COSMOPOLITAN UNIVERSITY

ABUJA

MODULE: GENERAL CHEMISTRY I

LECTURE I
TOPIC: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT)

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 Introduction to Organic Chemistry
What is Organic Chemistry?
The Unique Nature of Carbon
Classification of Organic Compounds

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Organic Chemistry
• Organic Chemistry is the Chemistry of Carbon compounds
Organic compounds contain Carbon atoms, nearly always bonded to other
Carbon atoms, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Halides and selected others
(S, P)
Carbonates, Cyanides, Carbides, and other carbon-containing ionic
compounds are NOT organic compounds.
Natural Sources of Organic Compounds
Living things: Carbohydrates / Proteins / Fats / Vitamins /
Antibiotics

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 Crude oil or coal: Alkanes / Alkenes / Alkynes / Aromatic
hydrocarbons

Development of Organic Chemistry as a

Science
In the past,
• Compounds from living organisms - Organic

• Compounds from lifeless matter – Inorganic

• Organic compounds thought to have ‘vital force
This misconception was dispelled in 1828 when the German chemist
Friedrich Wohler (1800)-

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 1882) prepared urea from the inorganic salt ammonium cyanate by simple
heating.
In 1828, Wohler (a German chemist)
Ammonium cyanate Urea
(from mineral sources-Inorganic’) (from urine-Organic)

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 The Unique Nature of Carbon
Ability to form four strong covalent bonds
Each carbon atom has four unpaired electrons when excited
Electronic configuration of carbon (ground state) : 1s22s22p2

Ground state Excited state

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 The Unique Nature of Carbon
Ability to Catenate
Catenation: Ability of atoms in forming stable bonds with itself, hence joining
up into chains or rings.
The ability to catenate of carbon is chiefly due to the high strength of the C⎯C
single bond (bond enthalpy of C ⎯ C single bond is 356 kJ mol-1)
Carbon atoms link together to form chains of varying length, branched chains
and rings of different sizes.
C – C > Si – Si > Ge – Ge > Sn – Sn

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CnH2n+2 n = 1,2,3,…(no limit for n) SinH2n+2
n = 1 to 6 only (silanes) GenH2n+2 n = 1 to
3 only (germanes) SnnH2n+2 Only
SnH4 (stannane) exists

The Unique Nature of Carbon

Ability of carbon to bond with other elements (O, N, S, P, Halogens) with
relative ease (in addition to hydrogen) forming stable compounds.
Ability to form compounds with diverse functional groups.

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 THE CONCEPT OF HYBRIDIZATION
A theoretical concept to explain tetravalency of carbon
Carbon in the ground state:
1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1 and 2pz0
Carbon in the excited state (close orbital energies)
1s2, 2s1, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz1
Hybridization- Mixing of atomic orbitals (to produce equal number of hybrid
orbitals)

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Sp3 Hybridization (Alkanes) Sp2 Hybridization (Alkenes) Sp Hybridization (Alkynes)

Tetrahedral (Bond angle of 109.5o) Three sp2 hybrid orbitals and one unhybridized Two sp hybrid orbitals (green) and two unhybridized
dumbbell-shaped p orbital. P-orbitals (blue) Linear shape (Bond angle of 180o)
Trigonal shape (Bond angle of 120o)

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 Classification of Organic Compounds
Organic compounds are broadly classified into two groups
1. Acyclic
Aliphatic- Open chain or branched chain
2. Cyclic compounds: closed chain or ring compounds
a) Homocyclic: ring compounds containing carbon
Alicyclics (e.g cycloalkanes)
Aromatics- carbocyclic or ring compounds containing at least one benzene
ring. There are also non-benzenoid aromatics
b) Heterocyclic compounds (cyclic or ring compounds containing other
elements in the ring outside carbon)
Saturated and Unsaturated Compounds

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 Saturated Compounds:
All carbon-carbon bonds are single
May be open chain or alicyclic (cycloalkanes)
May be hydrocarbons or non-hydrocarbons (eg ethanol, ethanal) with CO,
CN etc
Unsaturated Compounds
Contains carbon-carbon multiple bond
May be open chain or alicyclic (cycloalkenes)
May be hydrocarbons or non-hydrocarbons
Include Alkenes (dienes, trienes, polyenes) and Alkynes
Hydrocarbons

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Hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen only) can be classified based on their structure
(aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic)

DERIVATIVES OF HYDROCARBONS
Alkyl halides
Alcohols (alkanols)
Ketones and Aldehydes
Carboxylic acids and Esters

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Functional Groups
Organic compounds are classified by the presence of characteristic functional groups
A functional group is defined as an atom or a group of atoms that effectively determines the chemical properties of
an organic compound
◦A functional group is a reactive portion of a molecule that undergoes predictable reactions
◦The reaction of an organic compound takes place at the functional group
◦carbon-heteroatom bonds
◦A particular bond may be a functional group itself or part of one or more functional groups
Example Functional Groups
o Oxygen containing functional groups: alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, esters, carboxylic acids,
anhydrides, acid halides
o Nitrogen containing functional groups: amines, amides, nitriles, nitro
o Compounds containing Carbonyl Group (C=O): acids, esters, ketones, aldehydes, anhydrides, amides,
acid halides
o Compounds containing Halides alkyl halides, aryl halides, acid halides

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 o Compounds containing double & triple bonds alkenes, alkynes, aryl structures (benzene rings)
Homologous Series
Homologous series is a series of compounds that have the same functional group, and each member differs from
the next member by a – CH2 – unit in their formulae.
Members in the same series can be represented by a general formula. e.g.
Alkanes: CnH2n + 2,
Alkenes: CnH2n,
Alkynes: CnH2n – 2
Alkanols: CnH2n + 1 OH
Alkanals: CnH2n + 1 CHO,
Alkanoic acids: CnH2n + 1 COOH

Members of a homologous series have similar chemical properties. The physical properties change
gradually along the homologous series. All members can be prepared by general methods

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 Factors Affecting the Physical Properties of Organic Compounds
1.Structure of the functional group
Dipole moment of the molecule-Molecules having a polar functional group have a
higher b.p. than others with a non-polar functional group of similar molecular
masses

2.Formation of hydrogen bonding

Molecules having ⎯OH or ⎯ NH2 groups are able to form hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds affect the physical properties of alcohols and amines with low molecular masses
3.Length of carbon chains (London dispersion force)
o Molecules with higher molecular masses have higher m.p., b.p. and densityHigher molecular
masses Large molecular sizes
o Stronger London dispersion forces among molecules

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 o Molecules with branched chains b.p. and density lower than its straight-chain isomer Molecules
with branched chains m.p. higher than its straight-chain isomer
N.B Branched-chain isomers are more spherical
Packed more efficiently in solid state
Extra energy is needed to break down the efficient packing

Solubility of Organic Molecules

• Depends on the polarity of organic molecules and the solvent
• Non-polar or weakly polar compounds dissolve readily in nonpolar or weakly polar solvents
• Highly polar compounds dissolve readily in highly polar solvents
• “Like dissolves like”
Hydrogen bonding also affect the solubility of a molecule
• Molecules with ⎯OH groups are able to form hydrogen bonds with surrounding water molecules
Soluble in water

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