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Application of Achievement Goal Theory in an

Urban Youth Tennis Setting
a b
Mary D. Fry & Maria Newton
a
The University of Memphis
b
The University of Utah
Published online: 30 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: Mary D. Fry & Maria Newton (2003) Application of Achievement Goal Theory in an Urban Youth
Tennis Setting, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15:1, 50-66, DOI: 10.1080/10413200305399

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 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, M.
50 D. FRY
15: 50–66, 2003 AND M. NEWTON
Copyright © 2003 by the Association for Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
1041-3200/03 $12.00 + .00
DOI:10.1080/10413200390180062

Application of Achievement Goal Theory

in an Urban Youth Tennis Setting

MARY D. FRY
Downloaded by [University of Strathclyde] at 08:23 09 October 2014

The University of Memphis

MARIA NEWTON

The University of Utah

The purpose of this study was to examine the motivational responses of tennis players in
relation to their goal orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate. Youngsters com-
pleted a survey with tennis-specific measures of goal orientations, motivational climate, atti-
tudes toward tennis, their instructor, their fellow players and sportpersonship behaviors. Re-
sults support Nicholls’ goal perspective theory. Moderated regression analysis suggested that
positive perceptions of a task-involving climate and negative perceptions of an ego-involving
motivational climate predicted players’ attitudes toward sportpersonship, their instructor, and
fellow players. Attitudes toward tennis were predicted by task orientation. Canonical analyses
further suggested that perceptions of the climate were most strongly related to attitudes.

Noted sport psychologists have underscored how participation in youth sport has tremen-
dous potential to impact children in a positive way (Duda, 2001; Roberts, 2001; Weiss, 1993).
Two benefits identified as important for young people to gain from their experiences in sport
include their appreciation for fair play (i.e., positive attitudes about sportpersonship) and their
positive interactions with peers and coaches (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995; Smith & Smoll,
1991). The purpose of this study was to utilize Nicholls’ goal perspective theory to examine
the extent to which young tennis players’ goal orientations and perceptions of the motivational
climate predict their sportpersonship attitudes and the quality of relationships they share with
tennis pros and peers in a tennis program (Nicholls, 1984, 1989).
Nicholls’ goal perspective theory has been employed in a growing body of research
(Kavussanu & Roberts, 1996; Newton, Duda, & Yin, 2000; Treasure, 1997; Treasure & Rob-
erts, 2001) in sport psychology to consider how individuals’ motivational responses in physi-

Received 6 September 2001; accepted 10 April 2002.

The authors would like to thank Paul Roetert and the United States Tennis Association for their
support of this project through their Sport Science Research Program. In addition, gratitude is extended
to all the Star Search program directors and participants who assisted with this project. Finally, we are
appreciative of Seann Taylor’s assistance with a portion of the data collection.
Address correspondence to, Mary D. Fry, Department of Human Movement Sciences and Education,
369 Elma Roane Field House, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152. Email:
maryfry @memphis.edu

50
 TENNIS PLAYERS’ GOAL PERSPECTIVES 51

cal activity settings can be optimized (Nicholls, 1984, 1989). Nicholls suggested that two
important factors determine the kind of experiences individuals have in achievement settings:
goal orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate. Goal orientations reflect indi-
viduals’ personal definitions of success. A task orientation is represented by the view that
success is achieved when a person exhibits maximal effort and focuses on personal improve-
ment and mastery of tasks over time. In contrast, an ego orientation is reflected in the view that
success is dependent upon favorable normative standing among peers. Winning and favorable
outcomes rather than effort and improvement are the important markers of success for indi-
viduals high in ego orientation. Task and ego goal orientations are relatively stable constructs
that reflect individuals’ dispositional tendencies to construe success in a particular manner.
Additionally, task orientation and ego orientation have been found to be orthogonal constructs.
An athlete can be high in task orientation and ego orientation, low in both orientations, or high
in one orientation and low in the other (Duda & Whitehead, 1998).
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The importance of the motivational climate has been underscored by Nicholls (1989), Dweck
(1986, 1999), and Ames (1992a, 1992b). The motivational climate refers to the situational
goal structures perceived by the participants to be emphasized in a particular setting. The two
predominant goal structures are termed task-involving and ego-involving motivational cli-
mates. Perceptions of different goal structures derive from how tasks are organized, the crite-
ria used to evaluate participation, how participants are grouped, the source and power of au-
thority, the extent of social comparison, and expectations regarding how participants are to
work with each other (Ames, 1992a; Newton et al., 2000; Walling, Duda, & Chi, 1993). Task-
involving contexts emphasize the process of competition, focus on exploration of personal
potential, base recognition and rewards on effort and task mastery, and sharing of power. On
the other hand, ego-involving sporting situations emphasize competitive outcome, focus on
differences in ability, base recognition and rewards on ability, and have a unilateral power
base (Newton et al., 2000).
Nicholls maintained that task orientation and perceptions of a task-involving climate would
be associated with adaptive motivational responses (e.g., high effort, persistence, and commit-
ment) in achievement settings, while ego orientation and perceptions of an ego-involving cli-
mate would have a greater tendency to be linked to maladaptive motivational responses (e.g.,
low effort, persistence, and commitment). A large literature base in the sport psychology lit-
erature has supported his theoretical tenets in the physical domain (see Duda & Whitehead,
1998, and Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999 for respective reviews of the dispositional and climate
research).
A majority of the initial work in sport and physical education has examined the link be-
tween achievement goals and beliefs (Newton & Duda, 1993; Newton & Fry, 1998; Seifriz,
Duda, & Chi, 1992; Spray, Biddle, & Fox, 1999; Treasure & Roberts, 2001), self-reported
affect (Boyd & Yin, 1996; Kavussanu & Roberts, 1996; Liukkonen, Telema, & Biddle, 1998;
Ommundsen, Roberts, & Kavussanu, 1998; Theeboom, DeKnop, & Weiss, 1995; Treasure,
1993; Treasure & Roberts, 2001; Walling et al., 1993), and attitudes regarding sport/physical
education (Goudas & Biddle, 1994; Papaioannou, 1998). As the application and empirical
examination of achievement goal theory to sport and physical activity settings has matured,
researchers have come to realize that achievement goals do not operate in isolation. Nicholls
(1989) proposed a link between task orientation and moral growth. The existence of this link
in sport has been supported (Duda, Olsen, & Templin, 1991; Dunn & Dunn, 1999; Kavussanu
& Roberts, 2001; Stephens & Bredemeier, 1996) utilizing a number of different
conceptualizations of moral growth and development.
The relationship between achievement goals and moral growth is echoed and more fully
conceptualized in the model of moral action proposed by Shields and Bredemeier (2001). The
 52 M. D. FRY AND M. NEWTON

structural developmental model is based on the work of Rest (1984, 1986, 1994) and Haan
(Haan, Aerts, & Cooper, 1985). The model is based on the notion that contextual and personal
influences impact moral action. Shields and Bredemeier (2001) identified four processes that
occur each time an individual is faced with a moral issue: interpretation, judgment, choice, and
implementation. Contextual characteristics, psychological competencies, and competence/per-
formance mediators are suggested to impact each of the processes.
It is beyond the scope of this study to describe the model in detail (the reader is encouraged
to examine Shields & Bredemeier, 1995, 2001). Of particular interest in the present study was
the influence of one contextual characteristic and one personal competency that are suggested
to impact moral choice. Shields, Bredemeier, and colleagues have proposed that goal orienta-
tions and perceptions of the motivational climate may impact whether an athlete chooses a
particular moral action rather than a possibly less desirable alternative (Miller, Bredemeier, &
Shields, 1997; Shields & Bredemeier, 1995, 2001). Initial research with high ability athletes
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has linked ego orientation with greater endorsement of unsportspersonlike (Kavussanu & Rob-
erts, 2001) and aggressive behaviors (Dunn & Dunn, 1999), particularly in males.
Less empirical evidence exists relative to the impact of perceptions of the motivational
climate. A recent qualitative study with male rugby athletes (Tod & Hodge, 2001) suggested
that both dispositional goals and situational variables were critical to understanding moral
reasoning in sport. Additionally, literature that has examined the efficacy of moral education
interventions may provide insight into the impact of the climate. Gibbons and colleagues ex-
amined the impact of a mastery-based physical education program on self perceptions and
moral development (Gibbons, Ebbeck, & Weiss, 1995). The positive relationship they report
between their program and enhanced moral judgment, reason, and intention suggests the mo-
tivational climate may play a role in moral development.
A similar inference can be made relative to the findings of Stephens and Bredemeier (1996).
They examined aggression in soccer from a structural developmental perspective. Two find-
ings from their work offer further justification for examining the motivational climate. First,
they reported that players’ perception of coach’s ego orientation was predictive of likelihood
to aggress. Secondly, players’ perception of what their teammates would do in a potentially
aggressive situation was highly predictive of their own likelihood to aggress. Both findings
suggest that perceptions of the context may impact moral expressions.
Of concern in the present study were participants’ attitudes toward a number of etiquette-
based scenarios in tennis. The scenarios were based on the unwritten rules of tennis and repre-
sented sportpersonlike behavior in the game of tennis. Our focus was on assessing content via
attitudes rather than structure of moral development. Thus, the term sportpersonlike rather
than a structural developmental-based concept was chosen. The basis for the study, however,
was firmly conceptualized within the structural developmental framework of Shields and
Bredemeier (1995, 2001).
Achievement goal theory less directly hypothesizes a positive relationship between task
goals and sportpersonship. First, the focus in task involvement is on factors individuals have
control over such as their own effort and improvement. Ego-involved individuals, however,
tend to be most concerned with their normative standing, and this increases the chances that
they will do whatever is necessary or in their best interest to achieve a favorable outcome.
Second, with task-involvement high value is placed on the process of sport involvement and
not just the competitive outcome and this should lead individuals to embrace principles of fair
play.
In addition to attitudes about sportpersonship behaviors, another important goal in youth
sport is that youngsters develop positive relationships with their coaches and peers in pro-
grams. It follows from Nicholls’ theory that task orientation and perceptions of a task-involv-
 TENNIS PLAYERS’ GOAL PERSPECTIVES 53

ing climate would be most likely to elicit positive interactions among athletes due to the em-
phasis on personal effort and improvement rather than normative comparison, although re-
search examining the relationship between goal perspectives and relationships with players
and coaches is limited. However, Smith and Smoll’s seminal work with the Coaching Behav-
ior Assessment System suggests such a relationship. Though they have not measured goal
orientations or motivational climate in their studies, they have identified a profile of coaching
behaviors that reflects the essence of a task orientation and task-involving climate. Specifi-
cally, the researchers have found that when coaches engage in frequent behaviors such as
giving encouragement and technical instruction to youngsters with infrequent use of punish-
ment, young athletes report having more positive experiences with their sports, coaches, and
peers (Smith & Smoll, 1990, 1991; Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979).
Because young people have much to gain from their participation in sport, it is worthwhile
to explore how their experiences can be maximized. It is important to understand how envi-
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ronments can be structured to enhance youngsters’ attitudes about sportpersonship and to fos-
ter meaningful relationships with coaches and peers in sport programs. One organization that
is interested in this issue is the United States Tennis Association (USTA). Their Star Search
program was established to provide tennis instruction for children and adolescents for the
purpose of exposing them to a sport that they otherwise would probably not have had an
opportunity to try. Though some of these youngsters go on to compete at high levels, most
simply learn tennis skills that they can take with them in the future. In addition to teaching
youngsters tennis skills, an aim of the USTA’s Star Search program is to provide an avenue for
young people to develop positive relationships with peers and tennis instructors and to learn
about sportpersonship.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between Star Search players’
goal orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate to their sportpersonship and ten-
nis attitudes and perceptions of their attitudes about their instructor and fellow players. It was
hypothesized that task orientation and perceptions of a task-involving motivational climate
would be positively associated with players’ attitudes toward sportspersonlike behaviors, atti-
tudes about tennis, as well as more rewarding relationships with their tennis pros and fellow
players. A negative association was predicted between ego orientation and perceptions of an
ego-involving climate with attitudes about tennis and sportspersonlike behaviors as well as the
quality of relationships with the tennis pros and peers in the program.

METHOD
Participants
Young tennis players (N = 168, 67 females and 101 males) from 10 programs in 5 states
were recruited and completed the survey instruments. Each participant was actively involved
in a Star Search funded tennis class. The participants were solicited from programs in large
metropolitan cities in the South and West portions of the United States. The programs targeted
young, urban youngsters of low socioeconomic status. Each solicited program was held in a
public facility (e.g., public city courts) and in most instances relied on donated equipment and
balls.
The participants’ mean age was 14.05 years (SD = 1.61; range 12-19 years) and most (63.6%)
were between 12-14 years of age. In terms of ethnicity the sample was quite diverse and
included the following: 47.6% African American, 23.2% Caucasian, 14.3% Asian/Pacific Is-
lander heritage, 10% Hispanic, and 1.8% American Indian/Alaskan Native. A few players
(i.e., 3%) did not report their ethnicity.
 54 M. D. FRY AND M. NEWTON

A majority (68.5%) of the participants indicated that they planned to play competitive ten-
nis in the future, and 81.5% of the sample reported that they intended to play tennis for fun in
the future. On the whole the participants had negligible competitive experience in tennis. While
objective ability was not assessed, the authors (both highly skilled in tennis and instructing
tennis) observed the skill level of all the participants. On average the players were beginner/
low intermediate.

Procedure
A number of directors of Star Search grant programs were contacted by the investigators
and invited to participate in the project. Each director cooperated fully and agreed to allow his/
her youngsters to participate. Arrangements were made for one or both investigators to travel
to the site to administer the questionnaires. The program length of the grant recipients ranged
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from 5–8 weeks. Each program was visited after at least one month of operation to ensure that
the motivational climate was given an ample opportunity to be established. Parental consent
forms were sent to the directors and completed by parents prior to the day of the scheduled
data collection. Athletes were invited to participate, assured anonymity in their responses, and
encouraged to answer as honestly as possible. The surveys were administered by a co-director
of the project and/or a trained graduate student. Completion of the survey took approximately
30 minutes. Each athlete received a T-shirt with a tennis design that read “Tennis is the Game,
Fun is the Aim” in appreciation of his/her participation.

Questionnaire
The questionnaire assessed the following: demographic information, goal orientations, per-
ceived motivational climate, attitudes regarding sportpersonship, tennis, their instructor, and
their fellow players.

Demographic Information
The first portion of the questionnaire included a request for athletes to indicate their age,
ethnicity, and sex, which was followed by a number of questions regarding their tennis expe-
rience including years experience playing tennis, number of hours engaged in playing tennis
each day, and intention to continue playing tennis in the future.

Goal Orientations
The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ; Duda & Whitehead, 1998;
Duda et al., 1991) was employed to measure athletes’ goal orientations. The TEOSQ consists
of 13 items that measure the extent to which athletes are task- (i.e., 7 items) and ego-oriented
(i.e., 6 items). The stem for each question was, “I feel most successful in tennis when” . . .
“something I learn makes me want to practice more” (e.g., a task orientation item) and “others
mess up and I don’t” (e.g., an ego orientation item). Athletes responded to the questions using
a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Mean scale scores
were calculated for the task orientation and the ego orientation scales. The TEOSQ has dem-
onstrated strong psychometric properties across many research studies (see Duda & White-
head, 1998, and Duda & Hall, 2001 for reviews).

Perceived Motivational Climate

The young athletes’ perceptions of the motivational climate in their tennis program were
assessed by an 18-item measure drawn from the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport
Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2; Newton et al., 2000). The PMCSQ-2 assesses the extent to which
 TENNIS PLAYERS’ GOAL PERSPECTIVES 55

the players perceived the motivational climate in their tennis program to be task-involving
(i.e., 9 items) and ego-involving (i.e., 9 items). Task-involving climate items assess the em-
phasis on effort/improvement in the program, the degree to which cohesiveness/cooperative-
ness among players in the program is emphasized, and the perception that every player has an
important role in the program. Ego-involving climate items assess the degree to which rivalry
among players exists, how much unequal recognition occurs among members of the program,
and the perception that mistakes are punished in the program. Initial studies utilizing the
PMCSQ-2 have indicated that the measure has adequate validity and reliability (Newton et al.,
2000).
When completing the abbreviated version of the PMCSQ-2, participants were asked to
think about what it was like to play and participate in their tennis programs. The stem for each
item was “In this tennis program . . . . ” Examples of items from the task-involving dimension
include the following: “In this tennis program, players feel good when they try their best,” “the
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tennis pro believes that all of us are crucial to the success of the program,” “players help each
other learn.” Ego-involving motivational climate scale items include the following: “In this
tennis program, players are encouraged to outplay the other players,” “players are punished
when they make a mistake,” and “the tennis pro gives most of his/her attention to the ‘stars.’“
Responses were indicated on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree). Mean scale scores were computed.

Attitudes Toward Tennis, Instructor, and Fellow Players

Seven items were included to assess athletes’ attitudes toward tennis, their instructor (pro)
and fellow players in their program (Smith et al., 1979). Smith and Smoll’s original work
contained 10 independent items. The relevant items (three were omitted) were adapted for use
in tennis instead of Little League Baseball. The only changes to the items were in the replace-
ment of the terms “tennis” for “baseball,” and “tennis pro” for “coach.” Athletes responded to
the questions using a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a lot). Mean scale scores
were computed for each construct. The questions included the following:

Attitudes toward tennis:

1. How much do you like tennis?
2. Do you like tennis more or less than you did at the beginning of the season?
Attitudes toward instructor:
1. How much do you like playing for your tennis pro?
2. How much would you like to have the same tennis pro again next year?
3. How much do you like your tennis pro?
Attitudes toward fellow players:
1. How well did the players in your program get along?
2. How much did you like the other players in your program?

Sportpersonship Attitudes
The sportpersonship attitudes measure (see Appendix) used in this study was developed by
the authors and was based on scenarios that are addressed in The Code, a document the USTA
published in 1974 to provide guidelines that complement the rules of tennis (Powel, 1974).
The intent of Colonel Nick Powel, the author of the The Code, was to make the game of tennis
more fair and fun for all who play. The Code highlights various scenarios that arise in tennis
 56 M. D. FRY AND M. NEWTON

that are not directly covered in the rules. For example, the Rules of Tennis indicate that a
player should call the ball out if it landed beyond the boundaries of the court, but the rules do
not suggest how the situation should be handled if a player is unsure whether a ball landed in
or out. In this situation, The Code recommends that if a player is not 100% positive that a ball
landed outside the boundaries of the court, he/she must give the point to the opponent. The
Code suggests that this policy will make the game more fun and fair because all players will
follow the same guideline, instead of some players in this situation calling the ball in, others
calling it out, and still others suggesting that the point be replayed.
Another guideline in The Code is that players call the lines on their respective sides of the
net. However, if a player is out of position and is unable to make a call, and if his/her opponent
were in position to see where the ball landed, then the opponent should make the call. The
Code even goes on to explain that a player who saw his/her shot land outside the boundaries of
the court and failed to make an “out” call against himself/herself would be cheating. In some
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tennis circles such a humanitarian approach to calling lines would not be advocated, although
the USTA maintains that the game of tennis is played at its best when participants abide by The
Code.
Three of the scenarios were worded in a positive fashion and seven were stated in a nega-
tive manner. An example of a positively stated scenario is, “Player I is serving and forgets the
score of the game. Player J could have said that she was ahead 40–15 but instead indicates the
actual score, 30–30.” Agreement to such a scenario would indicate greater sportpersonship
attitudes in tennis. A sample negatively worded scenario is the following: “Player K has found
that if he questions his opponents’ calls early in a match (even when he knows that the calls
were accurate), sometimes the opponent will become intimidated and be more likely to call
shots in Player K’s favor during the match.” Participants used a 5-point rating scale ranging
from 1 (strongly disapprove) to 5 (strongly approve) to respond to the 10 scenarios. The nega-
tively worded scenarios were reverse scored and a mean scale score was calculated and used in
subsequent analyses.

RESULTS
Preliminary Analyses
Cronbach’s (1951) coefficient alphas were calculated to consider the internal consistency
of the measures of goal orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate. Results indi-
cated that the subscales of the TEOSQ were reliable (task orientation a = .80; ego orientation
a = .79). Additionally, each scale of the modified PMCSQ-2 was found to be internally consis-
tent (task-involving motivational climate a = .79; ego-involving motivational climate a = .76)
with a low correlation between the scales (intercorrelation, r = –.18, p = .02).
A principal components analysis of the sportpersonship measure was conducted to charac-
terize the underlying constructs of the measure. Examination of the eigenvalues and scree plot
indicated that one factor best encapsulated the 10 items of the measure. Assessment of the
internal consistency of the resulting factor revealed negative item-total correlations for three
items. The three items were sequentially deleted and a final one factor (eigenvalue = 2.00)
seven-item measure of sportpersonship was formed that accounted for 40% of the variance.
The communalities ranged from .15 to .61. The Sportpersonship Attitudes measure was found
to have an alpha coefficient of .71.
Coefficient alpha for the three-item measure of players’ attitudes toward their instructor
revealed the scale to be internally consistent (a = .86). The intercorrelation of the items com-
prising the attitudes toward tennis scale (r = .34) and attitudes toward the other players (r =
 TENNIS PLAYERS’ GOAL PERSPECTIVES 57

.36) were positive and significant. However, results from these two attitudinal assessments
should be interpreted with caution due to uncertain reliability.
The descriptive statistics for the variables in this study are presented in Table 1. In line with
previous work (Duda & Hall, 2001; Duda & Whitehead,1998), the tennis players were highly
task-oriented and perceived a primarily task-involving motivational climate in their programs.
In addition, the participants exhibited above moderate sportpersonship based on their responses
to the tennis-specific scenarios. Lastly, the attitudes the players had about tennis, their instruc-
tor, and fellow players were positive.
In order to determine if the participants’ responses on the questionnaires varied by gender
and ethnicity, a MANOVA was computed. The results revealed that the responses did not
significantly vary by ethnicity, Wilks’ lambda = .91, F(12, 383) = 1.07, p = .38. The general
sex main effect suggested differences may exist, Wilks’ lambda = .92, F(4,145) = 2.98, p =
.02, however each follow-up univariate analysis proved to be not significant. Finally, the Sex
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x Ethnicity interaction was found not to be significant, Wilks’ lambda = .88, F(12, 383) = .15,
p = .11. As a result of these findings the sample was analyzed as a single entity.

Relationship of Goal Orientations and Perceptions

of the Motivational Climate to Attitudes
To explore how goal orientations and the motivational climate were related to the players’
attitudes simple Pearson correlations were calculated (see Table 2). Results revealed that per-
ceptions of a task-involving motivational climate and task orientation were positively related
to sportpersonship attitudes while perceptions of an ego-involving climate were negatively
related to the endorsement of sportspersonlike attitudes. Furthermore, the more players per-
ceived that their tennis program was task-involving the better their attitudes were regarding
their pro and the other players in the program. The converse was found with ego-involving
motivational climates, as perceptions of an ego-involving motivational climate were nega-
tively related to these constructs. The only significant correlate of attitudes about tennis was a
positive endorsement of task orientation.

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics

Variable M SD

Dispositional Goal Orientationa

Task Orientation 4.46 .48
Ego Orientation 3.23 .85
Perceived Motivational Climatea
Task Climate 4.25 .53
Ego Climate 2.29 .97
Attitudes
Tennisb 4.63 .53
Instructorb 4.60 .74
Fellow Playersb 4.44 .63
Sportpersonshipa 4.08 .63

a
= assessed on a 5-point scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.
b=
assessed on a 5-point scale, 1 = not at all, 2 = not really, 3 = not sure, 4 = a little, 5 = a lot.
 58 M. D. FRY AND M. NEWTON

Table 2
Correlation Coefficients Between Dispositional Goal Orientations
and Motivational Climate with Attitudes Toward Tennis,
Instructor, Fellow Players, and Sportpersonship

Goal Orientations Motivational Climate

Task Ego Task Ego

Attitudes
Tennis .28** .02 .17 –.12
Instructor .
31** –.02 .51** –.27**
Fellow Players .09 –.15 .26** –.24**
Sportpersonship .19* –.15 .32** –.32**
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*p < .05, **p < .01

To further explore the relationships among variables, and more importantly, examine the
interplay of personal goals and perceptions of the climate, a moderated hierarchical regression
method was employed (Aiken & West, 1991; Cohen & Cohen, 1983). The results are pre-
sented in Table 3. This method of analysis was chosen because, in comparison to ANOVA
models, it more effectively draws from all the information in the independent variables to
determine estimates of the effect sizes and percentages of variance accounted for in the depen-
dent variables (Aiken & West, 1991). Prior to analysis each independent variable (task orien-
tation, ego orientation, task-involving motivational climate, and ego-involving motivational
climate) and dependent variable was standardized to ensure common scaling. In separate analy-
ses, each dependent variable was sequentially regressed on the four independent variables
(representing the main effects) and then the five pertinent interactive terms. The interactive
terms were Task Orientation x Ego Orientation, Task Orientation x Task-Involving Motiva-
tional Climate, Task Orientation x Ego-Involving Motivational Climate, Ego Orientation x
Task-Involving Motivational Climate, and Ego Orientation x Ego-Involving Motivational
Climate.

Sportpersonship Attitudes
The block of independent variables was significantly related to sportpersonship attitudes,
F(4,158) = 9.34, p = .00, R2 = .19. Inspection of each variable’s contribution revealed that
perceptions of a task-involving climate were positively related to sportpersonship attitudes
while perceptions of an ego-involving motivational climate emerged as a negative predictor of
sportpersonship. The interaction terms did not significantly contribute, Fchange (4,154) = .46,
p =.76, unique R2 = .01, to the prediction of attitudes about sportpersonship in tennis.

Attitudes Toward Tennis, Instructor, and Fellow Players

Attitudes toward tennis were significantly predicted by main effect terms, F(4,157) = 2.82,
p = .03. A total of 6.7% of the response variance was accounted for. The interaction terms did
not add significantly to the prediction of the participants’ attitudes toward tennis, Fchange
(4,153) =.49, p = .74. Inspection of each variable’s t-value (see Table 3) suggested that en-
dorsement of task goal orientation was positively related to more favorable attitudes about
tennis.
The main effect terms contributed significantly to the prediction of the athletes’ attitudes
toward their instructor, F(4,156) = 16.70, p = .00. A total of 30% of the response variance was
accounted for by personal goals and perceived contextual goals (see Table 3). The interactive
 TENNIS PLAYERS’ GOAL PERSPECTIVES 59

Table 3
Summary of Moderated Hierarchical Regression Analysis
for Variables Predicting Tennis-Related Attitudes

B SE B b t

Sportpersonship
Task-Involving Climate .24 .08 .25 –3.06**
Ego-Involving Climate –.22 .07 –.23 3.05**
Attitudes Toward Tennis
Task Orientation .20 .09 .20 2.28**
Attitudes Toward Instructor
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Task-Involving Climate .46 .08 .44 5.89**

Ego-Involving Climate –.17 .07 –.17 –2.34*
Attitudes Toward Fellow Players
Task-Involving Climate .25 .08 .27 3.19**
Ego-Involving Climate –.15 .07 –.16 –2.02**

*p < .05, **p < .01

terms did not add significantly, F(4,152) = 1.81, p = .13, to the prediction of the participants’
attitudes toward their pro. Inspection of each variable’s contribution revealed that players who
perceived a motivational climate that embraced task involvement and de-emphasized ego in-
volvement related to favorable instructor attitudes. Personal goal orientations did not signifi-
cantly relate to participants’ attitudes toward their instructor.
The main effect terms emerged as the only significant contributors to attitudes toward the
other players in the program, F(4,157) = 5.77, p = .00, R2=.13. The interaction terms did not
contribute significantly to the regression equation, Fchange (4,153) = 1.10, p = .30. The re-
sults, as shown in Table 3, revealed that perceptions of a task-involving motivational climate
were related to more favorable attitudes about fellow players. Moreover, the more ego-involv-
ing the motivational climate was perceived to be the less the participants had positive attitudes
regarding their fellow players.
Finally, a canonical correlation was performed (see Table 4). This procedure was chosen
because it is a multivariate correlational approach, allowing multiple independent and depen-
dent variables to be considered. The relationship between goal orientations, perceptions of the
motivational climate and sportpersonship and attitudes were examined. A significant relation-
ship emerged, Wilks’ lambda = .55, F(16,465) = 6.28, p = .00. Inspection of the eigenvalues
and percent variance accounted for suggested that only one canonical variate was meaningful
(function one eigenvalue = .66; squared canonical correlation = .40). The standardized load-
ings for the significant variate are provided in Table 4. Interpreting loadings greater than .30
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), perceiving a climate that was strongly task-involving and mod-
erately de-emphasized ego-involvement was related to more positive attitudes about the in-
structor and more favorable sportpersonship attitudes.

DISCUSSION
Results from this study revealed that young urban tennis players involved in programs
supported by the USTA Star Search Program are having positive experiences. Specifically, the
athletes report that they enjoy tennis, have positive interactions with their tennis pros and peers
 60 M. D. FRY AND M. NEWTON

Table 4
Canonical Loadings

Standardized Canonical
Loadings

Goal Constructs
Task Orientation .11
Ego Orientation –.19
Task-Involving Motivational Climate .77
Ego-involving Motivational Climate –.41
Attitudes
Tennis –.13
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Instructor .68
Fellow Players .25
Sportpersonship .48

in the program, and endorse sportpersonlike behaviors in tennis. Overall, these results suggest
that the Star Search Program has been successful in exposing underserved youth to tennis in an
environment that allows them to thrive and that is likely to foster their interest and sustained
involvement in the sport.
Of greater interest is the relationship between tenets of Nicholls’ (1984, 1989) goal per-
spective theory and the players’ attitudes about tennis, sportpersonship and the relationships
they share with their tennis pros and peers in the program. The results were quite compelling.

Sportpersonship
Athletes who perceived a highly task-involving climate exhibited more positive
sportspersonlike attitudes while perceptions of an ego-involving climate were negatively as-
sociated with the endorsement of sportpersonlike attitudes. The regression analyses revealed
that motivational climate accounted for 19% of the variance in athletes’ attitudes about
sportpersonship. These results suggest that if participation in tennis is to foster positive atti-
tudes about sportpersonship, youngsters need to be in programs that emphasize task-involve-
ment. An emphasis on ego-involvement leads young athletes to focus on their performance
outcome and how their performance compares to their peers. When this is the case, some
young athletes may adopt the view that winning is the most important thing and they may
determine that engaging in unsportpersonlike behaviors is justified if it increases the likeli-
hood of their advancement.
Dispositional task orientation was also associated with players’ endorsement of
sportspersonlike behaviors. Goal perspective theory suggests and studies have supported the
idea that goal orientations are related to sportpersonship attitudes and behaviors. Nicholls
(1989) suggested that ego orientation may be associated with a “lack of concern about . . .
fairness” (p. 133). Duda and colleagues found that ego-oriented athletes were more likely to
approve of intentionally injuring another while task-oriented individuals were more likely to
endorse sportspersonlike behaviors (Duda et al., 1991). A similar pattern was reported, albiet
particularly in the case of male athletes, by Kavussanu and Roberts (2001). Additionally,
Stephens and Bredemeier (1996) found that soccer players higher in ego orientation were
more likely to be tempted to play unfairly. Overall, the current findings support Shields and
 TENNIS PLAYERS’ GOAL PERSPECTIVES 61

Bredemeier’s (1995) contention that dispositional goal orientations and perceptions of the
motivational climate impact sportpersonship responses in the physical domain.

Attitudes Toward Tennis, Instructor, and Fellow Players

The results examining the association between the athletes’ perceptions of the motivational
climate to their attitudes toward their tennis instructor and peers were strong. Clearly, when
athletes perceived a highly task-involving climate they indicated they liked their tennis pros,
enjoyed playing for them, and wanted to have the same tennis pro the following year. In
addition, it was more likely that they had positive attitudes about the other players in the
program than those youngsters who perceived an ego-involving climate.
Such a profile of responses from the young tennis players should preserve and maintain
motivation. When children like and respect the tennis pro and their peers in the program, it
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follows that youngsters will exert more effort, enjoy their participation, be more likely to
continue in the program and optimize their potential ability. In addition, logic suggests that
tennis pros in such programs will enjoy their jobs more as it is fun to work with young players
who have positive attitudes about the program.
Results for the athletes who perceived a highly ego-involving climate were very much in
contrast to those who perceived a highly task-involving climate. They reported negative atti-
tudes about their pro and fellow players. Such a motivational climate would be unpleasant,
both from the youngsters’ and the tennis pros’ perspectives. These results seem reasonable
when one considers the nature of an ego-involving climate: The tennis pro encourages rivalry
among players, sends the message that mistakes are bad and require punishment, praises fa-
vorable outcomes rather than high effort, and the pro gives most of his/her attention to the
most talented players. Clearly, when young tennis players perceive a highly task-involving
motivational climate, their experience seems to be greatly enhanced, and perceptions of an
ego-involving climate may turn young players away from a program.
The Attitudes Toward Tennis, Instructor, and Fellow Players measure was taken from re-
search conducted by Smith et al. (1979) examining effective coaching behaviors in youth
sport. Their research has shown that youth sport coaches who display high percentages of
positive reinforcement (both after mistakes and desirable performances) and technical instruc-
tion behaviors, in combination with a low percentage of punishment behaviors develop play-
ers that like the coach, their teammates, and the sport more. Their results also show that such a
profile of behaviors by the coach is associated with players reporting higher levels of self-
esteem over a season, lower levels of trait anxiety over a season, and lower drop-out rates for
the future year. Smith, Smoll, and colleagues’ studies examining the efficacy of training pro-
grams that provide coaches with information and strategies on how to engage in optimal be-
haviors (i.e., high in reinforcement & technical instruction behaviors & low in punishment)
have revealed promising results. Across studies, coaches who participate in training sessions
are able to better maximize their athletes’ experiences in youth sport (Barnett, Smoll, & Smith,
1992; Smith et al., 1979; Smith, Smoll, & Barnett, 1995) in terms of the variables discussed
above.
This study was the first to use Smith and Smoll’s measure in relation to young athletes’ goal
orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate. Results clearly indicated that young-
sters are more attracted to tennis, their tennis pros, and their peers in the program when they
perceive the tennis pros have created a task-involving climate. This study did not measure the
tennis pros’ actual behaviors as Smith and Smoll have done in their research, but it is feasible
that coaches who foster a task-involving climate are probably those who engage in the behav-
iors that Smith and Smoll advocate, such as displaying high amounts of positive reinforcement
 62 M. D. FRY AND M. NEWTON

and technical instruction and low amounts of punishment. Specific items on the task-involving
motivational climate scale include such statements as “In this tennis program . . .” “players are
encouraged to work on their weaknesses,” “players feel successful when they improve their
technique,” and “players feel good when they try their best.” If coaches are engaging in behav-
iors that emphasize athletes’ effort and improvement, it would seem that athletes would in turn
perceive a task-involving motivational climate within their programs.

Future Directions
Results of this study suggest that when young players perceive their tennis programs as
task-involving, they are more likely to have worthwhile experiences that enhance their social
and moral development and increase the likelihood that their participation in sport will be
sustained over time. Future research may determine whether these findings are unique to par-
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ticipants in the Star Search programs or whether the findings generalize to other youth tennis
and sport programs.
Future inquiry should also employ the full PMCSQ-2 measure. The decision was made in
this study to use a version with reduced items due to time constraints. This decision prevented
the employment of indepth analyses to consider the individual effects of the subscales of the
respective task- and ego-involving scales of the PMCSQ-2. Only the larger task- and ego-
involving scales were addressed in this study, but the consideration of the specific characteris-
tics of the climates could be very beneficial in terms of identifying specific strategies for tennis
pros to utilize to enhance the task-involving properties of the climate.
Another avenue for future research is to consider whether youngsters who perceive an ego-
involving climate in their tennis programs are more likely to terminate their involvement.
Gould, Udry, Tuffey, and Loehr (1996) surveyed and interviewed junior tennis players who
had burned out on the sport. Though the researchers did not include a measure of the athletes’
perceptions of the motivational climate operating in their programs, many of the athletes’
quotes hinted at aspects of an ego-involving climate that may have contributed to their disillu-
sion and withdrawal from the sport.
The workshop approach utilized by Smith and Smoll may provide an important direction
for future research with tennis professionals who are at the heart of establishing the motiva-
tional climate in their programs. Because of the critical role tennis pros play in creating a
positive environment, it follows that they may need some assistance in learning how to opti-
mize a task-involving climate. A workshop format that includes a myriad of strategies to foster
a task-involving climate could be provided for coaches to consider how they might better
maximize the potential of their participants. The directors of the Star Search Grants were in
consensus in indicating that the “holistic” development of the youngsters was their aim, yet
few had any specific strategies in place to address issues of self-esteem, cooperation,
sportpersonship, social skills, etc. In a workshop, small group interaction among tennis profes-
sionals would allow them the opportunity to listen, brainstorm, and share ideas they have
experimented with about creating a task-involving climate for their participants.
The recent work of Gould, Damarjian, and Medbery (1999) revealed that junior tennis
coaches were very interested in mental skills training and believed in the benefits of such
training for young athletes. However, the coaches expressed reservations about their exper-
tise, knowledge, and comfort in conducting mental skill training activities with their athletes.
In much the same way, workshops helping coaches see the importance and value of establish-
ing a task-involving motivational climate in their programs may be useful.
Finally, this study focused on the role of the tennis professionals in terms of creating a
positive climate, though clearly parents are critical agents of the environment, and their behav-
 TENNIS PLAYERS’ GOAL PERSPECTIVES 63

iors will also determine the types of experiences young athletes will encounter in their sporting
endeavors. Future research could help to paint a more vivid picture of how significant others
(i.e., tennis pros and parents) together shape the motivational climate for young athletes.

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APPENDIX A
Sportpersonship Attitudes Questionnaire1

1. During a point Player A thought she hit a good shot, but Player B called the ball out. In the
next game Player B hit a shot close to the baseline and Player A called it out (even thought
she knew it was in).

2. Player C sometimes gets frustrated in a match when he is losing. He talks to himself (some-
times yelling), pouts around the court, and acts like he does not care.

3. Player D just lost a close match and was very upset about losing. As a result, she refused to
shake her opponent’s hand after the match and instead picked up her things and left the
court immediately.

4. Player E is a better player than his doubles partner (Player F). When Player F misses a shot
or hits a double fault on a serve, Player E often responds by shaking his head and rolling his
eyes.

5. Player K has found that if he questions his opponents’ calls early in a match (even when he
knows that the calls were accurate), sometimes the opponent will become intimidated and
be more likely to call shots in Player K’s favor during the match.

6. Player N has some friends and teammates sitting outside the tennis court fence watching his

1
Responded on a 5 point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disapprove) to 5 (strongly ap-
prove). Each item was reverse scored.
 66 M. D. FRY AND M. NEWTON

match. Every time his opponent makes a close call, Player N looks at his friends to get their
opinion about his opponent’s call.

7. Player T tripped and fell in the middle of the court but managed to send a weak shot over
the net. Player U was ready at the net to slam the ball for a winner. He could choose to go to
the left or the right of Player T with his shot, but instead he chose to aim right for Player T’s
body.
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