of using related words; it may be based on modifying a super-
ordinate or simply on making clear the meaning of the source item.
7. Translation by omission
This may be a drastic kind of strategy, but in fact it may be even useful to omit translating
a word or expression in some contexts. If the meaning conveyed by a particular item or
expression is not necessary to mention in the understanding of the translation, translators
use this strategy to avoid lengthy explanations.
8. Translation by illustration
This strategy can be useful when the target equivalent item does not cover some aspects of
the source item and the equivalent item refers to a physical entity which can be illustrated,
particularly in order to avoid over-explanation and to be concise and to the point.

As it is obvious, each theorist offers his/her own strategies according to his/ her perspective;
however, Baker’s (1992) taxonomy of translation strategies include the most applicable set of
strategies, because it shows the strategies which are used by professional translators. So, this
definition indicates the applicability of these strategies, i. e. not only is it a set of strategies but it
can also be tested by professional translators to see to what degree they work if at all.

4. Translation Exercise

Translation exercise is an activity carried out to train the ability to translate text from
one language to another. Typically, these exercises aim to hone skills in understanding and
using the target language, as well as improve fluency in translating texts with good accuracy
and clarity.
Examples of translation exercises could be:

a. Short Text Translation: You are provided with a short text in the source
language and asked to translate it into the target language. For example,
translating a simple sentence like "I love you" into another language like
Spanish ("Te quiero") or French ("Je t'aime").
b. News Article Translation: You are provided with a news article in the
source language and asked to translate it into the target language. This can
involve translating from English to another language or vice versa. For
example, translating news articles about the latest developments in
technology or politics.
c. Legal Document Translation: You are required to translate official
documents such as contracts, agreements or legal documents from the
source language to the target language. This kind of exercise requires a good
understanding of technical terminology and special expertise in the target
language.
d. Literary Text Translation: You are presented with a literary text or poem in
the source language and asked to translate it while retaining the nuances and
beauty of the original language. The challenge in this kind of exercise is
trying to transfer the aesthetics and beauty of the original text into the target
language.
e. Spoken Text Translation: You listen to a recording of a conversation or
speech in the source language and are assigned to translate the contents of
the conversation orally into the target language. It helps practice listening,
understanding and translating skills simultaneously.

This translation exercise helps in developing an understanding of structure,

grammar, idioms and vocabulary in the target language. Through this practice, one can
improve communication skills in the target language and become a more skilled translator.

5. Evaluation and Correction

 Evaluation and correction are important steps in the translation process to ensure the
accuracy and quality of the translated text. Here are some key considerations and techniques
for evaluating and correcting translations:

a. Accuracy: Assess the accuracy of the translation by comparing it with the original text.
Check for any omissions, additions, or mistranslations. Make sure that the meaning of
the original text is faithfully conveyed in the translation.
b. Grammar and Syntax: Check the grammar and syntax of the translated text. Look for
errors such as incorrect verb tense, agreement issues, sentence structure problems, and
punctuation errors. Ensure that the translated sentences are clear and well-formed.
c. Style and Tone: Consider the style and tone of the original text and evaluate whether
they have been maintained in the translation. A good translation should capture the
intended style and tone, whether it's formal, informal, technical, or colloquial.
d. Terminology: Verify the use of correct terminology in the translation. Make sure that
specialized terms and industry-specific vocabulary are accurately translated.
Consistency in terminology is crucial, especially in technical or legal translations.
e. Cultural Adaptation: Assess the cultural adaptation of the translation, particularly when
translating between languages with different cultural contexts. Ensure that any cultural
references or nuances are properly understood and conveyed in the translation.
f. Proofreading: Proofread the translated text for spelling mistakes, typographical errors,
and formatting inconsistencies. Pay attention to details like capitalization, italics, and
quotation marks. A thorough proofreading helps to improve the overall quality and
professionalism of the translation.
g. Native Speaker Review: Whenever possible, involve a native speaker of the target
language to review the translation. Native speakers can provide valuable insights into
the naturalness and idiomatic expressions of the language, and help identify any
potential issues or improvements.
h. Feedback and Iteration: Provide constructive feedback to the translator based on your
evaluation. Clearly communicate the areas that need improvement or correction.
Collaborate with the translator to address any identified issues and iterate on the
translation until the desired quality is achieved.
 Remember that translation is an art as much as a science, and there can be multiple
valid approaches. It's important to strike a balance between faithfulness to the original text and
creating a text that reads naturally and effectively in the target language.

6. Cultural Understanding

Translation is not merely a mechanical process of converting words from one language
to another; it is a complex and nuanced activity that involves the transfer of meaning and
cultural nuances between languages. Cultural understanding plays a vital role in translation as
it helps bridge the gap between different languages and ensures accurate communication across
cultures. Here are some key aspects of cultural understanding in translation:

a. Linguistic and Cultural Equivalents: Cultural understanding helps translators identify

linguistic and cultural equivalents in the target language for words, phrases, idioms,
and expressions used in the source language. This involves considering the cultural
connotations, social norms, historical references, and colloquialisms that may be
specific to a particular culture.
b. Contextual Adaptation: Translators need to understand the context in which the source
text was written and adapt it appropriately to the target language and culture. They must
consider factors such as the target audience, purpose of the translation, and cultural
sensitivities to ensure the translated text is relevant and meaningful in the target culture.
c. Translating Cultural References: Cultural references, such as specific traditions,
historical events, or literary allusions, are often embedded in a text. Translators must
possess cultural knowledge to accurately convey these references in the target
language. They may need to provide explanations, find equivalent references, or make
adjustments to ensure the cultural meaning is preserved.
d. Idiomatic Expressions and Humor: Idioms, proverbs, and humor are highly culture-
specific and often do not have direct equivalents in other languages. Translators with
cultural understanding can navigate these linguistic challenges by finding culturally
appropriate alternatives or providing explanations to convey the intended meaning and
humor accurately.
 e. Sensitivity to Cultural Norms: Cultural understanding helps translators navigate and
respect cultural norms and taboos. They must be aware of differences in social,
religious, and ethical values to ensure the translated content is culturally sensitive and
does not inadvertently offend or misrepresent the target culture.
f. Localization: Cultural understanding is crucial in the process of localization, where a
translation is adapted to a specific culture or locale. Translators consider factors such
as local customs, preferences, measurement systems, currencies, and legal
requirements to ensure the translated material is appropriate and relatable to the target
audience.
g. Cultural Sensitivity Training: Professional translators often undergo cultural sensitivity
training to enhance their understanding of different cultures. This training helps them
develop the necessary knowledge and skills to handle cultural challenges and produce
high-quality translations that accurately convey the intended meaning and cultural
nuances.

In summary, cultural understanding is a fundamental aspect of translation. It enables

translators to go beyond literal word-for-word translations and consider the cultural context,
linguistic nuances, and social sensitivities to produce accurate and culturally appropriate
translations.

7. Tools Selection

When it comes to translation, there are several tools available to assist translators in
their work. These tools can enhance productivity, improve accuracy, and streamline the
translation process. Here are some common types of tools used in translation:

a. Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tools: CAT tools are software applications

designed to aid human translators. They typically offer features such as translation
memory, terminology management, and alignment tools. Popular CAT tools include
SDL Trados, memoQ, Déjà Vu, and OmegaT.
b. Machine Translation (MT) Tools: MT tools use artificial intelligence and algorithms to
automatically translate text from one language to another. They can be useful for
 generating draft translations or for quickly translating large volumes of content.
Prominent examples include Google Translate, Microsoft Translator, and DeepL.
c. Terminology Management Tools: These tools help translators maintain consistency by
managing terminology databases. They allow translators to create and maintain
glossaries, ensuring accurate and consistent translation of specialized terms. Tools like
MultiTerm and Acrolinx are commonly used for terminology management.
d. Translation Project Management Tools: These tools assist in managing translation
projects, including task allocation, deadline tracking, and collaboration among
translators, proofreaders, and clients. They provide features for file management,
communication, and workflow organization. Popular project management tools in the
translation industry include XTRF, Plunet, and Protemos.
e. Quality Assurance (QA) Tools: QA tools help translators ensure the accuracy and
quality of their translations. These tools perform checks for grammar, punctuation,
consistency, and formatting errors. Examples include Xbench, Verifika, and QA
Distiller.
f. Localization Tools: Localization tools aid in adapting content to specific target
markets, including adjusting for cultural and linguistic differences. They help manage
software localization, website translation, and multimedia localization. Tools like
Passolo, SDL Passolo, and Alchemy Catalyst are commonly used in software
localization.

The choice of tools depends on various factors, such as the type of content being
translated, project requirements, budget, and personal preferences. Translators often use a
combination of these tools to optimize their workflow and deliver high-quality translations
efficiently. It's important to note that while these tools can be helpful, they are not meant
to replace the expertise and creativity of human translators.
 SUMMARY

The process of teaching and learning translation is an important step in developing effective
translation skills. In learning translation, it is important to understand that translation is not just
replacing words in one language with words in another language. This involves an in-depth
understanding of the cultural context, language structure and the communicative intent of the text
being translated.
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