16 ESR REVIEW #03 | Vol.

22 | 2021

FEATURE
SDG6: Access to Clean, Safe Water: A
Case Study of Khayelitsha Township,
Cape Town
Louisa Madeleine Schmiegel
Introduction
Safe and clean drinking water is indispensable for sustaining life and health, and is fundamental to the dignity of all.
This article investigates the lived experiences of the residents and their access to water in the township of Khayelitsha in
Cape Town, South Africa. The reference points are Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 and General Comment 15 of the
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR). The methods of qualitative research, literature review, and
interviews and observation are used to gain a better understanding of the needs of the residents.

The conclusion is that residents in government subsi- and educational opportunities (OHCHR 2010: 3, SAHRC
dised homes (RDP homes) find access to water stress- 2014: 14&25). The current water crisis can be traced
ful, challenging and a struggle. They feel powerless, back to poverty, inequality and unequal power rela-
and are pressured by their inability to pay for water. tionships, and is reinforced by social and environmen-
This shortage has negative effects on food security, tal challenges, increasing urbanisation, the depletion,
health, livelihood choices and educational opportuni- pollution and privatisation of water resources, and cli-
ties. Water becomes even more essential for survival mate change (OHCHR 2010: 1).
given that hand-washing is a key measure in limiting

..it is clear that its water

the spread of Covid-19.

For the residents, access to sufficient water remains issues are the result
of a flawed system
a daily challenge and puts them at high risk due to
ongoing water apartheid. The government must thus
provide constant access to sufficient water to the most historically based on
institutionalised racism
vulnerable residents.

Problem statement and and discrimination

research question against many of its
people.
Water is essential for life. Safe and clean water is indis- Section 27(1) of the Constitution of South Africa states
pensable for sustaining life and health, and is funda- that everyone has the right to access to clean water
mental to the dignity of all (OHCHR 2010: 1). Shortage and proper sanitation. However, the reality in many
of water, poor water quality and poor sanitation have townships looks very different, and this reflects a struc-
negative effects on food security, livelihood choices tural problem which is due to the large wealth gap be-
 ESR REVIEW #03 | Vol. 22 | 2021 17

tween the rich and poor and to persisting racial segre-

gation. The wealth gap and racial segregation reduced
Human rights perspectives
the access of black and poor people to water and san-
itation. On the one hand, the water crisis is about wa- In order to address the water crisis, the United Nations
ter scarcity, and on the other hand it is the product of (UN) has increasingly recognised that access to safe
structural discrimination of access to water, also known drinking water must be considered within a human
as water apartheid. After assessing the problems that rights framework. While access to water is not yet rec-
South Africa faces, it is clear that its water issues are ognised as a self-standing human right in international
the result of a flawed system historically based on in- treaties, international human rights law contains spe-
stitutionalised racism and discrimination against many cific obligations related to the access to safe drinking
of its people. water.

The wealth gap and In 2002 the CESCR framed a general comment on the
right to drinking water, which is defined as the right of
racial segregation everyone ‘to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically ac-

reduced the access cessible and affordable water for personal and domes-
tic uses’ (OHCHR 2010: 1). The Committee underlined
of black and poor that the right to water was part of the right to an ade-

people to water and quate standard of living, and was indispensably linked
to rights to health, adequate housing and food. It de-
sanitation. fined the right to water, including key principles like
acceptability, physical accessibility, affordability, qual-
This research investigates the lived dimensions of wa- ity and safety (OHCHR 2010: 4&8; UNESCO 2019: 36-38).
ter access in impoverished and marginalised urban ar- In 2010, the UN General Assembly recognised the hu-
eas in South Africa. The target group consists of the man right to water and sanitation, and acknowledged
residents of the township of Khayelitsha in Cape Town. that clean drinking water and proper sanitation are es-
Equitable and universal access to water is of particular sential to the realisation of all human rights (UNDESA
importance in the context of post-apartheid South Af- 2014, A/HCR/RES/16R).
rica, where there has been a strong desire to abolish
deeply-rooted historical colonial inequalities through In 2015, the UN Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Develop-
improving the quality of life of formerly marginalised ment was adopted by the General Assembly. It contains
populations (Rodina 2016: 58). The research draws at- 17 SDGs (United Nations 2015: 1). Goal 6 of the SDGs
tention to a new development in the discussion about – ‘Ensure availability and sustainable management of
universal access to water, since the challenges caused water and sanitation for all’ (United Nations 2015: 14)
by Covid-19 are related to the socio-economic rights – is considered one of the central SDGs. Its essential
of impoverished residents in the townships in South functions are related to human health, dignity and the
Africa. survival of the planet (UNESCO 2019: 36).

The object of this research is to acquire a balanced pic- At the regional level, draft guidelines on the right to
ture of access to water for residents of Khayelitsha, with water in Africa have been developed by the African
reference to SDG 6, which refers to the CESCR’s Gener- Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights. These
al Comment 15, ‘The Right to Water’ (articles 11 and 12 guidelines state that persons living in informal settle-
of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and ments should not be denied access to water because
Cultural Rights (ICESCR)). The research question is: How of their housing status. Their living situation should be
do residents living in RDP homes experience access to upgraded through the provision of water services (Af-
water in Khayelitsha? rican Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights 2015:
17).
18 ESR REVIEW #03 | Vol. 22 | 2021

With regard to all human rights obligations to clean

water, South Africa, as a UN member state, is bound
Results
by them, and responsible for realising access to
water for all. South Africa provides an example of The main result is that access to water for the residents
the progressive implementation of the human right is highly contextual. The residents in shack area QQ
to water as a constitutional guarantee of the right of in Khayelitsha can collect water free of charge and
citizens to access sufficient water. The Constitution of theoretically reach the 50 litres per day per person.
South Africa states that ‘all citizens have the right to However, the collection of water depends on distance
access sufficient food and water’ (Gov ZA 1996: 11). and time. The communal taps are not maintained, and
are often unhygienic and polluted with dirt. Their design
Furthermore, its Free Basic Water (FBW) policy of 2001 and location make them inaccessible for vulnerable
sets a minimum amount of water for basic needs, groups. It is not safe to collect water at night as their
free of charge, to ensure that the constitutional right location is not visible and criminal attacks happen
to water is realised, regardless of the ability to pay. It often. Also, in the case of a fire in the shacks, the
was initially mandated that municipalities provide at communal taps provide insufficient water to extinguish
least 25 litres per person per day of free water for basic the fire. Nevertheless, a greater risk is currently posed
needs, within 200 meters of their dwelling. In 2007, this by Covid-19, as the communal taps are not cleaned and
was revised to 50 litres per person per day (Rodina pose a high risk of spreading of the virus.
2016: 58-59).
The residents in the Uxolo High School Area in Mandela
Methodology Park, Khayelitsha, have a small amount of water per
household for free. As the interviewees either are or
were unemployed or have lost their jobs due to the
This research used three different methods. There national lockdown, they are unable to afford more. As
were interviews with residents; one group discussion a consequence, they are often unable to afford the
with community leaders; and field observations. The necessary 50 litres per person per day. These taps are
collection of field observations and interview data more accessible than the communal taps, but bring
took place in March 2020. The first field observation on their own problems, as the water is unaffordable. The
communal water taps was done during a township tour water management devices are much discussed in the
with a local guide in the shack area QQ of Khayelitsha. neighbourhood; the residents receive letters and bills,
The second field observation on water management and fear disconnection because they cannot pay.
devices was done on a tour with the community leader
in the neighbourhood of the Uxolo High School in The interviewees stated that their biggest need is
Mandela Park, Khayelitsha. The group discussion with access to water at home and they hope that this will not
community leaders about their difficulties concerning denied due to their income. They are generally aware
the realisation of the right to health took part during of their human right to water, but they feel powerless,
community workshops hosted by the Socio-Economic and do not know what to do. When they have no water,
Rights Project at the Dullah Omar Institute, University they rely on the help of their community. However, their
of the Western Cape. Three interviews were held with neighbours are in a similar position and do not have
residents in the neighbourhood of the Uxolo High enough water either. Most of the interviewees were
School in Mandela Park, Khayelitsha. also afraid of the Covid-19 situation because of the

The communal taps are not maintained, and are often

unhygienic and polluted with dirt.
 ESR REVIEW #03 | Vol. 22 | 2021 19

shortage of water in their homes. One interviewee, as Similarly to Rodina’s results, the communal taps
well as the community leader, stated that this shortage were often described as dirty, filthy and messy. Also,
promotes the spread of Covid-19. residents without access to water have to ask residents
in the RDP homes for water. This too caused a similar
problem found in this study where neighbours cannot
Many residents are afford more water. A common theme was: ‘Wasting
water means wasting money’, which conforms to the
unemployed, and statement: ‘It is all about the water bills’.
Covid-19 has made this Likewise, there is a big problem of safety in the
problem worse. townships, especially at night due to crime. In addition,
safety concerns related to health risks were prominent
These results mean that access to water for the themes of the interviews and group discussions. It
residents of Khayelitsha has positives and negatives. It was expected to find that water access in the shack
is helpful that water at communal taps is free; however, area, through communal taps, is often inconvenient,
security, design, maintenance and hygiene are all below unsafe and physically inaccessible. In contrast, it was
standard. The collection of water is a barrier against unexpected to be confronted with the water cut-offs of
ensuring that everyone has the necessary daily amount the residents in RDP homes, who might seem to have a
of water. It can be assumed that the collection of water, higher living standard due to their private water access
with its attendant physical exertion, will fall to women and housing status. Whereas the in-house water taps
and children. provide hygiene and cleanliness, and tend to be more
convenient and significantly safer, in terms of health
Indoor water taps do not present problems of security, risks and crime, the problem of paying for water is of
design, maintenance and hygiene, but they have the importance.
disadvantage of costs. Because of lack of employment

Whereas the in-house

(possibly because of the national lockdown), the
residents cannot afford water anymore. Many residents
are unemployed, and Covid-19 has made this problem water taps provide
hygiene and
worse. The amount of water provided free of charge
is not enough, so residents go into debt or rely on
the support of neighbours. The amount free of charge cleanliness, and tend
to be more convenient
is not sufficient to provide the necessary water per
person per day, which pressures the residents to go
into debt or rely on solidarity. This puts them at great and significantly safer,
in terms of health risks
risk, especially in times of Covid-19.

and crime, the problem

Also, residents without of paying for water is
access to water have to of importance.
ask residents in the RDP Rodina’s research merely touches on this issue by
homes for water. stating that RDP home residents do not want to share
water, as with the in-house service a sense of ownership
When compared to the research of Rodina, the same arises (Rodina 2016: 62-65). The problems concerning
picture is found, where the residents are divided the inability to pay for water, the water cut-offs, the
into unregistered shack residents with communal denial of access to water and the current health risk of
water taps and RDP homes with private water access. Covid-19 are new.
20 ESR REVIEW #03 | Vol. 22 | 2021

Conclusion constitutional right to water. Hence, social workers and

human rights advocates can get a deeper understanding
of the lived dimensions of different forms of water
This research showed that a township does not mean access to better address the inequalities.
that people only live in shacks. There are also RDP
homes with private in-house water access. The South
African government tries to change the image of shack
areas by sugar-coating these areas through the building
The shack residents can
of RDP homes for residents of shack areas. Shack access water without
limit and for free,
residents can apply for these houses, yet actually prefer
their shacks as it takes decades to receive a RDP house,
which may be far away from their neighbourhood, and despite physical access
remaining problematic.
brings financial burdens like water bills.

Here lies the problem with access to water – the

residents in the shacks and in the RDP homes are both Moreover, it gives current, important, and first-insight
impoverished groups, even when their housing status knowledge of the impact of the access to water and the
might suggest differently. The shack residents can spread of Covid-19. Water becomes essential to survive,
access water without limit and for free, despite physical as hand-washing is a key measure in limiting the spread
access remaining problematic. There is also diversity in of Covid-19, and prevents other public health risks.
the design of housing, which brings two different kinds
of access to water with it – the communal tap or the However, the ongoing water apartheid puts residents
private in-house tap. But the users are the same poor in the township at high risk due to their inability to
people, and those who have private water access can afford water (as well as sanitisers, health insurance,
also still not afford the water bill. The residents in the and adequate housing). Covid-19 emphasises how
RDP homes are denied access to water because of their critical access to water is for the residents in townships
inability to pay. because their access to safe, clean, affordable drinking
water remains a daily challenge. Besides, the communal
The former UN Special Rapporteur on access to water areas are a perfect base to exchange bacteria or viruses,
and sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque, has stated which makes it crucial that these taps remain hygienic.
that disconnection of water supplies because of the
inability to pay due to a lack of means may constitute a As the safest ways to stop the distribution of the virus
violation of human rights (UNCESCO 2019: 37). is repetitive hand-washing, the provision of clean water
to the residents is essential for them to remain healthy.
Concerning the human rights perspective, it was great Thus, the government must provide continuous access
to recognise the access to safe and clean drinking water to sufficient water to those residents living under the
as a human right as this addresses global inequalities most deprived conditions. With regard to the future,
in access to water. Most residents in the RDP homes it is essential to abolish the two classes of access to
know about this right, but feel powerless in claiming it. water for the residents in the townships, and to ensure
The lived-experience approach gave valuable insights a sufficient amount of water per person per day.
into the on-the-ground realisation of the human and

Covid-19 emphasises how critical access to water is

for the residents in townships because their access to
safe, clean, affordable drinking water remains a daily
challenge.
 ESR REVIEW #03 | Vol. 22 | 2021 21

To answer the research question: The residents living

in RDP homes experience access to water as stressful,
challenging and a huge struggle. They feel powerless,
References
and are pressured by their inability to pay for water.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human
Louisa Madeleine Schmiegel is a Master’s student Rights (OHCHR) (2010), The Right to Water: Fact Sheet No.
35, Geneva.
of the programme, Social Work as a Human Rights
Profession, at the Alice Salomon Hochschule in Berlin. Rodina, L. (2016), ‘Human right to water in Khayelitsha,
She was an intern of the Socio-Economic Rights Project South Africa: Lessons from a “lived experience” perspec-
tive’, Geoforum, Vol. 72, 58-66.
of the Dullah Omar Institute, University of the Western
Cape in 2020. This article is an updated version of the Social Justice Coalition (SJC), ‘Sanitation Campaign. Part of
unpublished research report which was submitted our Local Government Programme’, available at https://
sjc.org.za/campaigns/sanitation.
to the Master’s programme of the Alice Salomon
Hochschule in April 2020. South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC) (2014),
Report on the Right to Access Sufficient Water and Decent
Sanitation in South Africa.
Acknowledgment
Thanks to the Women Development Initiative Project Statistics South Africa (STATS SA) (2018), General House-
hold Survey.
of the Dullah Omar Institute, University of the Western
Cape, contact with a local community leader was United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural (UNE-
established. He was the mediator, and reached out to SCO) (2019), Leaving no one behind: The United Nations
World Water Development Report 2019, Paris.
residents in his community for interviews.
United Nations, General Assembly (21st 2015), Transform-
ing our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Develop-
ment: A/RES/70/1.STATS SA) (2018), General Household
Survey.