Received: 27 August 2024 Revised: 29 November 2024 Accepted: 16 December 2024

DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.70103

COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEW

Global insights and advances in edible coatings or films

toward quality maintenance and reduced postharvest losses
of fruit and vegetables: An updated review

Maratab Ali1,2 Akhtar Ali3 Sajid Ali4 Hangjun Chen1 Weijie Wu1
Ruiling Liu1 Huizhi Chen1 Zienab F. R. Ahmed5 Haiyan Gao1
1 ZhejiangKey Laboratory of Intelligent Food Logistic and Processing, Key Laboratory of Post-Harvest Handling of Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Postharvest Preservation and Processing of Vegetables (Co-Construction by Ministry and Province), Key Laboratory of
Postharvest Preservation and Processing of Fruits and Vegetables, China National Light Industry, Food Science Institute, Zhejiang Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, China
2 Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Punjab
Province, Pakistan
3 Department of Health, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
4 Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Punjab Province, Pakistan
5 Integrative Agriculture Department, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE

Correspondence
Haiyan Gao, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Abstract
Intelligent Food Logistic and Processing, Transitioning to safe, nonthermal, and edible strategies for maintaining fruit and
Key Laboratory of Post-Harvest Handling
of Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and vegetable (F&V) quality, reducing postharvest losses (up to 55% annually), and
Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of ensuring food security requires extensive research and innovation in posthar-
Postharvest Preservation and Processing
vest technologies. This review aims to provide an updated understanding of
of Vegetables (Co-Construction by
Ministry and Province), Key Laboratory of edible coatings or films (ECF), focusing on their role in reducing F&V posthar-
Postharvest Preservation and Processing vest losses, based on data from the last 40 years retrieved from the Web of
of Fruits and Vegetables, China National
Science database. The global ECF research network is represented by pub-
Light Industry, Food Science Institute,
Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural lication trends, majorly researched F&V, key research areas, influential and
Sciences, Hangzhou, China. emerging authors, and global research ranking. The role of ECF in preserv-
Email: [email protected]
ing F&V quality has been assessed by examining critical quality parameters,
Zienab F. R. Ahmede, Integrative
including weight loss, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, ripening, softening,
Agriculture Department, College of
Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, sensory and organoleptic characteristics, browning, chilling injury, and micro-
United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain bial safety. Furthermore, recent advancements in ECF formulations, including
15551, UAE.
Email: [email protected].
nanoscale ingredients and application methodologies, have been critically dis-
cussed. Sources, categorization, application strategies, mode of action, functional
Funding information properties, sustainable development goals (SDGs), challenges, safety, legisla-
This work was supported by the Pioneer
Research and Development Program of tions, and future perspectives in ECF research have also been discussed. The
key findings indicate that China (20.34%) and the USA (9.94%) are the lead-

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
© 2025 The Author(s). Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Institute of Food Technologists.

Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2025;24:e70103. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 1 of 32

https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.70103
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2 of 32 ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

Zhejiang (2023C02006), and UAEU

Program for Advanced Research (UPAR) ing countries in ECF research. Studies have demonstrated ECF’s potential in
program (12F059).
reducing F&V postharvest losses by maintaining quality parameters through
advanced nanoscale compositions and methodologies. Notably, ECF research
supports multiple SDG targets, including SDGs 2, 3, 8, 9, 12, 13, and 15. Future ECF
research should explore 3D-printed coatings, nonflavor-altering components,
and potential crosslinking agents to enhance F&V quality and reduce postharvest
losses.

KEYWORDS
edible coating or films, produce preservation, quality, shelf life, sustainable development goals

1 INTRODUCTION For example, Díaz-Montes & Castro-Muñoz (2021) exhib-

ited that coatings are thinner (<0.025 mm) and applied
Fruits and vegetables (F&V) are vital for food and nutri- directly to food, whereas films are thicker (>0.050 mm),
tional security and tend to drive global trade and economic pre-made, and later applied to the food surface. Accord-
growth (Rosegrant et al., 2024). However, as perishable ing to Straits Research (2022), the global market value of
commodities, F&V have the highest postharvest losses, ECF in the F&V sector was estimated at USD 754.06 mil-
ranging from 28 to 55% of total production, which trans- lion in 2021 and is projected to reach USD 1363.16 million
lates to an annual loss of approximately USD 750 billion by 2030, reflecting the growing adoption of ECF technol-
(Karoney et al., 2024). This substantial loss not only affects ogy for F&V preservation (Strait Research; data retrieved
food security by reducing the availability of nutritious in October 2024). Using ECF in F&V preservation offers
food but also undermines the United Nations sustainable several technological benefits, including improved visual
development goals (SDGs) 2 “Zero Hunger,” by limiting appearance, antibacterial characteristics, lower respiratory
access to fresh produce. Moreover, global climate change intensity, and delayed ethylene generation (Z. Li et al.,
is expected to reduce F&V production by 0.3% in devel- 2024). ECF application was found effective in suppressing
oped countries and 5% in developing countries by 2050 the development of various F&V physiological disorders
(Smith & Glauber, 2020), potentially affecting the SDG such as browning (Li et al., 2023), chilling injury (CI)
2 index. However, significant research and innovation (Gan et al., 2024), and pulp discoloration (Garcia et al.,
efforts have focused on reducing F&V postharvest losses. 2022). Additionally, ECF layers on F&V also reduce phys-
Various methods have been explored, including physi- ical and mechanical damage usually causing fungal decay
cal methods (such as irradiation, ultraviolet [UV] light, and nutrient loss during transportation in supply chain
and temperature variation), chemical methods (such as (Al-Dairi et al., 2023; Davies et al., 2021). The potential
natural acids and fungicides), and traditional plastic pack- mode of action of ECF is the creation of a modified pro-
aging, which are reportedly effective but are mostly found tective microatmosphere around the F&V, which extend
to harm the environment and human health (Araújo their shelf life by acting as a barrier to restrict UV light
et al., 2024; J. Wu et al., 2024). Therefore, the growing penetration, regulate gas exchange, moisture loss, and
demand for green and sustainable technology for F&V pathogens proliferation (Xie et al., 2023; Y. Zhang, Y. Pu
preservation has led to hotspot research over the last et al., 2024). Typically, ECF are made from a single or
decade. combination of polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, or other
Over the last four decades, edible coatings or films (ECF) substances (Honglian Guo, Jiang et al., 2024). However,
have gained significant attention as a promising solution recent advancement have led to the incorporation of var-
for reducing F&V postharvest losses (W. Liu et al., 2024). ious natural and active ingredients, such as plant extracts
ECF have been used to limit reliance on chemical or (Das et al., 2024), essential oils (Goswami et al., 2024), and
synthetic treatments, thus improving consumer health by nanoparticles (Lee et al., 2024). Researchers have shown
decreasing the potential use of such compounds (Blancas- that novel coating approaches, such as multilayer coatings
Benitez et al., 2022). Notably, ECF are referred to materials (Carrillo-Lomelí et al., 2024) and electrospinning (Cheng
less than 0.3 mm thick, composed of biopolymers dissolved et al., 2024), enhance the effectiveness of ECF in reducing
in water or acids (Martins et al., 2024). Although some postharvest losses by maintaining the postharvest quality
researchers use these terms interchangeably, others distin- of F&V. Notably, SDG 12.3 aims to halve food waste and
guish them based on application method and thickness. loss (FWL) by 2030, prompting member nations to invest
 15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES 3 of 32

in research aimed at reducing F&V postharvest loss to meet is a useful resource for new researchers and investors
this target and ensure food security (Karoney et al., 2024; in the ECF industry and emphasizes the need for regu-
Kumar & Choubey, 2021). Thus, strategic innovation in latory authorities to set safety standards for ingredients
ECF to reduce FLW, particularly in the horticulture sec- used in ECF for F&V preservation to ensure consumer
tor, and improve F&V preservation is crucial for achieving health.
these SDG targets, respectively.
Recent reviews on ECF in F&V preservation have pri-
marily focused on the effects of specific ECF types, such 2 GLOBAL RESEARCH NETWORK
as cellulose-based (Bahmid et al., 2024), beeswax-based
(Hosseini et al., 2023), chitosan-based (Kumarihami et al., The critical necessity to reduce postharvest losses and
2022), and aloe vera-based coatings (Maan et al., 2021) increase the food supply to feed the anticipated global
on some particular produce like peaches (Aaqil et al., population of nearly nine billion by 2050 (Junaid &
2024), blueberries (D. Shi et al., 2024), kiwifruit (Kumar- Gokce, 2024) has been significantly influenced global ECF
ihami et al., 2022), tomatoes (Duguma, 2022), and so research in the F&V sector since the last decade. This is
on. Meanwhile, Firdous et al. (2023) and Blancas-Benitez evidenced by the potential growth of ECF-related research
et al. (2022) reviewed the impact of edible coatings exclu- publication trends that regulate the postharvest quality
sively on fruits, while Martins et al. (2024) and Armghan of F&V (Figure S1). Approximately 69% of this growth
Khalid et al. (2022) discussed the implications of ECF was observed in the last 10 years (2014–2023). One fea-
on F&V preservation. Though insightful, these reviews sible strategy for increasing agricultural productivity and
do not comprehensively cover the scope of ECF research sustainably stabilizing food supply is to decrease posthar-
in F&V preservation, nor do they address aspects such vest losses (Stathers et al., 2020). In this study, ECF were
as the SDG-related merits of ECF. Therefore, this review found to be a key postharvest approach for reducing
seeks to broaden the discussion of ECF research by ana- postharvest losses via regulating the quality of the top
lyzing its global context and providing updated insights 10 researched fruits, including strawberry, citrus, apple,
to support F&V industry stakeholders and researchers in mango, tomato, pear, banana, guava, papaya, and grapes,
preserving the quality and minimizing postharvest losses and vegetables including mushrooms, carrot, lotus, okra,
of fresh and fresh-cut produce. In this review, Web of lettuce, broccoli, asparagus, sweet potatoes, radish, and
Science Core Collection database (1984 to mid-2024; data artichoke worldwide (Figure 2a,b). Overall, the extracted
summary refer to Table S1) was used to retrieve docu- data show that 84% of ECF research focused on fruits,
ments using a combination of the following search terms: 4% on vegetables, and 12% on fresh-cut produce, as illus-
“(“coating” or “film”) and (“fruit” or “vegetable”) and trated in Figure 2c. These F&V have substantial economic
(“softening” or “firmness” or “ripening” or “quality” or value on a global level as being among the most pro-
“disease”)”. The retrieved documents were then screened duced, locally consumed, and exported products (FAO,
by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews 2023a,b); thus, their long-term quality maintenance after
and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., 2021; harvest aid reduced postharvest losses from commercial-
Figure 1). Based on screened data, we analyzed the global ization to consumption stages. This study further exhibited
research contributions using a visualization approach to that the constantly mounting trend in the number of
examine the ECF-related research dynamics. Moreover, F&V and their products (such as a fresh cut) for quality
this review discusses the recent advances and role of maintenance under the ECF approach (Figure 2d) could
ECF in maintaining the postharvest quality of F&V based exponentially reduce fresh produce-associated postharvest
on the recent research from 2020 to mid-2024. In addi- losses and concurrent with increase in their economic
tion, sources, categorization, advantages, disadvantages, value.
application strategies, quality regulator mode of action, Keywords are crucial elements in published articles, as
SDGs and sustainability merits, challenges, safety, and they highlight the main focus of the article, guiding read-
legislation aspects, and future perspectives of the ECF ers’ orientations (Salgado-Cruz et al., 2021). This study
industry in the commercialized F&V sector were dis- revealed that the role of ECF is closely linked to the top
cussed. In short, this review highlights the updated role five researched keywords, including edible coating, chi-
of ECF in reducing the postharvest losses of F&V via tosan, quality, shelf life, postharvest, and storage among
maintaining their quality, extending their shelf life, and of total 193 keywords (Figure 3a), based on selecting the
supporting SDG targets. Additionally, this review holds minimum number (at least five times) of occurrences of a
great importance for key role players, including academic keyword. Among these, edible coating was identified as the
researchers and industry professionals, by offering the most significant researched keyword, with a central posi-
latest insights on ECF for the F&V sector. Moreover, it tion, a larger circle signifying the 506 total link strength
 15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 of 32 ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

FIGURE 1 PRISMA flow summary on the retrieval, screening, and inclusion of the documents.

with 222 times occurrence. It was directly connected to as well and regulating key physiological parameters to
smaller nodes, including various F&V like tomato, litchi, maintain the quality of fresh produce. Notably, the color
banana, avocado, citrus, grapes, strawberry, mango, peach, of the node indicates the first instance of the term or key-
guava, mandarin, papaya, sweet cherry, pomegranate, word in the network (Barbosa, 2021). In summary, our
blueberry, cucumber, pineapple, melon, apple, kiwifruit, findings show a notable rise in the importance and fre-
plum, pear, fresh-cut produce, and so on. It was also linked quency of ECF research in the F&V industry since 2014, as
to spoilage-causing microbial agents such as Penicillium reflected in the color scheme, marking it as an emerging
italicum, Penicillium digitatum, Colletotrichum gloeospo- field.
rioides, Botrytis cinerea, and so on. Furthermore, it is Authors construct collaborative networks that propel
connected to ECF materials such as chitosan, alginate, knowledge expansion and field evolution by supplying
aloe vera, pectin, gum Arabic, and others, as well as foundational theories, creating novel methodologies, and
key physiological and biochemical factors that regulate contributing to the growth of the research topic (Oktavio
F&V quality, such as firmness, respiration rate, weight & Harsono, 2024; Zhang & Wu, 2020). Among the 4386
loss, CI, enzymatic browning, antioxidant enzymes, oxida- authors working on ECF topic research in the F&V sec-
tive stress, and so on. Importantly, the aforementioned tor since 1984, this study identified 67 authors based on
pathogens’ connection to postharvest spoilage of F&V also total link strength as the most influential and emerging
aligns with the findings of Karoney et al. (2024). Nev- authors, indicating Tanaka Fumihiko, Tanaka Fumina, Ali
ertheless, this study highlights the critical association of Sajid, Perez-Gago Maria B, Ejaz Shaghef, Zhao Yanyun,
keyword “edible coating” in suppressing these pathogens Anjum Muhammad Akbar, Palou Lluis, Nawaz Aamir,
15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
5 of 32

F I G U R E 2 (a) Top 10 researched fruits (%), (b) top 10 researched vegetables (%), (c) total researched fresh and fresh cut F&V (%), and (d)

(a) Keywords visualization map and (b) authors visualization map.

ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

research frequency over time.

FIGURE 3
 15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
6 of 32 ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

FIGURE 4 (a) Global research ranking map and (b) global research collaboration map.

and Jung Jooyeoun in top 10 ranking (Figure 3b). This to strengthen the F&V sector and help meet global SDG
was based on authors having at least five published targets and food supply needs.
research documents, and 100 citations for their work. The
contributions of these notable authors may serve as role
models for future academics and attract global collabora- 3 SOURCES, CLASSIFICATION,
tors to drive ECF-related research trends in the F&V sector ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES, AND
more efficiently. Notably, the number of publications and APPLICATION METHODS OF ECF
the citation count are frequently used as key indicators to
evaluate the article’s and researcher’s significance (Wang ECF can be classified based on their different sources,
et al., 2016). including plant, animal, macroalga, and microorganism
The research and collaboration at the global level for (Martins et al., 2024). As per our extracted data, these
reducing postharvest losses via ECF incorporation in F&V sources contain a diverse range of polysaccharides (algi-
sector is of great importance in meeting the SDGs tar- nate, mucilage, cellulose, chitosan, aloe vera, starch, gums,
gets and ensuring food security. This study ranked China carrageenan, pectin, etc.), proteins (albumin, casein, whey,
(20.34%), USA (9.94%), India (9.26%), Brazil (9.26%), Iran gelatin, collagen, soybean, wheat gluten, corn zein, sun-
(8.21%), Spain (6.78%), Italy (6.63%), Mexico (4.82%), Thai- flower protein, etc.), and lipid compounds (bees wax,
land (4.37%), and Pakistan (3.39%) as the top 10 leading candelilla wax, carnauba wax, paraffin, resins, fatty acids,
countries in ECF-related research in F&V sector, with etc.) as three primary groups that can be categorized as
China and USA ranking first in international collabora- the fundamental components used to formulate ECF for
tion analysis (Figure 4a,b) based on the percentage of controlling the postharvest quality of fresh and fresh-cut
ECF-related published documents and collaboration fre- F&V. Furthermore, another coating is called composite
quency. This study highlighted the significant ECF-related coating, which emerges from mixing more than one of the
research collaboration for maintaining the postharvest above substances or materials and is sometimes referred
quality of F&V among countries, including Brazil, Egypt, to as binary, ternary, and quadruple ECF (Khalid et al.,
Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, and Spain. This 2022). Regarding the application strategies of ECF on
collaboration is possibly linked to the advantages gained F&V, Bhardwaj et al. (1984) documented the first appli-
from international investment in technology exchange, cation method of coating as dipping for banana, apple,
F&V quality maintenance and trade, support for global and pear in sucrose esters of fatty acids dispersions, as
farmers, and assistance for developing nations in meet- per our extracted data. Later, numerous ECF application
ing SDG targets and ensuring food security. Conversely, methods, such as spraying, soaking, immersion, spread-
the growing F&V industry contributes to higher posthar- ing/brushing, wrapping, foam padding, electro-spraying,
vest losses, particularly in developing countries, due to electrospinning, multilayers, and vacuum impregnation,
inadequate produce management, limited technology, and were developed and reported to improve their effectiveness
adverse climate changes (Anand & Barua, 2022; Etefa and provide potential benefits for regulating F&V posthar-
et al., 2022). This underscores the need for increased vest quality. Among the above ECFs’ application methods,
national and international investment and possible collab- in a recent review, Firdous et al. (2023) briefly demon-
oration in ECF-related research and development (R&D) strated some ECF application methods. For instance,
 15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES 7 of 32

spraying is an appropriate technique for applying lipid- F&V industry. Exceptionally, Atieno et al. (2019) investi-
based coatings or films. Also, spraying method has been gated the effectiveness of dipping and spraying methods for
implicated for polysaccharide and protein-based ECF as applying xanthan gum-based edible coatings on cassava.
well (Kandasamy et al., 2021; Shiekh et al., 2021). The Remarkably, this research indicated no significant varia-
spraying technique uses air blast systems or high-pressure tion between both application methods regarding coated
spray applicators to cover a specific area of the product sur- cassava quality maintenance, and consequently recom-
face or achieve a consistent and thin layer. Electro-spraying mended the preferred application method based on other
and electrospinning are a simple, inexpensive, and easy considerations, such as ease of use. However, the current
spraying technique for food application, resulting in small, review aims to bridge this gap by summarizing in-practice
narrow droplets or fibrous mats or meshes due to high methods and highlighting their optimal characteristics,
electrical potential holding the liquid out of a capillary based on theoretical understanding (Figure 5). Overall, the
sprayer. In this regard, Kapoor et al. (2023) demonstrated classification and common advantages and disadvantages
that using an edible coating made from guava seed oil of ECF widely used and reported in recent research are
emulsion, applied via electrospray on guava fruit, signif- demonstrated in Figure 6.
icantly extended its shelf life by reducing weight loss,
preserving firmness, and preventing microbial spoilage.
Meanwhile, applying an edible nanofiber film encapsu-
4 QUALITY MAINTENANCE ROLE OF
lated with Zanthoxylum bungeanum essential oil via the
ECF IN F&V
electrospinning method on strawberries and sweet cher-
Fresh and fresh-cut F&V usually have a limited shelf
ries showed strong antifungal effects and exhibited the
life due to their rapid quality deterioration associated
highest sensory scores during 10 days of storage (Zhang
with their perishable nature (M. Ali et al., 2023). The
et al., 2022). Spreading or brushing involves applying a
degradation of F&V quality is primarily caused by the
substance, typically a liquid or semi-liquid, onto a surface
depletion of water and nutrients, as well as undesired
using a tool designed for spreading, such as a brush. Dip-
biochemical alterations such as changes in total soluble
ping, immersion, and soaking are all related to the same
solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), phenolic and flavonoid
phenomenon of fully submerging or plunging the fresh
compounds, oxidative stress, ethylene production, respira-
produce into a liquid. Wrapping entails fully enveloping an
tion rate, organoleptic properties, firmness, defense and
object or material with a pliable substance known as ECF.
antioxidant-related enzymes, and via microbial spoilage
The vacuum impregnation method is similar to the dip-
(Perumal et al., 2022). In recent years, numerous studies
ping process, but it applies additional pressure to enable
have been carried out to preserve the postharvest quality
the vacuum condition (Perez-Vazquez et al., 2023). Mean-
and extend the shelf-life of various F&V and their min-
while, foam padding refers to foam that is first soaked
imally processed products under the impact of diverse
in the required coating material and then padded on the
ECF treatments by regulating their key quality features, as
F&V surface to ensure even coverage (Vinod et al., 2024).
discussed below.
Multilayer coating entails building multilayer coatings of
two or more layers, each at the nanometric scale (Carrillo-
Lomelí et al., 2024). Although different ECF materials 4.1 Weight loss, TSS, and TA
offer distinct advantages, each coating ingredient also
exhibits disadvantages. For example, in polysaccharides- The optimal water content promotes the freshness and
based edible coatings, chitosan has a good antioxidant and market potential of F&V. At the same time, excessive tran-
antimicrobial activity but poor in solubility in water (Wang spiration processes can lead to weight loss, skin shrinkage,
et al., 2020). Meanwhile, lipid-based ECF own good water and quality degradation, thus affecting economic value
barrier properties but show inferior mechanical strength and consumer acceptance (Olunusi et al., 2024). ECF min-
(Aaqil et al., 2024; Devi et al., 2024). Likewise, protein- imize weight loss by functioning as a barrier between the
based ECFs boast excellent oxygen barrier properties but produce surface and surroundings to retain water for a
are easily affected by changes in temperature and humidity longer time inside the F&V, thus maintaining the qual-
due to their hydrophilic characteristics (Priya et al., 2023). ity of coated F&V during storage. For instance, xanthan
Thus, to achieve the desired properties in ECF, no single gum coating reduced the weight loss of coated jujubes
material is enough. A combination of coating materials via restricting transpiration and desiccation (Naveed et al.,
offers a way to optimize their performance by complement- 2024). In another study, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)
ing each ingredient’s pros and cons (Y. Wu et al., 2024). coatings also reduced weight loss by creating a transparent
Notably, the literature appears to lack dedicated compar- semi-permeable layer on bananas (Techavuthiporn et al.,
ative studies on wider ECF application methods in the 2024). The TSS/SSC and TA are key ripening indicators
15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

Classification, advantages, and disadvantages of ECF materials.

Application methods of ECF and their optimal properties.

FIGURE 6
FIGURE 5
8 of 32
 15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES 9 of 32

and crucial quality parameters that indicate the amount of F&V ripening processes involve the exchange of gases
sugar and acid in F&V (Duguma, 2022). It is well known such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and oxygen (O2 ) with the
that as storage days progressed, TSS increased and TA outside atmosphere during the storage phase. ECF can
decreased, regardless of postharvest treatments. However, restrict gas permeability by reducing the partial pressure
intensity in respiratory metabolism affects the concentra- difference between the interior and outside of the coat-
tion of TSS and TA, thus altering the overall taste and ing barrier, thereby partially blocking gas exchange. The
flavor of F&V. It has been documented that ECF prevent gas environment within the ECF is improved by this par-
an increase in TSS content and TA loss in F&V storage by tial barrier, characterized by low O2 and high CO2 levels.
postponing starch breakdown and conversion of organic Consequently, the respiration rate and transpiration loss
acids under suppressed metabolic activities (Aaqil et al., in F&V reduced, and the maturation and aging processes
2024), indicating the extended shelf-life of F&V. In accor- of these produce items are delayed. Moreover, lowering
dance, 24-epibrassinolide-chitosan-coated bananas stored O2 level in F&V below 8% reduces endogenous ethylene
at 23 ± 1◦ C and 85–90% relative humidity for 9 days showed production, extending their shelf-life for longer (D. Shi
the lowest TSS and highest TA than control (Elsayed et al., 2024). Ethylene, a ripening hormone, negatively
et al., 2023). Similarly, coating of aloe vera gel (25%) and influences produce growth, development, and storage life,
nano-chitosan (1%) on strawberry fruit stored at 24◦ C and with many F&V, such as strawberries, sensitive to ethylene
80% relative humidity for 4 days also exhibited a delayed levels as low as 0.1 ppm on exposure for a longer dura-
increase in TSS, and highest TA than control fruit (Farida tion, resulting in rapid quality deterioration (Khalid et al.,
et al., 2023). However, most of these alterations in TSS and 2022). Thus, delaying F&V ripening and prolonging their
TA in coated F&V have been linked to increased mem- shelf life exhibits an emerging challenge for the posthar-
brane integrity, reduced respiration rate, delayed starch vest industry. In recent literature, various ECF have been
hydrolysis, and organic acid conversion. It is worth not- reported to inhibit the exchange of CO2 , O2 , and ethylene
ing that not all coating ingredients are equally effective for effectively delaying the ripening processes in F&V for
in minimizing weight loss or regulating the desired TSS regulating their extended shelf-life and postharvest quality.
and TA levels in numerous F&V. For example, Panahirad For example, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-coated two
et al. (2020) revealed that pectin and CMC-based coat- apple cultivars, “Golden Reinders” and “Granny Smith,”
ings on plums had no significant impact on weight loss showed delayed ripening due to suppressed ethylene pro-
during storage. Similarly, polyvinyl alcohol-native potato duction and its metabolism-related enzyme ACC synthase
starch coated apple also possess no reduction in weight loss (ACS) activity during cold storage for 3 months, with an
than uncoated fruit during storage (Sapper et al., 2020). In additional 7 days of shelf-life (Fernández-Cancelo et al.,
regard to TSS, carnauba wax coated lime fruit indicated the 2024). Moreover, strawberry fruit stored at 25◦ C for 5 days
nonsignificant changes in TSS levels than uncoated fruit showed 50.7 and 49.7% lower respiration rates and ethylene
(Sun et al., 2024). As for TA, shellac-based coatings led production under 6% moringa leaf extract coating, result-
to a sharp decrease in TA, similar to untreated mangoes, ing in delayed fruit ripening and quality degradation and
but combining shellac with tannic acid significantly main- longer shelf life (Shafique et al., 2023).
tained higher TA levels (Ma et al., 2021). These findings Softening or firmness is a significant criterion that
may stem from the limited ability of the coatings to act as indicates the ripening and maturity of F&V. F&V softening
a water barrier, the hydrophilic nature of the ingredients, occurs due to disassembly and depolymerization of cell
or unregulated respiration rate and ethylene production, wall polysaccharides such as cellulose (CS), hemicellulose
as well as differences in coatings gas permeability. There- (HCS) and pectin-based substances under elevated hydro-
fore, optimizing coating materials to suit specific produce lase enzymes activities such as pectin methylesterase
and understanding their interaction with physiological (PME), cellulase (CX), polygalacturonase (PG), and β-
processes is essential. Moreover, as per recent literature, galactosidase (β-gal), resulting in overall loosening and
Table 1 lists the effects of numerous ECF on various F&V in reduced fruit firmness (Naveed et al., 2024). The softening
terms of regulating weight loss, TSS, and TA parameters. of F&V tends to alleviate the produce taste and market
value (Y. Zhang, Q. Kong et al., 2024) and increases their
susceptibility to postharvest microbial infection (Kanatt,
4.2 Ripening and softening 2024). Softening is also highly correlated with elevated
respiration and ethylene production in F&V, as unveiled
F&V are living commodities whose shelf-life ends at senes- in seven apple cultivars reported by Zhang et al. (2024).
cence or deterioration after passing through the ripening Thus, one of the critical objectives of produce quality
phase associated with continuous respiration, ethylene control is to preserve F&V softening under suppressed
production, and transpiration rate (Firdous et al., 2023). respiration and ethylene production rates, respectively. To
 TA B L E 1 Effects of ECF on F&V in regulating weight loss, TSS, and TA during postharvest storage.
10 of 32

Storage life of
ECF material and Application Treatment treated
F&Vs concentration method exposure time Storage conditions Interference produce References
◦
Tomato Chitosan (1%), chia Immersion 1 min 10 C, 90–95% RH, and ↓Weight loss, ↓TSS 30 days (Ali et al., 2024)
mucilage (30 mL), levan 20◦ C, 60 ± 5% RH
(30 mL)
Banana Chitosan (1%), Piper betle L. Soaking 5s 10◦ C, 64% RH ↓Weight loss, ↓TSS, 10 days (Nguyen et al., 2024)
and Sonneratia ovata Back. ↑TA
Leaf extract (2%)
Guava Chitosan (2%), carvacrol Spreading N/A 20◦ C, 80 ± 5% RH ↓Weight loss, ↓TSS, 8 days (Shu et al., 2024)
(0.1–0.2%) ↑TA
Pear k-Carrageenan (75%), Immersion 30 s 23 ± 2◦ C, 78% RH ↓Weight loss, ↓TSS, 30 days (da Costa et al., 2024)
cassava starch (25%), ↑TA
copper oxide particles (2%)
Kiwifruit Pullulan (2%), potassium Dipping 2 min 2 ± 0.5◦ C, 70 ± 5% ↓Weight loss, ↓TSS, 68 days (Tian et al., 2023)
metabisulfite (1–10 g) RH, and 25 ± 1◦ C, ↑TA
70 ± 5% RH
Strawberry AVG (20%), moringa leaf – 5 min 25 ± 2◦ C, 55–60% RH ↓Weight loss, ↓TSS, 5 days (Shafique et al., 2023)
extract (4%), oxalic acid ↑TA
(1 mM), ascorbic acid
(5 mM)
Pineapple slices Grape seed oil emulsion Electro-spraying 25 s 5◦ C, 80% RH ↓Weight loss, ↑TA 7 days (Albayrak et al., 2023)
(2%)
Ber Guar gum (0.75%), citric Dipping 2 min 23 ± 2◦ C, 75% RH ↓Weight loss, ↓TSS 15 days (Kumar et al., 2023)
acid (0.5% w/v) mint extract
(3–10%)
Fresh-cut apple Cellulose nanofibrils Spraying N/A 4◦ C, 40–70% RH ↓Weight loss, ↑TA 8 days (Y. Wang et al., 2023)
◦
Pakchoi CMC (1.2 g), calcium – 1 min 25 C, 60% RH ↓Weight loss 48 h (Yu et al., 2022)
chloride (0.6 g), liquid
paraffin (1.2 mL)
Papaya Carnauba (3%), ginger Spreading N/A 22◦ C, 16◦ C ↓Weight loss, ↑TA 18 days (Miranda et al., 2022)
essential oil (3%),
hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose (1 g)
Fresh-cut kiwifruit Konjac glucomannan (1%), Dipping 5 min 10◦ C, 90 ± 2% RH ↓Weight loss, ↑TA 8 days (Fan et al., 2021)
and green bell pepper pomegranate peel extract
(2%)
Bottom-headed arrow symbol (↓) showed the decreasing trend, and top-headed arrow symbol (↑) showed an increasing trend.
Abbreviations: TSS, total soluble solids; TA, titratable acidity; RH, relative humidity; min, minute; s, second; N/A, not mentioned, —, same as above.
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

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ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES 11 of 32

cope with softening disorder, ECF are increasingly used 9 days (Elsayed et al., 2023). In general, edible coatings
in the postharvest handling of F&V to delay softening for minimally processed products require the addition
and extend shelf life. In accordance, Naveed et al. (2024) of antioxidant compounds, alongside the main ingredi-
reported that jujube fruit coated with xanthan gum (0.3%) ents, to prevent enzymatic browning or discoloration. In
exhibited delayed firmness loss associated with higher this regard, Yu et al. (2023) found that after 16 days of
Na2 CO3 -soluble pectin, CS, HCS, and chelate-soluble storage in the dark at 4◦ C, the green color of fresh-
pectin components, and suppressed activities of PG, cut asparagus lettuce was maintained higher under the
CX, PME, and β-gal enzymes, and lower respiration and effects of combined coatings of sodium CMC (0.67%) with
ethylene production rate during storage at 20◦ C for 15 antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (0.38%) and l-cysteine
days. Moreover, AVG (75%) coated pears also exhibited the (0.85%). This coating inhibited degradation of chlorophyll
delayed firmness loss associated with reduced respiration under repressed activity and the expression of chlorophyll
rate and softening enzyme activities such as PME, PG, degrading enzymes. Notably, special attention has been
and CX during storage at 0◦ C for 60 days (Adhikary et al., recommended to ensure the optimal gas barrier properties
2023). Similar findings were reported in chitosan-coated of ECF during their application on F&V. As, lower oxygen
pear fruit during cold storage for 70 days (Adhikary et al., levels can trigger anaerobic respiration, leading to ethanol
2022). Fresh figs were also noticed with delayed firmness buildup and the development of off-flavors, which nega-
loss associated with lower respiration rate under the com- tively impacts the sensory quality of the produce (Lamani
posite coatings of chitosan and alginate-based emulsions & Ramaswamy, 2023). Furthermore, as per recent litera-
with olive oil during storage at 4◦ C for 19 days (Vieira ture, Table 3 detailed the effects of numerous other ECF
et al., 2021). Moreover, as per recent literature, Table 2 on various F&V and their minimal products in terms of
detailed the effects of numerous ECF on various F&V in regulating their sensory and organoleptic characteristics.
regulating postharvest ripening and softening parameters.

4.4 Browning and CI

4.3 Sensory and organoleptic attributes
Enzymatic and nonenzymatic browning in fresh and fresh-
The sensory and organoleptic traits such as color, flavor, cut F&V causes discoloration in the peel and flesh, which
aroma, taste, texture, and fresh and fresh-cut F&V appear- is highly noticeable to consumers and reduces the prod-
ance directly impact consumer satisfaction and market uct’s commercial value. Importantly, the discoloration of
potential (Bal, 2024; Y. Zhang, Q. Kong et al., 2024). In the peel or flesh of F&V directly indicates their freshness
addition to regulate the flesh quality of F&V, maintenance and strongly influences consumer purchases (W. Zhang,
of such sensory attributes is a crucial research challenge Y. Pan et al., 2023). In F&V, browning is a complex pro-
for researchers. Importantly, ECF must be flavorless, col- cess involving physiological and biochemical changes,
orless, and tasteless to retain the natural sensory attributes principally caused by the enzymatic oxidation of phe-
of F&V (Rohasmizah & Azizah, 2022). However, the appli- nolic compounds under the elevated polyphenol oxidase
cation of numerous ECF, either applied alone or combined, (PPO) activity (Chen et al., 2023; Shuai et al., 2024). Other
has shown substantial potential in regulating the sensory potential factors responsible for inducing the browning
attributes of F&V. For example, in terms of flavor reten- include mechanical injury, low temperature, reactive oxy-
tion and desired fruit skin appearance, cherries coated gen species (ROS) production, disintegration of membrane
with chitosan (0.5%) and melatonin (1000 µmol/L) + chi- permeability, and lipid metabolism (P. Li et al., 2024; W.
tosan (0.5%) achieved substantially higher sensory scores Zhang, Y. Pan et al., 2023). Recent studies show that
than control fruits during storage at 0–1◦ C for 28 days ECF effectively prevent peel and flesh browning in F&V
(Bal, 2024). Another study found that pears coated with during storage by regulating critical physiological and bio-
50 and 75% AVG had higher color, taste, odor, and texture chemical changes. For example, in intact F&V, chitosan
scores than uncoated fruit preserved at 0◦ C for 60 days and carvacrol-coated guava exhibited reduced pericarp
(Adhikary et al., 2023). Moreover, Ali et al. (2020) reported browning under higher total phenolic contents (TPC) than
that composite coatings of arabinoxylan (AX) and β-glucan uncoated fruit during storage at 20◦ C for 8 days (Shu et al.,
stearic acid ester improved apple texture, flavor, aroma, 2024). Also, Nguyen et al. (2024) reported composite coat-
and sweetness than control during storage at 22◦ C for 45 ing of chitosan with Piper betle L. and Sonneratia ovata
days. The green color of F&V indicates a longer postharvest Back. Leaf extract on the banana effectively reduced peel
shelf-life and an extending market time. In accordance, browning spots more than the control for 10 days of stor-
24-epibrassinolide-chitosan-coated bananas showed less age at 20◦ C. Meanwhile, in fresh-cut F&V, Li et al. (2021)
peel yellowing than the control at room temperature for demonstrated that applying polysaccharide-based edible
 TA B L E 2 Effects of ECF on F&V in regulating the ripening and softening during postharvest storage.
12 of 32

ECF material and Application Treatment Storage life of

F&Vs concentration method exposure time Storage conditions Interference treated produce References
◦
Apple Chitosan (0.5–2%) Dipping 2–3 s 4 ± 0 C, 85 ± 5% RH, ↓Firmness, ↓respiration 120 days (Shah et al.,
and 20 ± 3◦ C, 65 ± 5% rate, ↓ethylene production 2024)
RH rate
Tomato Chitosan (1%), chia mucilage Immersion 1 min 10◦ C, 90–95% RH, and ↓Firmness, ↓respiration 30 days (Ali et al., 2024)
(30 mL), levan (30 mL) 20◦ C, 60 ± 5% RH rate, ↓ethylene production
rate
Sweet cherry Chitosan (0.5%) and melatonin – 5 min 0–1◦ C, 90–95% RH ↓Firmness, ↓respiration 28 days (Bal, 2024)
(1000 µmol/L) rate
Apricot 1-(3-Phenyl-propyl) cyclopropane Submersion 2 min 3◦ C, 90% RH ↓Firmness; ↓PME, β-gal, 32 days (Al-Khayri &
(1000 µL/L), and psyllium and PG activity. Khedr, 2024)
(10 g/L) ↓respiration rate, ↓ethylene
production rate; ↓ACS and
ACO activity.
Strawberry Gum Arabic (2%), bergamot Dipping 3 min 4◦ C ↓Firmness 14 days (De Bruno et al.,
pomace (2.5%), bergamot 2023)
essential oil (0.1%)
Minimally Alginate (2%), lemon byproduct – 2 min 3◦ C ↓Respiration rate; ↓O2 , and 14 days (Zappia et al.,
processed radish extract (1%) ↑CO2 2023)
Papaya Sodium alginate (1%), Immersion/ 2 min 20◦ C, 70–80% RH ↓Firmness; ↓PME, and PG 18 days (Yu et al., 2023)
d-limonene (0.5%) soaking activity. ↓respiration rate,
↓ethylene production rate
Ber Bees wax (2%), polyphenols Brushing N/A 7.5 ± 1◦ C, 90–95% RH ↓Firmness; ↓PME, and CX 28 days (Kaur et al.,
(1.5%) activity 2023)
Pomegranate Arils AVG (10%), cinnamon oil (25%) Dipping 5 min 5 ± 1◦ C, 95 ± 1% RH ↓Firmness, ↓respiration 15 days (Singh et al.,
rate, ↓ethylene production 2022)
rate
Loquat Chitosan (1%), Torreya grandis – 10 min 25◦ C, 65 ± 5% RH ↓Respiration rate 15 days (Wang et al.,
essential oil (1%) 2022)
Banana Sapote gum (100%), tunta starch Immersion 2 min 25–30◦ C ↓Firmness 12 days (Vélez-Erazo
(100%) et al., 2022)
Purple passion Chitosan (2%), 0.1 mg/L – 3 min 8 ± 2◦ C, 95 ± 5% RH ↓Firmness, ↓respiration 32 days (Nxumalo &
fruit medicinal plant extract (Bidens rate, ↓ethylene production Fawole, 2022)
ilosa, lippia javanica, Syzygium rate
cordatum and Ximenia caffra)
Bottom-headed arrow symbol (↓) showed the decreasing trend, and top-headed arrow symbol (↑) showed an increasing trend.
Abbreviations: RH, relative humidity; PME, pectin methylesterase; β-gal, β-galactosidase; PG, polygalacturonase; ACS, aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase; ACO, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid
oxidase; O2 , oxygen; CO2 , carbon dioxide; CX, cellulase; min, minute; s, second; N/A, not mentioned; —, same as above.
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

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 TA B L E 3 Effects of ECF on F&V in regulating the sensory and organoleptic characteristics during postharvest storage.
Storage life
ECF material and Application Treatment of treated
F&Vs concentration method exposure time Storage conditions Interference produce References
◦
Papaya Guar gum (0.3%), ozone (2 mg/L) Foam padding N/A 30 ± 2 C, 75 ± 5% RH ↑Glossy appearance, ↑taste, 8 days (Vinod et al., 2024)
↑flavor, ↑texture, ↑overall
acceptability
Apple Fenugreek (2.5 g), flaxseed (1.5 g) Immersion 1 min 25 ± 2◦ C, 80–85% RH ↑Color, ↑flavor, ↑taste, ↑overall 35 days (Rashid et al., 2024)
acceptability
Tomato Chitosan (1.5%), polyvinyl – 25 s 8 ± 2◦ C, 75% RH ↑Taste, ↑flavor, ↑texture, 30 days (Yan et al., 2024)
alcohol (2%), ↑appearance, ↑overall quality
trans-cinnamaldehyde (0.5)
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

Sweet potato Chitosan (2%), montmorillonite Soaking 15 s 25◦ C ↑Color, ↑appearance, ↑odor, 30 days (Guan et al., 2024)
(6 g), whey protein isolate (60 g) ↑taste, ↑texture, ↑overall
acceptability
Ber AVG (40%), tamarind starch (5%), Dipping 5 min 25 ± 2◦ C, 4 ± 1◦ C ↑Color, ↑aroma, ↑taste, ↑texture, 31 days (Bhadu et al., 2023)
whey protein concentrate (4%) ↑overall acceptability
Pineapple slices Grape seed oil emulsion (2%) Electro-spraying 25 s 5◦ C, 80% RH ↑Juiciness, ↑flavor, ↑general 7 days (Albayrak et al.,
acceptability 2023)
Mango, melon Sodium alginate (1.5 g), Immersion 2 min 5 ± 1◦ C ↑Flavor, ↑texture, ↑appearance 12 days (Dias et al., 2023)
fructooligosaccharides (1.5%), L.
casei (7–8 log CFU/mL)
Sweet cherry CMC (1–2%), thyme essential oil Wrapping N/A 4◦ C, 90 ± 2 RH ↑Taste, ↑smell, ↑color, ↑overall 21 days (Hosseinifarahi
(0.2–0.4%) acceptability et al., 2023)
Guava Chitosan (2%), nano-SiO2 Dipping 1 min 15 ± 2◦ C, 30 ± 2◦ C, ↑Taste 12 days (Van et al., 2022)
(0.02–0.06%) 80 ± 5 RH
Mango Chitosan (2%), nano-SiO2 (1%) – 10 min 13 ± 1◦ C, 90–95% RH, ↑Color, ↑taste, ↑texture, 35 days (Kassem et al., 2022)
and 20 ± 2◦ C, 70–75% ↑appearance, ↑flavor, ↑overall
RH acceptability
Grapes AVG (25–33%), putrescine Immersion 20 s 4 ± 0.5◦ C, 90 ± 0.5% ↑Flavor, ↑juiciness, ↑sweetness, 36 days (Ehtesham Nia et al.,
(2–3 mM) RH ↑skin appearance, ↑intention to 2022)
buy
Button Agaricus bisporus Soaking 5 min 4 ± 1◦ C ↑Flavor, ↑color, ↑texture, ↑cap 16 days (Zhuang et al., 2022)
mushrooms polysaccharides (O.5%), Torreya uniformity, ↑acceptability
grandis essential oil (500 ppm)
Bottom-headed arrow symbol (↓) showed the decreasing trend, and top-headed arrow symbol (↑) showed an increasing trend.
Abbreviations: RH, relative humidity; min, minute; s, second; N/A, not mentioned; —, same as above.
13 of 32

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14 of 32 ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

coatings significantly reduced enzymatic browning in 4.5 Microbial spoilage

fresh-cut lettuce. This was achieved by maintaining TPC,
inhibiting the activities of PPO, phenylalanine ammonia F&V are highly prone to microbial spoilage during storage
lyase (PAL), phospholipase (PLD), and lipoxygenase (LOX) and supply chain transportation (D. Shi et al., 2024). Micro-
enzymes, reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and bial spoilage is the qualitative and quantitative degradation
enhancing the activities of antioxidants such as superox- caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria,
ide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), fungi, yeasts, and molds that pose significant challenges
and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) during 15 days of cold stor- to food safety, sustainability, and economic viability (Sny-
age at 4◦ C. Furthermore, a composite coating of sodium der et al., 2024). This degradation occurs upon producing
alginate with L-cysteine and citric acid on fresh-cut lotus undesired biochemical byproducts or toxins by colonized
root displayed reduced browning under suppressed ROS, microflora, thus causing detrimental changes in sen-
improved CAT, SOD, and APX, and lower PLD, LOX, and sory attributes, nutritional content, and overall quality.
lipase activity throughout 14 days of storage at 4◦ C (Gouda Notably, approximately 20–30% loss of postharvest F&V is
et al., 2021). accounted for due to microbial spoilage (Hongyang Guo,
In F&V, CI refers to an irreversible physiological disor- Xu, et al., 2024); thus reducing the microbial spoilage of
der that compromises the qualitative attributes and market F&V is a global concern nowadays. To solve this issue,
sustainability (L. Liu et al., 2024). CI mainly occurs dur- ECF have emerged as a practical, and environmentally
ing low but nonfreezing temperatures storage, typically friendly approach to suppress the microbial spoilage of
between 5 and 12◦ C, depending on the specific type of F&V via their antimicrobial and physical barrier proper-
produce, such as tropical or subtropical fruits (W. Zhang ties. In accordance, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose coat-
et al., 2021). CI manifestations vary among F&V cultivars, ings have demonstrated the potential to maintain apple
encompassing flavor and aroma loss, browning or tissue fruit quality by decreasing the superficial scald and the
discoloration, internal breakdown, ripening irregularities, severity of blue mold produced by Penicillium expansum
pulp collapse, dry texture, and increased perishability, (Fernández-Cancelo et al., 2024). Chitosan-coated mango
thereby deteriorating the postharvest quality of various has a significantly lower number of total mold and bac-
F&V during storage or supply chain transportation (Aaqil teria counts than uncoated fruit, thus maintaining fruits’
et al., 2024; W. Zhang et al., 2021). As per recent research quality for a longer time (Parvin et al., 2023). Also, Kanwar
trends, in this situation, ECF play a significant role in et al. (2023) concluded that a composite coating includ-
preserving F&V by reducing the incidence of CI symp- ing AX, cellulose/starch stearic acid ester solutions, and
toms during low-temperature storage. For instance, gum cinnamon bark oil prevented microbial spoilage of guava
arabic (10%) coated cold-stored peach was observed with fruit compared with the control during ambient storage.
lower CI index mediated by higher TPC, TFC, AsA under Likewise, ECF have also been shown to reduce microbial
suppressed PPO and POD activity, and enhanced antiox- spoilage in fresh-cut F&V, which are more susceptible to
idant enzyme activities (SOD, APX, and CAT), and ROS microbial deterioration than intact F&V due to processing
scavenging rate during 35 days of storage at 4◦ C (Gan operations such as peeling, cutting, trimming, packag-
et al., 2024). Moreover, dextrin (1%) and olive oil (0.2%) ing, and so on (Song et al., 2024). In literature, several
coated zucchini fruit exhibited reduced CI incidence asso- active antimicrobial substances are in practice to inhibit
ciated with lower oxidative stress, and enhanced phenolic or delay the microbial spoilage in F&V. For example, our
metabolism at low-temperature storage at 4◦ C for 14 days recent work on fresh-cut apple exhibited the antimicro-
(Castro-Cegrí et al., 2023). Furthermore, Arabic gum (10%) bial impact of pyridoxine treatment (M. Ali et al., 2024).
and γ-aminobutyric acid (10 mmol/L) coated “Kinnow” Similarly, antimicrobial effects of γ-aminobutyric acid and
mandarin fruit were also reported with reduced CI symp- lipopeptides were also reported in tomato and grape fruit
toms (S. Ali et al., 2023). These results were achieved by (Hussain et al., 2024; M. Li et al., 2024). However, the addi-
reducing the relative electrolyte leakage (REL), MDA, O2 , tion of such active antimicrobial compounds in ECF could
H2 O2 along with lower LOX, PLD, CX, PG, PME, β-Gal, be more promising approach in reducing the postharvest
and higher CAT, APX, SOD, and POD enzyme activi- losses of F&V via suppressing or delaying the microbial
ties compared with control during storage at 5◦ C for 60 spoilage during storage. Besides, as per recent literature,
days. In short, findings shown in Table 4 further empha- Table 5 details the effects of numerous other ECF on var-
size the potential of ECF treatments to inhibit postharvest ious fresh F&V and their minimal products in regulating
browning and CI disorders in the F&V industry. their quality via suppressing microbial spoilage.
 TA B L E 4 Effects of ECF on F&V in inhibiting the browning and chilling injury (CI) disorders during postharvest storage.
ECF material and Application Treatment Storage life of
F&Vs concentration method exposure time Storage conditions Interference treated produce References
Sweet cherry Deacetylated chitosan (88.1%) Electrostatic spray 1 min 4◦ C, 70–80% RH ↓Browning index, 27 days (Zheng et al., 2024)
↓PPO, ↑TPC, ↑TFC
Pear AVG (15%), CaCl2 (2%) Dipping 5 min 2 ± 1◦ C, 80 ± 5% RH, ↓Internal browning, 181 days (Ahmad et al., 2024)
and 20 ± 3◦ C, 60 ± 5% ↓PPO, ↓POD, ↑CAT,
RH ↑SOD
Fresh-cut potato Guar gum (0.9 g/100 mL), – 5 min 27 ± 3◦ C, 70–85% RH ↓Surface browning 7 days (Mondal et al., 2024)
turmeric essential oil
(0.5 mL/100 mL)
Button Pectin (2.55%), ascorbic acid Immersion 5 min 20 ± 1◦ C ↓Browning index, 6 days (Dhawan &
mushroom (0.67%) ↓PPO, ↑TPC Chakraborty, 2024)
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

Lychee Chitosan–citric acid (1%), pomelo Dipping 3 min 5◦ C, 95% RH ↓Pericarp browning 14 days (Yang et al., 2023)
extract (2%),
Fresh-cut apple Whey protein isolate (10%), Tgas Soaking 2 min 8◦ C ↓Browning index, 2 days (Xin et al., 2023)
(60 U/g), sunflower oil (1.5%) ↓PPO, ↓MDA, ↓H2 O2 ,
↓CAT
Red bell pepper Melatonin (500 µmol/L), Spraying N/A 4◦ C, 20◦ C ↓CI incidence, ↓ 30 days (Darré et al., 2024)
commercial wax (carnauba wax ↑proline, ↑antioxidant
8%, shellac 4%) capacity
Longkong CMC and gelatin (3:1), and Immersion N/A 13◦ C, 90% RH ↓CI incidence, ↓LOX, 18 days (Venkatachalam
melatonin (0.4–1.2 mL/L) ↓PLD, ↓ROS, ↑PAL, et al., 2023)
↑TPC
Apple Water chestnut starch (1%), – 3 min 22 ± 2◦ C; 3 ± 1◦ C ↓CI index, ↑PAL, 120 days (Bashir et al., 2023)
rosemary essential oil (0.1–0.5%) ↑TPC, ↑AsA
Plum Glycine betaine-coated chitosan N/A N/A 1◦ C, 90% RH ↓CI incidence, ↓EL, 40 days (Mahmoudi et al.,
nanoparticles (0.5%) ↓MDA, ↓H2 O2 , 2022)
↑antioxidant
metabolism
Banana Chitosan (0.5%), chitosan Immersion 2 min 10 ± 2◦ C; 14 ± 2◦ C; ↓CI incidence, ↑TPC, 20 days (Elbagoury et al.,
nanoparticles (1.5 g/L) 22 ± 2◦ C, 85–90% RH ↑total antioxidant 2022)
activity
Melon Chitosan (1.5%) Immersion 10 min 3◦ C, 85–95% RH ↓CI incidence, 30 days (Zhang et al., 2022)
↑starch and sucrose
metabolism
Bottom-headed arrow symbol (↓) showed the decreasing trend, and top-headed arrow symbol (↑) showed an increasing trend.
Abbreviations: PPO, polyphenol oxidase; TPC, total phenolic contents; TFC, total flavonoid contents; POD, peroxidase; CAT, catalase; SOD, superoxide dismutase; MDA, malondialdehyde; H2 O2 , hydrogen peroxide; CI,
chilling injury; LOX, lipoxygenase; PLD, phospholipase; ROS, reactive oxygen species; PAL, phenylalanine ammonia lyase; AsA, ascorbic acid; EL, electrolyte leakage; RH, relative humidity; min, min; s, second; N/A,
not mentioned; —, same as above.
15 of 32

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 TA B L E 5 Effects of ECF on F&V in suppressing microbial spoilage during postharvest storage.
16 of 32

ECF material and Application Treatment Storage Storage life of

F&Vs concentration method exposure time conditions Interference treated produce References
◦
Carrot Alginate (4 g), Dipping 2 min 5±1 C ↓Total viable, mold and yeast, LAB, 30 days (Talesh et al.,
thymol-nanoemulsion and and Enterobacteriaceae count 2024)
thymol-loaded nanostructured
lipid (500 mg/L)
Fig AVG (2%), O. ficus-indica – 60 s 4 ± 0.5◦ C, 85% ↓Total mesophilic microorganisms, 12 days (Sortino et al.,
mucilage extract (30 g) RH yeasts, Pseudomonas count 2024)
Kiwifruit CMC (1%), essential oils such as Immersion 3 min 10 ± 2◦ C, ↓Total bacterial count 30 days (Iqbal et al., 2024)
thyme, clove, and cardamom 90–95% RH
(1:1:0, 1:0:1, 1:1:1)
Fresh-cut Alginate (2%), citric acid (3%) Dipping 2 min 10◦ C ↓Pathogenic bacteria (E. 7 days (Song et al., 2024)
melon coli, Salmonella spp., L.
monocytogenes, and S. aureus) and
natural microflora
Tomato Alginate (0.2%), chitosan (0.6%), Immersion 10 s 20◦ C, 85% RH ↓Total mold and yeast count 15 days (Flores-López
AVG (0.2–0.6%) et al., 2023)
Fresh-cut pear Alginate (2%), ginger oil (0.5%) – 5 min 4◦ C ↓Total mold count 15 days (Lamani &
Ramaswamy,
2023)
Citrus Chitosan (1.5%), Valeriana – 3 min 25 ± 2◦ C, 65% ↓A. flavus, A. niger, A. versicolor, P. 30 days (Das et al., 2023)
officinalis essential oil (3.5–6.5 RH italicum, and F. oxysporum, and
µL/mL) aflatoxin B1
Papaya Cassava starch (4%), clove or – 2 min 25◦ C ↓Aerobic mesophilic bacteria, mold 12 days (do Nascimento
cinnamon essential oil (2 mL/L) and yeasts count et al., 2023)
Mango Chitosan (2.5%), peptides – N/A 25 ± 2◦ C ↓C. gloeosporioides and B. 12 days (Ranjith et al.,
(20 mg/mL) theobromae, ↓anthracnose and 2022)
stem-end rot
Fresh-cut Chitosan (2%), cinnamon oil Soaking 2 min 4◦ C ↓Total plate, yeast, mould,l coliform, 16 days (Sarengaowa
potatoes (0.2%) lactic acid bacteria count, and L. et al., 2022)
monocytogenes
Date AVG (25%), lemongrass essential Dipping 5 min 25◦ C, 90% RH ↓Total bacterial and fungal count 4 weeks (Alkaabi et al.,
oil (1–5%) 2022)
Strawberry Phages of S. Enteritidis, S. Immersion 5 min 4 ± 1◦ C, 90% ↓Bacterial cell count 5 days (Sezer et al., 2022)
Typhimurium, and S. RH
Typhimurium (1:1:1), whey
protein concentrate (10%)
Bottom-headed arrow symbol (↓) showed the decreasing trend, and top-headed arrow symbol (↑) showed an increasing trend.
Abbreviations: LAB, lactic acid bacteria; RH, relative humidity; min, minute; s, second; N/A, not mentioned; —, same as above.
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

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ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES 17 of 32

5 QUALITY REGULATORY MODE OF are fragile and crack easily, and their use is often restricted
ACTION OF ECF IN F&V due to allergic concerns and ethical or religious views.
Moreover, diverse polysaccharide-based ECF were shown
Previously, ECF potential mode of action for regulating the to have inferior water barrier quality. In addition, the
postharvest quality of F&V only elaborated as a modified adhesion of various ECF materials on F&V surfaces are
protective microatmosphere which acts as a barrier to another critical aspect. To overcome these issues, in recent
regulate gases exchange, restrict UV, reduce moisture loss, studies, the addition of crosslinking agents, including
and inhibit pathogens proliferation (Xie et al., 2023; Y. metallic ions, organic acids, phenolics and flavonoids,
Zhang, Y. Pu et al., 2024). Surprisingly, the mode of action oxide particles, and plasticizers such as glycerol, propylene
of ECF in terms of impacting the physiological mechanism glycol, sorbitol, and some oligosaccharides were reported
has not been thoroughly reported yet. Still, there have (Firdous et al., 2023; Naveed et al., 2024; Y. Zhang, Q.
been a lot of recent studies that could shed light on this Kong et al., 2024). These compounds resulted in bet-
aspect, particularly investigations into relevant physiolog- ter mechanical strength, adhesive characteristics on the
ical pathways. Thus, this study extended the further mode substrate surface, barrier properties, flexibility, and lower
of action of ECF including the modulations of several brittleness to form a suitable coating layer on F&V. How-
physiological pathways such as respiratory metabolism ever, despite improved ECF characteristics, recent research
(Fernández-Cancelo et al., 2024; Pang et al., 2024), antiox- has reported the advancement in ECF by incorporating
idant metabolism (H. Wang et al., 2023; Zare-Bavani et al., functional additives such as plant extracts, essential oils,
2024), oxidative stress metabolism (Castro-Cegrí et al., nanoparticles, and so on. Moreover, functional ECF, gen-
2023; Yan et al., 2024), cell wall metabolism (Naveed et al., erally referred to nanotechnology-associated ECF such as
2024; Zhou et al., 2022), ascorbate (AsA)–glutathione nanoemulsions-based ECF, and bio-nanocomposite-based
pathway (Cice et al., 2024; S. Ali, A. Nawaz et al., 2024), ECF, have also been introduced. On the other hand, in
mitochondrial energy metabolism (Chen et al., 2021; Zhou regard to advanced ECF application strategies, multilayer
et al., 2024), lipid metabolism (Guan et al., 2024), color coating methodology is currently being considered to fur-
metabolism (Shafique et al., 2023; Y.-L. Zhang et al., 2021), ther advance the effectiveness of ECF for the improved
and disease defense metabolism (Tian et al., 2023; Y. quality preservation of F&V during storage, as discussed
Zhang et al., 2023) in F&V. The desired changes in such below.
metabolisms were found to maintain the postharvest qual-
ity of F&V, ensuring customer choice and stakeholder satis-
faction. However, there is a lack of in-depth understanding 6.1 Plant extract-based ECF
based on the molecular mechanisms associated with omics
techniques, as well as other metabolisms such as proline Plant extracts, such as essential oils, leaf extracts, and
metabolism, GABA pathways, flavor metabolism, and so their active ingredients, offer an intriguing substitute for
on, to further reveal the ECF quality regulatory mode chemical additives and preservatives employed to post-
of action in F&V, thus necessitating future research. pone undesirable changes in F&V (Bukvicki et al., 2023).
Overall, barrier properties and mechanisms modulated Currently, these extracts are highly regarded as valuable
under ECF quality regulatory mode of action in several sources of food preservatives. They offer a healthier option
F&V based on the recent literature have been depicted in than synthetic chemicals, while achieving the same goal
Figure 7. without impacting the desired quality of the F&V. Several
ways for their implementation of F&V have been outlined,
including integration in ECF and direct encapsulation
6 ADVANCES IN ECF FORMULATIONS (Goswami et al., 2024). However, the use of bioactive
AND APPLICATIONS METHODS FOR plant derivatives in F&V may negatively affect their
IMPROVED FUNCTIONALITIES sensory characteristics, and their application is proposed
in combination with other hurdles, including coating
In recent years, ECF have been gaining progressive materials. In accordance with recent research findings,
advancement in their formulations and application strate- as demonstrated in section 4.2, several plant extracts or
gies for better efficiency in coating characteristics and F&V essential oils, including mint extract, Piper betle L., and
preservation. It is worth noting that fundamental ECF Sonneratia ovata Back. Leaf extract, Bidens pilosa, lippia
materials do not always provide the appropriate proper- javanica, Syzygium cordatum and Ximenia caffra extract,
ties. For example, as per Aaqil et al. (2024), lipid-based O. ficus-indica mucilage extract, pomegranate peel extract,
ECF exhibit inferior mechanical strength and also result pomelo extract, grape seed oil, ginger oil, bergamot oil,
in undesirable organoleptic properties due to their slimy lemon byproduct oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, Torreya
nature and lipid oxidation. Meanwhile, protein-based ECF grandis oil, turmeric oil, rosemary oil, ginger oil, Valeri-
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18 of 32 ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

FIGURE 7 Quality regulatory mode of action of ECF in F&V.

ana officinalis oil, clove oil, and lemongrass oil have been et al., 2022; S. Y. Wang et al., 2023). Recent studies suggest
integrated into ECF as functional additives for regulating the use of various nanoparticles in numerous biobased
the key F&V postharvest quality parameters such as lower ECF to improve the quality of F&V during storage. For
weight loss, higher TSS, lower TA, reduced softening example, Lee et al. (2024) reported on the postharvest
and ripening, inhibited CI and browning disorders, and quality regulating effects of chitosan, cellulose, and
microbial safety. Overall, these plant extracts are generally lignocellulose-related nanoparticles incorporated coating
recognized as safe and are considered active additives on the blueberry during 15 days of storage at 4◦ C. de
because of their biological safety and strong antioxidant Menezes et al. (2024) demonstrated the positive effects of
and antibacterial capabilities (D. Shi et al., 2024). Conse- TiO2 nanoparticles enriched coating on coating character-
quently, these extracts are increasingly gaining popularity istics and papaya fruit quality during 24 days of storage at
in ECF to potentially preserve F&V during storage. 15◦ C. Gemail et al. (2023) noticed the progressive effects
of silver nanoparticles incorporated in coated mandarin
fruit during the 4 month cold storage period. With regard
6.2 Nanoparticles-based ECF to reduce microbial spoilage, selenium nanoparticles
incorporated based coating was also reported as the most
Nanoparticles are being increasingly recognized for their fungicidal treatment for preventing green mold growth
potential to enhance the preservative action of ECF in F&V on citrus fruit (Salem et al., 2022). Besides, various other
industry. It has been reported that nanoparticles exhibit nanoparticles such as silica (W. Zhang, H. Ahari et al.,
antioxidant and antibacterial properties, improve gas 2023), copper oxide (Yan et al., 2023), zinc oxide (La et al.,
barrier properties in ECF, maintain physiochemical traits 2021), and zein (Garcia et al., 2022) were incorporated
of F&V, and alter permeability, potentially causing ROS in various ECF for postharvest quality preservation of
formation and microbial cell structural damage (Perumal several F&V including mango, banana, avocado, cherry,
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ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES 19 of 32

strawberry, loquat, jujube, and others. Interestingly, ECF respiratory intensity, oxidative stress, and higher TSS,
loaded with the above nanoparticles showed high surface TA, TPC, and antioxidant capacity. Furthermore, these
charge, excellent viscoelastic behavior, an entangled nanoemulsion-based coatings showed stronger antibacte-
matrix structure, improved hydrophobicity, and better rial or fungal activity, particularly against P. expansum, E.
gas barrier performance in coating layer characteristics, coli, A. niger, and L. monocytogenes, hence maintaining the
respectively. microbiological safety of F&V, respectively.

6.3 Nanoemulsion-based ECF 6.4 Bio-nanocomposite-based ECF

Nanoemulsions are blends of oil and water, or water and ECF based on bio-nanocomposites are considered next-
oil that can be used in ECF formulations to enhance their generation food packaging materials (Dubey et al., 2023),
properties and maintain the quality of F&V. According to and they comprise edible polymer substrates strengthened
Perez-Vazquez et al. (2023), the nanoemulsion mechanism with trace amounts (<10 weight%) of nanoscale compo-
in ECF is characterized by forming nanodroplets ranging nents, such as plant extracts, nanoparticles, and other
from 10 to 100 nm, which are then covered by a film or layer bioactive compounds (Hosseini et al., 2023). These ECF
of a biodegradable material. The nanoparticle size of these provide more innovative strategies for coating functions
droplets promotes bioavailability, chemical reactivity, and and F&V preservation than the single-agent coating phe-
surface area expansion, thus enhancing the functional- nomenon. In this context, C. Li et al. (2024) formulated a
ity of the encapsulated component. Notably, the optimum multifunctional bio-nanocomposite made principally from
approach for including essential oils into ECF also ren- chitosan, cellulose nanoparticles, and carvacrol as a con-
ders via nanoemulsion as this permits a minimum dose forming coating for banana and mango preservation. This
addition, resulting in no negative impact on F&V sensory coating improved antioxidant and antibacterial activities
qualities (Pandey et al., 2022). Two approaches are in prac- and enhanced E. coli (57.13%) and S. aureus (62.18%) inhi-
tice for developing nanoemulsion ECF: a one-step method bition rates. It also lowered oxygen (67%) and water vapor
that involves mixing all ingredients in a coarse solution permeability (46%), and prolonged the freshness and visual
and homogenizing the mixture to create nanometric-sized appeal of banana and mango fruit. In another research, Su
droplets, or a two-step method that involves first making et al. (2023) coated litchi fruit stored at 25 ± 1◦ C for 6 days
the aqueous solution of emulsion and then combining it with a green bio-nanocomposite that included chitosan,
with the biopolymer material (Perez-Vazquez et al., 2023). egg albumin, and carbon dots obtained from egg yolk. The
In recent years, several studies have used nanoemulsion- results showed that this coating with a volume ratio 5:5:1
based ECF to maintain F&V postharvest quality. For exam- exhibited good flexibility and antibacterial, antioxidant,
ple, Iqbal et al. (2024) revealed that a chitosan and clove oil and UV protection capabilities.
nanoemulsion coating improved the postharvest preserva- Moreover, coated litchi showed lower pericarp brown-
tion of strawberries for 20 days of storage. In another study, ing, weight loss, and reduced sugar content compared with
chitosan and carvacrol oil nanoemulsion coating main- control, while maintaining high vitamin C, total sugar,
tained the postharvest quality of guava fruit for 8 days of and sucrose content. Furthermore, a bio-nanocomposite
storage at 20◦ C (Shu et al., 2024). The nanoemulsion coat- coating was formed using arrowroot starch, cellulose
ings, made from water-chestnut starch and rosemary oil, nanocrystals, carnauba wax nanoemulsion, and essen-
also effectively preserved apple fruit for 120 days at 2–4◦ C tial oils from Cymbopogon martinii and Mentha spicata
(Bashir et al., 2023). Tabass et al. (2023) demonstrated the (referred to as CEO and MEO, respectively). The purpose
desired effects of alginate and oregano oil nanoemulsion of this study was to examine the physical, chemical, micro-
coating on fresh-cut papaya fruit during storage for 20 days bial, antioxidant, and aromatic properties of strawberries
at 4◦ C. during a 12-day period of refrigerated storage (de Oliveira
Furthermore, according to Das et al. (2022), CMC and Filho et al., 2022). In comparison with uncoated control
cardamon oil nanoemulsion coating was also found to be strawberries, these coatings enhanced the shelf life and
effective in preserving tomato fruit quality for 15 days at preservation of strawberries by reducing their weight loss,
25◦ C. It is worth noting that all of these nanoemulsion- as well as changes in color and texture, TA, pH, TSS,
formulated ECF were found to be effective in terms of anthocyanins, phenolics, ascorbic acid level, and antioxi-
both desired coating properties such as particle size, zeta dant properties. In addition, the coatings containing MEO
potential, whiteness index, pH, and stability, as well as and CEO showed antibacterial properties, reduced visible
postharvest quality parameters of F&V, including reduced fungal degradation, and reduced microbial load, including
weight loss, firmness loss, browning index, decay rate, Botrytis cinerea or R. stolonifera. Nevertheless, there have
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20 of 32 ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

been more recent developments in bio-nanocomposite understanding, the ECF industry, particularly its role in
ECF, such as egg protein-based nanocomposite coat- reducing postharvest losses by regulating quality parame-
ing with cellulose nanofibers and Nisin (B. Shi et al., ters in the F&V sector, has potential sustainability benefits
2024), chitosan-based coating with carnauba wax or rosin that align with at least seven SDGs. These include SDG 2
resin and zinc oxide nanoparticles dos Santos Junior (zero hunger), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG
et al. (2024), and gelatin-based coatings with red roselle 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 9 (indus-
extract, zinc oxide nanoparticles, and Litsea cubeba oil try, innovation, and infrastructure), SDG 12 (responsible
Pickering emulsion (Yang et al., 2023) to preserve the qual- consumption and production; subsection 12.3 focused on
ity of bananas, cherry tomatoes, mangoes, and passion halving food loss), SDG 13 (climate action), and SDG 15 (life
fruits during postharvest storage. Interestingly, the above on land).
bio-nanocomposite ECF were also reported as safe and eco- About SDG 2 and SDG 12 subsection 12.3, reducing
friendly approaches to maintain the quality and reduce FWL has been reported crucial for achieving SDGs 2 tar-
postharvest losses of F&V during storage. get (Karoney et al., 2024). It has been shown that around
one-third of global food production or approximately 1.3
billion tons is wasted annually, with F&V making up about
6.5 Multilayer methodology in ECF 45% of this loss, and reducing this loss could provide
food for over a billion hungry individuals (Romanazzi &
There are several advantages to using the functional
Moumni, 2022b; WFP USA, 2021). In this context, recent
multilayer coatings method instead of single-layer coat-
reports indicated that strategies like ECF can effectively
ings. These include enhanced barrier properties, increased
reduce postharvest losses and increase the shelf life of
mechanical strength, customized functionality, combined
F&V (Ngubane et al., 2024; Romanazzi & Moumni, 2022a;
effects, controlled release of additives, improved adhesion,
Sharma et al., 2024). Thus, implementing ECF approach
tailored customization for specific fruits, and enhanced
in F&V sector could significantly contribute to meeting the
aesthetic appeal. According to reports, the layer-by-layer
outlined SDG targets.
technique has been used to create multilayer coatings.
To achieve SDG 3, which aims to ensure healthy lives
This technique entails building multilayer coatings made
and promote well-being, consistent access to safe and
up of two or more layers, each at the nanometric scale,
nutritious food throughout the year is essential (Hendriks
by successfully adsorbing layers made with oppositely
et al., 2023). F&V are key components of healthy diets,
charged material solutions (Carrillo-Lomelí et al., 2024).
as highlighted by the US Dietary Guidelines, and offer
The effects of an active layer-by-layer edible coating con-
health benefits beyond basic nutrition, including anti-
taining CMC, sodium alginate, citric acid, and oxalic acid
inflammatory properties and potential protection against
on minimally processed pear fruit have been documented
chronic diseases (Wallace et al., 2020). However, being
by Magri et al. (2024). These effects include a delay in
perishable commodities, F&V deteriorate rapidly, compro-
browning, a reduction in protein degradation, and a retar-
mising the availability of essential nutrients to consumers
dation of senescence reactions over 10 days of storage at
and leading to nutrient scarcity. In this context, ECF appli-
2◦ C. Meanwhile, S. Ali, S. Ishtiaq et al. (2024) delayed the
cations are vital for preserving and even enhancing the
mango fruit ripening and softening stored for 20 days at
nutrients in F&V over extended periods (Cruz-Monterrosa
15◦ C by delaying the respiratory intensity, suppressing soft-
et al., 2023; Momin et al., 2021). This can enable consumers
ening enzymes, and lowering polysaccharides disassembly
to achieve higher nutrient intake from F&V, supporting
under the layer-by-layer coating of chitosan and CMC.
their health and well-being in alignment with SDG 3.
Similarly, quality regulating effects of multilayer edible
Regarding SDG 8 and SDG 9, the expanding market
coatings have been shown in various F&V such as tomato
of ECF offer job opportunities in production, research,
(Flores-López et al., 2023), strawberries (Adhikari et al.,
and development, as the industry is projected to grow
2023), and fresh-cut melon (Cice et al., 2024) respectively.
at an average rate of 6.8% annually until 2030 (Strait
Research; data retrieved in October 2024). This growth
will ultimately increase the demand for skilled profes-
7 SDGS AND SUSTAINABILITY
sionals in procurement, quality control, and distribution
MERITS OF ECF
sectors, thus boosting economic growth and promoting
The growth of the ECF industry and application of ECF decent work conditions as well. Furthermore, innova-
in the F&V sector can greatly contribute to achieving tions in ECF, such as adding natural antimicrobials or
several SDGs outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustain- antioxidants, can improve produce quality and aligns with
able Development (United Nations, 2024). Based on our consumer preferences for healthier products (Future Mar-
kets Inc., 2024). Additionally, ECF industry contribute to
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ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES 21 of 32

reducing plastic waste by providing a sustainable alter- strategies have also been reported previously. For exam-
native to traditional packaging, supporting the goals of ple, Tavassoli-Kafrani et al. (2022) identified shortcomings
sustainable industrialization and innovative packaging in the dipping application method of coating mango fruit.
technology (Perez-Vazquez et al., 2023). In short, the ECF Meanwhile, the electrospraying approach of applying ECF
industry not only enhances F&V preservation but also sup- has been advocated to better preserve coated F&V (Bah-
ports economic growth through job creation and drives mid et al., 2024). The sensory quality of coated F&V is
sustainable packaging innovation, thereby contributing to strongly impacted by the composition of the ECF mate-
SDG 8 and 9 targets. rial. Many ECF materials harm consumer acceptance and
Furthermore, the ECF industry plays a vital role in choice. For example, lipid-based coating materials induced
meeting the targets of SDG 13 and SDG 15 by reduc- undesired sensory characteristics in coated F&V, such as
ing spoilage of F&V, which is essential for minimizing waxy sensation, stale off-flavors, yellowish color, and opac-
food waste. As previously mentioned, around one-third ity (Yousuf et al., 2022). Furthermore, the incorporation
of food produced worldwide is wasted (Romanazzi & of essential oils or their nanoemulsions in ECF might
Moumni, 2022b). This waste significantly contributes to diminish coated F&V sensory properties and coating char-
greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions as it decomposes in acteristics due to their higher purity, lower binding ability
landfills (Sial et al., 2024). GHGs are known to be a major with fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, poor solubility, high
factor in climate change, as they trap heat in the atmo- volatility, intense aroma, and low stability (Perumal et al.,
sphere, thereby accelerating global warming (Wang et al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2022). ECF are also susceptible to
2022). This warming exacerbates the greenhouse effect, deterioration with aging, which results in food loss dur-
leading to further undesired alterations in the climate. In ing storage or cross-border trading. These factors, along
relation to SDG 15, rising temperatures and altered precip- with poor moisture barrier and gas exchange ratio caused
itation patterns lead to human health risks and negatively by the hydrophobic nature of most ECF materials, as well
impact ecosystems, agricultural productivity, and biodi- as poor temperature and relative humidity control, are
versity (EPA, 2024). In short, the ECF industry enhances significant challenges in the ECF industry. Regarding com-
the preservation of F&V while simultaneously reducing mercial scale challenges of ECF industry, Yaashikaa et al.
GHG emissions by minimizing their postharvest waste. (2023) highlighted that extracting the ECF’ compounds
This supports both controlled climate and biodiversity con- from natural sources is both expensive and prone to pro-
servation. To conclude, through improvements in F&V ducing inconsistent quality across batches, which limits
preservation, health, economic growth, innovation, and their commercial sustainability (Yaashikaa et al., 2023).
sustainable practices, ECF initiatives can serve as essential Moreover, the insolubility of various coating materials,
tools in achieving above outlined SDGs. Also, the integra- such as chitosan, poses another significant challenge. Chi-
tion of ECF technologies can further bolster worldwide tosan is soluble only in acidic conditions, typically using
efforts to establish an ecologically sustainable and safe 1–2% (v/v) acetic acid, which is also recognized for its pun-
food system. gent odor and flavor. The residues left by acetic acid can
compromise the organoleptic characteristics of the coated
products, and affecting consumer acceptance (Casalini
8 CHALLENGES, SAFETY, AND et al., 2024). Furthermore, ECF’ industrial stakeholders
LEGISLATION ASPECTS OF ECF encounter difficulties due to the incompatibility of diverse
coating materials with their processing techniques, par-
Using ECF on F&V provides various benefits, including ticularly during integrating multiple coating ingredients
increased shelf life, reduced deterioration, and improved (Galus et al., 2020). Resolving these challenges necessitates
overall quality. Nevertheless, their utilization also poses sustained research efforts and collaboration between aca-
several research, and commercial scale challenges, includ- demic researchers and industrial stakeholders in the realm
ing material selection, application strategies, industrial of edible coatings R&D, aimed at developing effective, safe,
production, consumer acceptability and health safety. and commercially viable formulations.
Mechanical strength, organoleptic qualities, and adhe- However, safety and legislation-related issues in the
sion abilities are critical for selecting coating materials to ECF industry are other critical challenges that need to
ensure coating features and product quality (Aaqil et al., be addressed in preference. The coating ingredients could
2024). As per our understanding, a single coating material raise health safety issues. For example, the migration of
cannot guarantee desired ECF properties, thus necessitat- nanoparticles into coated products is a major concern
ing the use of combined optimized coating materials along in nanocoatings since it can cause toxicity and affect
with a suitable crosslinking agent to create a desired coat- consumer health (Bhardwaj et al., 2023). Furthermore,
ing layer for each F&V. The challenges in ECF application Monteiro Fritz et al. (2019) raised significant concerns
 15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22 of 32 ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES

about excessive use of essential oils and plant extracts national Featured Standards, Global Standard for Food
as antimicrobial agents in ECF, noting that high concen- Safety, and Hazard Analysis and Identified Critical Control
trations of these compounds may interact with human Points principles are supposed to implement before reach-
cell membranes, potentially causing toxic effects similar ing the coated produce to international market (Ncama
to their action on microbial cells. Therefore, a detailed et al., 2018).
investigation of the biochemistry of ECF materials, their On the flip side, to overcome food safety and regulatory
interactions with coated products, their toxicity, and risk concerns, several commercially accessible fresh produce
assessment are recommended, especially aided with the coatings, such as Semperfresh™, FreshSeal™, Nature-
advances in omics technologies, that is, transcriptome, seal™, Fry shield, Nutri-save, Opta-Glaza, Z Coat, Tal
proteome, and metabolome monitoring the impact of food Prolong, Citrashine, Brilloshine, Natural Shine™ Series,
additive on human metabolism (Su et al., 2024). Interest- Shield-Brite* Series, PrimaFresh* Series, Sta-Fresh Series,
ingly, several ECF materials have the potential to elicit Ban-seel, Nu-coatFlo, Syncera series and so on, are devel-
allergic reactions in consumers and affect their health. oped and marketed by United Kingdom, and USA to cope
For example, ECF associated ingredients such as milk, the food safety and legislation concerns (Armghan Khalid
wheat, fish, soybeans, tree nuts, and peanuts have a great et al., 2022).
potential to induce allergen reactions. Thus, it is impor-
tant to accurately label coated F&V that include known
food allergens to combat the food safety issues (Peerzada 9 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE
Gh et al., 2023). Furthermore, the global legislations and PERSPECTIVES
policies on ECF for sustaining the postharvest quality of
F&V are advancing, reflecting an intensified focus on food The annual growth and R&D in ECF industry, aimed at
safety, environmental sustainability, and trade require- lowering postharvest losses in the F&V sector by regulat-
ments (Peerzada Gh et al., 2023; Perez-Vazquez et al., 2023). ing the quality of fresh and minimally processed produce,
Each country has distinct authorities or administrations has emerged as an important area of research with signif-
responsible for enforcing food legislation and policies to icant triumphs in recent years. Globally, ECF research on
ensure safe food system. For example, United States Food fresh produce has escalated since the last 2 decades, with
and Drug Administration (US FDA), European Food Safety most of its emergence in the previous 10 years. China and
Authority in European Union, National Health Commis- the USA ranked first in ECF research and collaboration.
sion and State Administration for Market Regulation in ECF were found to be effective in maintaining the posthar-
China, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, and vest quality of F&V by (i) delaying the increase in weight
Food Standards Australia New Zealand in Australia and loss and TSS, as well as lowering TA, (ii) slowing ripen-
New Zealand oversee the food contact materials, includ- ing and softening, (iii) maintaining sensory attributes, (iv)
ing edible coatings. Along with other regulatory agencies, alleviating CI and browning, and (v) suppressing micro-
the US FDA emphasizes that edible coatings applied to bial spoilage. The potential mode of action of ECF includes
the surfaces of F&V must be Generally Recognized as Safe the coating barrier properties among the environment
and labeled to promote transparency and consumer trust and produce surface along with the desired alterations
(FDA, 2018), and the main compounds used in these coat- in several physiological mechanisms in F&V. Advances
ings should generally be listed as permitted additives under in ECF include the incorporation of plant extracts and
European Regulation (EC) 1333/2008. (Paidari et al., 2021; nanoparticles, as well as the integration of nanoemulsion
Perez-Vazquez et al., 2023). However, failing to comply and bio-nanocomposite-based ECF, and multilayer coating
with such regulations can create challenges for commer- strategy. Notably, ECF initiatives in the F&V sector appear
cialization stakeholders and restrict their product market. to address multiple SDGs, such as SDG 2 (zero hunger),
For instance, in India, a significant number of consumers SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 8 (decent work
tend to avoid edible coatings that include animal-derived and economic growth), SDGs 9 (industry, innovation, and
waxes, such as oleic acid. Thus, to effectively market coated infrastructure), SDG 12 (responsible consumption and pro-
F&V in India, manufacturers or exporters must adhere to duction), SDG 13 (climate action), and SDG 15 (life on
regulations that require processors and retailers to inform land), all of which involve in establishing a safe and
customers about the presence of these waxes or coatings, environmentally friendly food system.
in accordance with US FDA regulations (Peerzada Gh In the future, ECF could be directly deposited onto the
et al., 2023). However, for export-driven countries where surface of F&V using 3D printing technology to produce
local legislative authorities are lacking, “combi-audits” a more accurate and consistent coating with a particu-
encompassing the standards determined by British Retail lar structure, texture, and nutritional value. Additionally,
Consortium, Food Safety System Certification 2200, Inter- R&D in ECF materials and application techniques are
 15414337, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.70103 by Florida State University, Wiley Online Library on [06/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ECF RESEARCH REDUCED F&V POSTHARVEST LOSSES 23 of 32

required to prevent nanoparticles from migrating into food C O N F L I C T O F I N T E R E S T S TAT E M E N T

systems, triggering of allergic reactions, and lowering their The authors declare no known conflicts of financial inter-
risk of toxicity and health problems. Certain coating mate- est or personal relationships influence the work reported
rials, such as lipid-based components and essential oils, in this paper.
can change the flavor, texture, or appearance of the coated
produce. These materials should be swapped out for other ORCID
edible ones, like seaweeds, algae, or extracts from medic- Zienab F. R. Ahmed https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0952-
inal plants. Furthermore, stability and durability in ECF 2203
materials must be increased to ensure their long-term pres-
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