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1.1 Limits (An Intuitive Approach) 77

EXERCISE SET 1.1 Graphing Utility C CAS

1–10 In these exercises, make reasonable assumptions about y y = F(x)

the graph of the indicated function outside of the region de-
picted. ■ 3

1. For the function g graphed in the accompanying figure, find

x
(a) lim− g(x) (b) lim+ g(x)
x →0 x →0 −2
(c) lim g(x) (d) g(0).
x →0 Figure Ex-5

y y = g(x) 6. For the function G graphed in the accompanying figure, find

4 (a) lim− G(x) (b) lim+ G(x)
x →0 x →0
(c) lim G(x) (d) G(0).
x x →0

9 y y = G(x)
Figure Ex-1 2

2. For the function G graphed in the accompanying figure, find x

(a) lim− G(x) (b) lim+ G(x) −3 −1 1 3
x →0 x →0
(c) lim G(x) (d) G(0).
x →0

−2 Figure Ex-6
y y = G(x)
2 7. For the function f graphed in the accompanying figure, find
x
5 (a) lim− f(x) (b) lim+ f(x)
x →3 x →3
Figure Ex-2 (c) lim f(x) (d) f(3).
x →3

y y = f (x)
3. For the function f graphed in the accompanying figure, find
(a) lim− f(x) (b) lim+ f(x) 4
x →3 x →3
(c) lim f(x) (d) f(3). x
x →3
3
y y = f(x)
3
x
Figure Ex-7
10
−2 8. For the function φ graphed in the accompanying figure, find
Figure Ex-3 (a) lim− φ(x) (b) lim+ φ(x)
x →4 x →4
(c) lim φ(x) (d) φ(4).
x →4
4. For the function f graphed in the accompanying figure, find
(a) lim− f(x) (b) lim+ f(x) y y = f(x)
x →2 x →2
(c) lim f(x) (d) f(2).
x →2 4

y y = f(x)
x
4
2
x Figure Ex-8
2
9. For the function f graphed in the accompanying figure on
Figure Ex-4 the next page, find
(a) lim f(x) (b) lim− f(x)
x → −2 x →0
5. For the function F graphed in the accompanying figure, find (c) lim+ f(x) (d) lim− f(x)
x →0 x →2
(a) lim − F (x) (b) lim + F (x) (e) lim+ f(x)
x → −2 x → −2 x →2
(c) lim F (x) (d) F (−2). (f ) the vertical asymptotes of the graph of f .
x → −2
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1.2 Computing Limits 87

✔QUICK CHECK EXERCISES 1.2 (See page 88 for answers.)

1. In each part, find the limit by inspection. 3. Find the limits.

(a) lim 7 = (b) lim+ 12y = (a) lim (x 3 + x 2 + x)101 =
x →8 y →3 x → −1
x w (x − 1)(x − 2)
(c) lim− = (d) lim = (b) lim− =
x → 0 |x| w → 5 |w| x →2 x+1
1 (x − 1)(x − 2)
(e) lim− = (c) lim + =
z→1 1 − z x → −1 x+1
2. Given that limx → a f(x) = 1 and limx → a g(x) = 2, find the x 2 − 16
(d) lim =
limits. x →4 x − 4
(a) lim [3f(x) + 2g(x)] = 4. Let #
x →a x + 1, x≤1
f(x) =
2f(x) + 1 x − 1, x>1
(b) lim =
x → a 1 − f(x)g(x)
√ Find the limits that exist.
f(x) + 3 (a) lim− f(x) =
(c) lim = x →1
x →a g(x) (b) lim+ f(x) =
x →1
(c) lim f(x) =
x →1

EXERCISE SET 1.2

1. Given that 3. lim x(x − 1)(x + 1) 4. lim x 3 − 3x 2 + 9x

x →2 x →3
lim f(x) = 2, lim g(x) = −4, lim h(x) = 0 x 2 − 2x 6x − 9
x →a x →a x →a
5. lim 6. lim 3
find the limits. x →3 x + 1 x → 0 x − 12x + 3

(a) lim [f(x) + 2g(x)] x4 − 1 t3 + 8

x →a 7. lim+ 8. lim
(b) lim [h(x) − 3g(x) + 1] x →1 x − 1 t → −2 t + 2
x →a
x 2 + 6x + 5 x 2 − 4x + 4
(c) lim [f(x)g(x)] (d) lim [g(x)]2 9. lim 2 10. lim 2
x →a x →a x → −1 x − 3x − 4 x →2 x + x − 6
& 2
(e) lim 3 6 + f(x) (f ) lim 2
2x + x − 1 3x 2 − x − 2
x →a x → a g(x) 11. lim 12. lim
x → −1 x+1 x → 1 2x 2 + x − 3
2. Use the graphs of f and g in the accompanying figure to 3 2
find the limits that exist. If the limit does not exist, explain t + 3t − 12t + 4 t 3 + t 2 − 5t + 3
13. lim 14. lim
why. t →2 t 3 − 4t t →1 t 3 − 3t + 2
x x
(a) lim [f(x) + g(x)] (b) lim [f(x) + g(x)] 15. lim 16. lim−
x →2 x →0 x → 3+ x − 3 x →3 x − 3
(c) lim+ [f(x) + g(x)] (d) lim− [f(x) + g(x)] x x
x →0 x →0 17. lim 18. lim+ 2
x →3 x − 3 x →2 x − 4
f(x) 1 + g(x)
(e) lim (f ) lim x x
x → 2 1 + g(x) x →2 f(x) 19. lim 20. lim 2
& & x → 2− x 2 − 4 x →2 x − 4
(g) lim+ f(x) (h) lim− f(x) y+6 y+6
x →0 x →0 21. lim 22. lim− 2
y → 6+ y 2 − 36 y → 6 y − 36
y y
y = f (x) y = g(x) y+6 3−x
23. lim 2 24. lim+ 2
y → 6 y − 36 x → 4 x − 2x − 8
3−x 3−x
1 1 25. lim 26. lim 2
x x x → 4− x 2 − 2x − 8 x → 4 x − 2x − 8
1 1
1 1 27. lim 28. lim−
x → 2+ |2 − x| x → 3 |x − 3|
x−9 4−y
29. lim √ 30. lim √
x →9 x−3 y → 4 2− y
31. Let #
Figure Ex-2
x − 1, x ≤ 3
f(x) =
3x − 7, x > 3 (cont.)
3–30 Find the limits. ■
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1.3 Limits at Infinity; End Behavior of a Function 97

3. For the function φ graphed in the accompanying figure, find (b) Use Figure 1.3.3 to find the exact value of the limit in
(a) lim φ(x) (b) lim φ(x). part (a).
x → −! x → +!
8. Complete the table and make a guess about the limit indi-
y y = f(x) cated.
f(x) = x 1/x lim f(x)
x → +!
4

x x 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

4 f(x)
Figure Ex-3

4. For the function G graphed in the accompanying figure, find 9–40 Find the limits. ■
(a) lim G(x) (b) lim G(x). 9. lim (1 + 2x − 3x 5 ) 10. lim (2x 3 − 100x + 5)
x → −! x → +! x → +! x → +!
√ √
y y = G(x) 11. lim x 12. lim 5−x
4 x → +! x → −!

3x + 1 5x 2 − 4x
x 13. lim 14. lim
x → +! 2x − 5 x → +! 2x 2 + 3
4 3 1
15. lim 16. lim
Figure Ex-4 y → −! y + 4 x → +! x − 12

x−2 5x 2 + 7
17. lim 18. lim
5. Given that x → −! x 2 + 2x + 1 x → +! 3x 2 − x
lim f(x) = 3, lim g(x) = −5, lim h(x) = 0 7 − 6x 5 5 − 2t 3
x → +! x → +! x → +! 19. lim 20. lim 2
find the limits that exist. If the limit does not exist, explain x → +! x + 3 t → −! t + 1

why. 6 − t3 x + 4x 3
21. lim 22. lim
(a) lim [f(x) + 3g(x)] t → +! 7t 3 + 3 x → −! 1 − x 2 + 7x 3
x → +! 1 1
(b) lim [h(x) − 4g(x) + 1] 2 7 5
x → +! 3 2 + 3x − 5x 3 3s − 4s
23. lim 24. lim
(c) lim [f(x)g(x)] (d) lim [g(x)]2 x → +! 1 + 8x 2 s → +! 2s 7 + 1
x → +! x → +!
& 3 & &
(e) lim 3 5 + f(x) (f ) lim 5x 2 − 2 5x 2 − 2
x → +! x → +!g(x) 25. lim 26. lim
3h(x) + 4 6f(x)
x → −! x+3 x → +! x+3
(g) lim (h) lim 2−y 2−y
x → +! x2 x → +! 5f(x) + 3g(x) 27. lim & 28. lim &
y → −! 7 + 6y 2 y → +! 7 + 6y 2
6. Given that
& &
lim f(x) = 7 and lim g(x) = −6 3x 4 + x 3x 4 + x
x → −! x → −! 29. lim 30. lim
find the limits that exist. If the limit does not exist, explain x → −! x 2 − 8 x → +! x 2 − 8
& &
why. 31. lim ( x 2 + 3 − x) 32. lim ( x 2 − 3x − x)
x → +! x → +!
(a) lim [2f(x) − g(x)] (b) lim [6f(x) + 7g(x)]
x → −! x → −!
1 − ex 1 − ex
(c) lim [x 2 + g(x)] (d) lim [x 2 g(x)] 33. lim 34. lim
x → −! x → −! x → −! 1 + ex x → +! 1 + ex
& g(x)
(e) lim 3 f(x)g(x) (f ) lim ex + e−x ex + e−x
x → −! x → −!f(x) 35. lim x 36. lim x
4 5 x → +! e − e−x x → −! e − e−x
g(x) xf(x) , - , -
(g) lim f(x) + (h) lim 2 2
x → −! x x → −! (2x + 3)g(x) 37. lim ln 38. lim+ ln
x → +! x2 x →0 x2
7. (a) Complete the table and make a guess about the limit , -
(x + 1)x 1 −x
indicated. , - 39. lim 40. lim 1 +
1 x → +! xx x → +! x
f(x) = tan−1 lim f(x)
x x → 0+
41–44 True–False Determine whether the statement is true or
false. Explain your answer. ■
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001 , -
1 2x
f(x) 41. We have lim 1 + = (1 + 0)+! = 1+! = 1.
x → +! x
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98 Chapter 1 / Limits and Continuity

42. If y = L is a horizontal asymptote for the curve y = f(x), 48. Let

then ⎧
⎪ 2 + 3t
⎪
⎨ 5t 2 + 6 , t < 1,000,000
lim f(x) = L and lim f(x) = L g(t) = √
x → −! x → +!
⎪ 2
⎩ 36t − 100 ,
⎪
t > 1,000,000
43. If y = L is a horizontal asymptote for the curve y = f(x), 5−t
then it is possible for the graph of f to intersect the line Find
y = L infinitely many times. (a) lim g(t) (b) lim g(t).
t → −! t → +!
44. If a rational function p(x)/q(x) has a horizontal asymptote,
then the degree of p(x) must equal the degree of q(x). 49. Discuss the limits of p(x) = (1 − x)n as x → +! and
x → −! for positive integer values of n.
50. In each part, find examples of polynomials p(x) and q(x)
F O C U S O N C O N C E P TS
that satisfy the stated condition and such that p(x) → +!
45. Assume that a particle is accelerated by a constant force. and q(x) → +! as x → +!.
The two curves v = n(t) and v = e(t) in the accompa- p(x) p(x)
(a) lim =1 (b) lim =0
nying figure provide velocity versus time curves for the x → +! q(x) x → +! q(x)
particle as predicted by classical physics and by the spe- p(x)
cial theory of relativity, respectively. The parameter c (c) lim = +! (d) lim [p(x) − q(x)] = 3
x → +! q(x) x → +!
represents the speed of light. Using the language of lim-
its, describe the differences in the long-term predictions 51. (a) Do any of the trigonometric functions sin x, cos x, tan x,
of the two theories. cot x, sec x, and csc x have horizontal asymptotes?
(b) Do any of the trigonometric functions have vertical
v
v = n(t) asymptotes? Where?
(Classical)
c 52. Find
c0 + c 1 x + · · · + c n x n
Velocity

v = e(t) lim
(Relativity) x → +! d0 + d1 x + · · · + dm x m

where cn ̸= 0 and dm ̸= 0. [Hint: Your answer will depend

t on whether m < n, m = n, or m > n.]
Time Figure Ex-45
F O C U S O N C O N C E P TS
46. Let T = f(t) denote the temperature of a baked potato
t minutes after it has been removed from a hot oven. 53–54 These exercises develop some versions of the sub-
The accompanying figure shows the temperature versus stitution principle, a useful tool for the evaluation of limits.
time curve for the potato, where r is the temperature of ■
x2
the room. 53. (a) Explain why we can evaluate limx → +! e by mak-
(a) What is the physical significance of limt → 0+ f(t)? ing the substitution t = x 2 and writing
(b) What is the physical significance of limt → +! f(t)? 2
lim ex = lim et = +!
x → +! t → +!
T
(b) Suppose g(x) → +! as x → +!. Given any
Temperature (ºF)

400 function f(x), explain why we can evaluate

limx → +! f [g(x)] by substituting t = g(x) and
T = f (t ) writing
r lim f [g(x)] = lim f(t)
x → +! t → +!
t
(Here, “equality” is interpreted to mean that either
Time (min) Figure Ex-46
both limits exist and are equal or that both limits fail
to exist.)
47. Let (c) Why does the result in part (b) remain valid
⎧
⎨2x 2 + 5, x<0 if limx → +! is replaced everywhere by one of
f(x) = 3 − 5x 3 limx → −! , limx → c , limx → c− , or limx → c+ ?
⎩ , x≥0 2
1 + 4x + x 3 54. (a) Explain why we can evaluate limx → +! e−x by
making the substitution t = −x 2 and writing
Find
2
(a) lim f(x) (b) lim f(x). lim e−x = lim et = 0 (cont.)
x → −! x → +! x → +! t → −!
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1.3 Limits at Infinity; End Behavior of a Function 99

(b) Suppose g(x) → −! as x → +!. Given any (c) By evaluating an appropriate limit, show that the graph
function f(x), explain why we can evaluate of p versus t has a horizontal asymptote p = c for an
limx → +! f [g(x)] by substituting t = g(x) and appropriate constant c.
writing (d) What is the significance of the constant c in part (c) for
the population predicted by this model?
lim f [g(x)] = lim f(t)
x → +! t → −!
67. (a) Compute the (approximate) values of the terms in the
(Here, “equality” is interpreted to mean that either sequence
both limits exist and are equal or that both limits fail
1.01101 , 1.0011001 , 1.000110001 , 1.00001100001 ,
to exist.)
1.0000011000001 , 1.000000110000001 . . .
(c) Why does the result in part (b) remain valid
if limx → +! is replaced everywhere by one of What number do these terms appear to be approaching?
limx → −! , limx → c , limx → c− , or limx → c+ ? (b) Use Equation (7) to verify your answer in part (a).
(c) Let 1 ≤ a ≤ 9 denote a positive integer. What number
is approached more and more closely by the terms in
55–62 Evaluate the limit using an appropriate substitution. ■
the following sequence?
55. lim+ e1/x 56. lim− e1/x
x →0 x →0 1.01a0a , 1.001a00a , 1.0001a000a , 1.00001a0000a ,
57. lim+ e csc x
58. lim− e csc x 1.000001a00000a , 1.0000001a000000a . . .
x →0 x →0
ln 2x (The powers are positive integers that begin and end
59. lim [Hint: t = ln x] with the digit a and have 0’s in the remaining positions).
x → +! ln 3x , -
1 x
60. lim [ln(x 2 − 1) − ln(x + 1)] [Hint: t = x − 1] 68. Let f(x) = 1 + .
x → +! x
, - (a) Prove the identity
1 −x
61. lim 1 − [Hint: t = −x] x
x → +! x
, - f (−x) = · f(x − 1)
2 x x−1
62. lim 1 + [Hint: t = x /2] (b) Use Equation (7) and the identity from part (a) to prove
x → +! x
Equation (8).
63. Let f(x) = bx , where 0 < b. Use the substitution principle
to verify the asymptotic behavior of f that is illustrated in 69–73 The notion of an asymptote can be extended to include
Figure 0.5.1. [Hint: f(x) = bx = (eln b )x = e(ln b)x ] curves as well as lines. Specifically, we say that curves y = f(x)
and y = g(x) are asymptotic as x →+! provided
64. Prove that limx → 0 (1 + x)1/x = e by completing parts (a)
and (b). lim [f(x) − g(x)] = 0
x → +!
(a) Use Equation (7) and the substitution t = 1/x to prove
and are asymptotic as x →−! provided
that limx → 0+ (1 + x)1/x = e.
(b) Use Equation (8) and the substitution t = 1/x to prove lim [f(x) − g(x)] = 0
x → −!
that limx → 0− (1 + x)1/x = e.
In these exercises, determine a simpler function g(x) such that
65. Suppose that the speed v (in ft/s) of a skydiver t sec- y = f(x) is asymptotic to y = g(x) as x → +! or x → −!.
onds after leaping from a plane is given by the equation Use a graphing utility to generate the graphs of y = f(x) and
v = 190(1 − e−0.168t ). y = g(x) and identify all vertical asymptotes. ■
(a) Graph v versus t.
x2 − 2
(b) By evaluating an appropriate limit, show that the graph 69. f(x) = [Hint: Divide x − 2 into x 2 − 2.]
of v versus t has a horizontal asymptote v = c for an x−2
appropriate constant c. x3 − x + 3
70. f(x) =
(c) What is the physical significance of the constant c in x
part (b)? −x 3 + 3x 2 + x − 1
71. f(x) =
66. The population p of the United States (in millions) in year t x−3
can be modeled by the function x5 − x3 + 3
72. f(x) =
525 x2 − 1
p(t) = 1
1+ 1.1e−0.02225(t−1990) 73. f(x) = sin x +
x−1
(a) Based on this model, what was the U.S. population in 74. Writing In some models for learning a skill (e.g., juggling),
1990? it is assumed that the skill level for an individual increases
(b) Plot p versus t for the 200-year period from 1950 to with practice but cannot become arbitrarily high. How do
2150. concepts of this section apply to such a model?
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118 Chapter 1 / Limits and Continuity

EXERCISE SET 1.5 Graphing Utility

1–4 Let f be the function whose graph is shown. On which of C (mg/L)

the following intervals, if any, is f continuous? 6
(a) [1, 3] (b) (1, 3) (c) [1, 2]
(d) (1, 2) (e) [2, 3] (f ) (2, 3) 4
For each interval on which f is not continuous, indicate which
2
conditions for the continuity of f do not hold. ■
t (h)
1. y 2. y 12 24 36 48
Figure Ex-8
9. A student parking lot at a university charges $2.00 for
the first half hour (or any part) and $1.00 for each sub-
sequent half hour (or any part) up to a daily maximum
x x of $10.00.
1 2 3 1 2 3 (a) Sketch a graph of cost as a function of the time
y y parked.
3. 4.
(b) Discuss the significance of the discontinuities in the
graph to a student who parks there.
10. In each part determine whether the function is continu-
ous or not, and explain your reasoning.
(a) The Earth’s population as a function of time.
x x
(b) Your exact height as a function of time.
1 2 3 1 2 3
(c) The cost of a taxi ride in your city as a function of
5. Consider#the functions # the distance traveled.
1, x ̸ = 4 4x − 10, x ̸= 4
f(x) = and g(x) = (d) The volume of a melting ice cube as a function of
−1, x = 4 −6, x=4
time.
In each part, is the given function continuous at x = 4?
(a) f(x) (b) g(x) (c) −g(x) (d) |f(x)| 11–22 Find values of x, if any, at which f is not continuous.
(e) f(x)g(x) (f ) g(f(x)) (g) g(x) − 6f(x) ■
√3
6. Consider the#functions # 11. f(x) = 5x 4 − 3x + 7 12. f(x) = x−8
1, 0 ≤ x 0, 0 ≤ x x+2 x+2
f(x) = and g(x) = 13. f(x) = 2 14. f(x) = 2
0, x < 0 1, x < 0
x +4 x −4
In each part, is the given function continuous at x = 0? x 2x + 1
(a) f(x) (b) g(x) (c) f(−x) (d) |g(x)| 15. f(x) = 2 16. f(x) = 2
2x + x 4x + 4x + 5
(e) f(x)g(x) (f ) g(f(x)) (g) f(x) + g(x)
3 x−1 5 2x
17. f(x) = + 2 18. f(x) = +
F O C U S O N C O N C E P TS x x −1 x x+4
: :
x 2 + 6x + 9 : 8 ::
7. In each part sketch the graph of a function f that satisfies 19. f(x) = 20. f(x) = ::4 − 4
the stated conditions. |x| + 3 x +x:
⎧
(a) f is continuous everywhere except at x = 3, at ⎨2x + 3, x ≤ 4
which point it is continuous from the right. 21. f(x) = 16
(b) f has a two-sided limit at x = 3, but it is not con- ⎩7 + , x > 4
x
tinuous at x = 3. ⎧
⎨ 3
(c) f is not continuous at x = 3, but if its value at x = 3 , x ̸= 1
22. f(x) = x − 1
is changed from f(3) = 1 to f(3) = 0, it becomes ⎩3, x=1
continuous at x = 3.
(d) f is continuous on the interval [0, 3) and is defined 23–28 True–False Determine whether the statement is true or
on the closed interval [0, 3]; but f is not continuous false. Explain your answer. ■
on the interval [0, 3].
23. If f(x) is continuous at x = c, then so is |f(x)|.
8. The accompanying figure models the concentration C
24. If |f(x)| is continuous at x = c, then so is f(x).
of medication in the bloodstream of a patient over a
48-hour period of time. Discuss the significance of the 25. If f and g are discontinuous at x = c, then so is f + g.
discontinuities in the graph. 26. If f and g are discontinuous at x = c, then so is fg.
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1.5 Continuity 119

2 #
√ x −4 2x − 3, x≤2
27. If f(x) is continuous at x = c, then so is f(x). 36. (a) f(x) = (b) f(x) = 2
√ x3 − 8 x , x>2
28. If f(x) is continuous at x = c, then so is f(x). # 2
3x + 5, x ̸= 1
(c) f(x) =
29–30 Find a value of the constant k, if possible, that will make 6, x=1
the function continuous everywhere. ■ 37. (a) Use a graphing utility to generate the graph of the func-
#
7x − 2, x ≤ 1 tion f(x) = (x + 3)/(2x 2 + 5x − 3), and then use the
29. (a) f(x) =
kx 2 , x>1 graph to make a conjecture about the number and loca-
# 2 tions of all discontinuities.
kx , x≤2
(b) f(x) = (b) Check your conjecture by factoring the denominator.
2x + k, x > 2
#
9 − x 2 , x ≥ −3 38. (a) Use a graphing utility to generate the graph of the func-
30. (a) f(x) = / 2 tion f(x) = x /(x 3 − x + 2), and then use the graph to
k x , x < −3
# 2 make a conjecture about the number and locations of
9−x , x ≥0
(b) f(x) = / 2 all discontinuities.
k x , x<0
(b) Use the Intermediate-Value Theorem to approximate
31. Find values of the constants k and m, if possible, that will the locations of all discontinuities to two decimal places.
make the function⎧f continuous everywhere.
39. Prove that f(x) = x 3/5 is continuous everywhere, carefully
⎨x 2 + 5, x>2
justifying each step.
f(x) = m(x + 1) + k, −1 < x ≤ 2 &
⎩ 3
2x + x + 7, x ≤ −1 40. Prove that f(x) = 1/ x 4 + 7x 2 + 1 is continuous every-
32. On which of the following intervals is where, carefully justifying each step.
1 41. Prove:
f(x) = √
x−2 (a) part (a) of Theorem 1.5.3
continuous?
(b) part (b) of Theorem 1.5.3
(a) [2, +!) (b) (−!, +!) (c) (2, +!) (d) [1, 2)
(c) part (c) of Theorem 1.5.3.
33–36 A function f is said to have a removable discontinuity 42. Prove part (b) of Theorem 1.5.4.
at x = c if limx → c f(x) exists but f is not continuous at x = c,
either because f is not defined at c or because the definition for 43. (a) Use Theorem 1.5.5 to prove that if f is continuous at
f(c) differs from the value of the limit. This terminology will x = c, then limh → 0 f(c + h) = f(c).
be needed in these exercises. ■ (b) Prove that if limh → 0 f(c + h) = f(c), then f is con-
tinuous at x = c. [Hint: What does this limit tell you
33. (a) Sketch the graph of a function with a removable dis-
about the continuity of g(h) = f(c + h)?]
continuity at x = c for which f(c) is undefined.
(c) Conclude from parts (a) and (b) that f is continuous at
(b) Sketch the graph of a function with a removable dis-
x = c if and only if limh → 0 f(c + h) = f(c).
continuity at x = c for which f(c) is defined.
34. (a) The terminology removable discontinuity is appropri- 44. Prove: If f and g are continuous on [a, b], and f(a) > g(a),
ate because a removable discontinuity of a function f f(b) < g(b), then there is at least one solution of the equa-
at x = c can be “removed” by redefining the value of tion f(x) = g(x) in (a, b). [Hint: Consider f(x) − g(x).]
f appropriately at x = c. What value for f(c) removes
the discontinuity?
F O C U S O N C O N C E P TS
(b) Show that the following functions have removable dis-
continuities at x = 1, and sketch their graphs. 45. Give an example of a function f that is defined on a
⎧
⎨1, x > 1 closed interval, and whose values at the endpoints have
x2 − 1
f(x) = and g(x) = 0, x = 1 opposite signs, but for which the equation f(x) = 0 has
x−1 ⎩
1, x < 1 no solution in the interval.
(c) What values should be assigned to f(1) and g(1) to 46. Let f be the function whose graph is shown in Exercise
remove the discontinuities? 2. For each interval, determine (i) whether the hypoth-
35–36 Find the values of x (if any) at which f is not contin- esis of the Intermediate-Value Theorem is satisfied, and
uous, and determine whether each such value is a removable (ii) whether the conclusion of the Intermediate-Value
discontinuity. ■ Theorem is satisfied.
(a) [1, 2] (b) [2, 3] (c) [1, 3]
|x| x 2 + 3x
35. (a) f(x) = (b) f(x) =
x x+3
x−2 47. Show that the equation x 3 + x 2 − 2x = 1 has at least one
(c) f(x) =
|x| − 2 solution in the interval [−1, 1].
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120 Chapter 1 / Limits and Continuity

Temperature at this
48. Prove: If p(x) is a polynomial of odd degree, then the equa- point is T(u)
tion p(x) = 0 has at least one real solution.
49. The accompanying figure shows the graph of the equation
y = x 4 + x − 1. Use the method of Example 5 to approxi-
mate the x-intercepts with an error of at most 0.05.
u Intersection of the
equator and the
prime meridian

[−5, 4] × [−3, 6] Figure Ex-53

xScl = 1, yScl = 1 Figure Ex-49
54. Let R denote an elliptical region in the xy-plane, and de-
50. The accompanying figure shows the graph of the equation fine f(z) to be the area within R that is on, or to the left
y = 5 − x − x 4 . Use the method of Example 5 to ap- of, the vertical line x = z. Prove that f is a continu-
proximate the roots of the equation 5 − x − x 4 = 0 to two ous function of z. [Hint: Assume the ellipse is between
decimal-place accuracy. the horizontal lines y = a and y = b, a < b. Argue that
|f(z1 ) − f(z2 )| ≤ (b − a) · |z1 − z2 |.]
55. Let R denote an elliptical region in the plane. For any line
L, prove there is a line perpendicular to L that divides R in
half by area. [Hint: Introduce coordinates so that L is the
x-axis. Use the result in Exercise 54 and the Intermediate-
Value Theorem.]
56. Suppose that f is continuous on the interval [0, 1] and that
[−5, 4] × [−3, 6] 0 ≤ f(x) ≤ 1 for all x in this interval.
xScl = 1, yScl = 1 Figure Ex-50 (a) Sketch the graph of y = x together with a possible graph
√ for f over the interval [0, 1].
2
51. Use the
√fact that 5 is a solution of x − 5 = 0 to approx- (b) Use the Intermediate-Value Theorem to help prove that
imate 5 with an error of at most 0.005. there is at least one number c in the interval [0, 1] such
52. A sprinter, who is timed with a stopwatch, runs a hundred that f(c) = c.
yard dash in 10 s. The stopwatch is reset to 0, and the sprinter 57. Writing It is often assumed that changing physical quan-
is timed jogging back to the starting block. Show that there tities such as the height of a falling object or the weight of
is at least one point on the track at which the reading on a melting snowball, are continuous functions of time. Use
the stopwatch during the sprint is the same as the reading specific examples to discuss the merits of this assumption.
during the return jog. [Hint: Use the result in Exercise 44.] 58. Writing The Intermediate-Value Theorem (Theorem 1.5.7)
53. Prove that there exist points on opposite sides of the equator is an example of what is known as an “existence theorem.”
that are at the same temperature. [Hint: Consider the ac- In your own words, describe how to recognize an existence
companying figure, which shows a view of the equator from theorem, and discuss some of the ways in which an existence
a point above the North Pole. Assume that the temperature theorem can be useful.
T (θ) is a continuous function of the angle θ, and consider
the function f(θ ) = T (θ + π) − T (θ ).]

✔QUICK CHECK ANSWERS 1.5

1. f(c) is defined; limx → c f(x) exists; limx → c f(x) = f(c) 2. (a) 3 (b) 3 3. −2/5 4. x = 1, 4
5. (a) yes (b) no (c) yes (d) yes
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126 Chapter 1 / Limits and Continuity

15–16 In each part, use Theorem 1.5.6(b) to show that the func- 43–46 True–False Determine whether the statement is true or
tion is continuous everywhere. ■ false. Explain your answer. ■
15. (a) sin(x 3 + 7x + 1) (b) |sin x| (c) cos3 (x + 1) 43. Suppose that for all real numbers x, a function f satisfies
16. (a) |3 + sin 2x| (b) sin(sin x) |f(x) + 5| ≤ |x + 1|
(c) cos5 x − 2 cos3 x + 1 Then limx → −1 f(x) = −5.
44. For 0 < x < π/2, the graph of y = sin x lies below the
17–40 Find the
, limits. ■
- , - graph of y = x and above the graph of y = x cos x.
1 πx
17. lim cos 18. lim sin 45. If an invertible function f is continuous everywhere, then
x → +! x x → +! 2 − 3x
, - , - its inverse f −1 is also continuous everywhere.
x x+1
19. lim sin−1 20. lim ln 46. Suppose that M is a positive number and that for all real
x → +! 1 − 2x x → +! x numbers x, a function f satisfies
21. lim esin x 22. lim cos(2 tan−1 x) −M ≤ f(x) ≤ M
x →0 x → +!
sin 3θ sin h Then
23. lim 24. lim
θ →0 θ h → 0 2h f(x)
lim xf(x) = 0 and lim =0
sin θ sin2 θ x →0 x → +! x
25. lim 26. lim
θ → 0+ θ 2 θ →0 θ
F O C U S O N C O N C E P TS
tan 7x sin 6x
27. lim 28. lim 47. In an attempt to verify that limx → 0 (sin x)/x = 1, a stu-
x → 0 sin 3x x → 0 sin 8x

sin x sin2 x dent constructs the accompanying table.

29. lim √ 30. lim (a) What mistake did the student make?
x → 0+ 5 x x → 0 3x 2
(b) What is the exact value of the limit illustrated by
sin x 2 sin h this table?
31. lim 32. lim
x →0 x h→0 1 − cos h
t2 x x −0.01 −0.001 0.001 0.01
33. lim 34. lim $ %
t → 0 1 − cos2 t x → 0 cos 1 π − x sin x/x 0.017453 0.017453 0.017453 0.017453
2
θ2 1 − cos 3h Table Ex-47
35. lim 36. lim
θ → 0 1 − cos θ h → 0 cos2 5h − 1 48. In the circle in the accompanying figure, a central an-
, -
1 x 2 − 3 sin x gle of measure θ radians subtends a chord of length
37. lim+ sin 38. lim
x →0 x x →0 x c(θ ) and a circular arc of length s(θ ). Based on your
2 − cos 3x − cos 4x intuition, what would you conjecture is the value of
39. lim limθ → 0+ c(θ )/s(θ )? Verify your conjecture by com-
x →0 x
puting the limit.
tan 3x 2 + sin2 5x
40. lim
x →0 x2
s(u)
c(u)
41–42 (a) Complete the table and make a guess about the limit u
indicated. (b) Find the exact value of the limit. ■
sin(x − 5)
41. f(x) = 2 ; lim f(x)
x − 25 x → 5 Figure Ex-48

x 4 4.5 4.9 5.1 5.5 6 49. Find a nonzero value for the constant k that makes
⎧
f (x) ⎨ tan kx , x<0
Table Ex-41
f(x) = x
⎩
3x + 2k 2 , x ≥ 0
sin(x 2 + 3x + 2)
42. f(x) = ; lim f(x) continuous at x = 0.
x+2 x → −2
50. Is
⎧
x −2.1 −2.01 −2.001 −1.999 −1.99 −1.9 ⎨ sin x , x ̸= 0
f(x) = |x|
f (x) ⎩
1, x=0
Table Ex-42 continuous at x = 0? Explain.
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1.6 Continuity of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Inverse Functions 127

51. In parts (a)–(c), find the limit by making the indicated sub- Why couldn’t we have obtained the same result by writ-
stitution. ing
1 1
(a) lim x sin ; t = , - , -
x → +! , x -x 1 1
1 1 lim x sin = lim x · lim sin
(b) lim x 1 − cos ; t= x →0 x x →0 x →0 x
x → −! x x , -
π−x 1
(c) lim ; t = π−x = 0 · lim sin = 0?
x → π sin x x →0 x
cos(π/x) < π π=
52. Find lim . Hint: Let t = − . 64. Sketch the graphs of the curves y = 1 − x 2 , y = cos x,
x →2 x − 2 2 x
sin(πx) tan x−1 and y = f(x), where f is a function that satisfies the
53. Find lim . 54. Find lim . inequalities
x →1 x − 1 x → π/4 x−π/4
cos x − sin x
55. Find lim . 1 − x 2 ≤ f(x) ≤ cos x
x → π/4 x − π/4
56. Suppose that f is an invertible function, f (0) = 0, f is for all x in the interval (−π/2, π/2). What can you say
continuous at 0, and limx → 0 (f(x)/x) exists. Given that about the limit of f(x) as x → 0? Explain.
L = limx → 0 (f(x)/x), show 65. Sketch the graphs of the curves y = 1/x, y = −1/x,
x and y = f(x), where f is a function that satisfies the
lim =L
x → 0 f −1 (x) inequalities
[Hint: Apply Theorem 1.5.5 to the composition h◦ g, where 1 1
− ≤ f(x) ≤
# x x
f(x)/x, x ̸= 0
h(x) = for all x in the interval [1, +!). What can you say about
L, x=0
the limit of f(x) as x → +!? Explain your reasoning.
and g(x) = f −1 (x).]
66. Draw pictures analogous to Figure 1.6.2 that illus-
57–60 Apply the result of Exercise 56, if needed, to find the
trate the Squeezing Theorem for limits of the forms
limits. ■ limx → +! f(x) and limx → −! f(x).
x tan−1 x
57. lim 58. lim
x → 0 sin−1 x x →0 x
sin−1 5x sin−1 (x − 1) 67. (a) Use the Intermediate-Value Theorem to show that the
59. lim 60. lim equation x = cos x has at least one solution in the in-
x →0 x x →1 x2 − 1
terval [0, π/2].
F O C U S O N C O N C E P TS (b) Show graphically that there is exactly one solution in
the interval.
61. Use the Squeezing Theorem to show that (c) Approximate the solution to three decimal places.
50π 68. (a) Use the Intermediate-Value Theorem to show that the
lim x cos =0
x →0 x equation x + sin x = 1 has at least one solution in the
and illustrate the principle involved by using a graphing interval [0, π/6].
utility to graph the equations y = |x|, y = −|x|, and (b) Show graphically that there is exactly one solution in
y = x cos(50π/x) on the same screen in the window the interval.
[−1, 1] × [−1, 1]. (c) Approximate the solution to three decimal places.
62. Use the Squeezing Theorem to show that 69. In the study of falling objects near the surface of the Earth,
, - the acceleration g due to gravity is commonly taken to be
50π a constant 9.8 m/s2 . However, the elliptical shape of the
lim x 2 sin √ 3
=0
x →0 x Earth and other factors cause variations in this value that
and illustrate the principle involved by using a graph- depend on latitude. The following formula, known as the
ing utility to graph the equations y = x 2 , y = −x 2 , and World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) Ellipsoidal Grav-
2
√
3 ity Formula, is used to predict the value of g at a latitude of
y = x sin(50π/ x) on the same screen in the window
[−0.5, 0.5] × [−0.25, 0.25]. φ degrees (either north or south of the equator):
63. In Example 5 we used the Squeezing Theorem to prove
1 + 0.0019318526461 sin2 φ
that , - g = 9.7803253359 & m/s2
1 1 − 0.0066943799901 sin2 φ
lim x sin =0 (cont.)
x →0 x