BIO 001:
GENERAL BIOLOGY
CELL
by
Dr. KEHINDE BOLARINWA
Cell
A cell is a membrane-bounded unit that contains the DNA hereditary
machinery and cytoplasm. All organisms are cells or aggregates of cells.
CELL DISCOVERY
➢1591 the Dutch merchant Anton van Leewenhoek invented single lens microscope
➢1665 the English scientist Robert Hooke introduced the term “cell”
➢1835 Robert Brown discovered the Nucleus in the cell
➢The botanist Matthias Schleiden (in 1838) was the first to clearly state that all plants are made of
cells.
➢The zoologist Theodor Schwann (in 1839) was the first to clearly state that all animals are made
of cells.
❖The discovery of both German scientist lead to the postulation of the cell theory in 1839
➢The pathologist Rudolf Von Virchow (in 1855) was the first to identify that the nucleus controls
the cell activities and cell come from pre-existing cells.
The Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells, and the life
processes of metabolism and heredity occur within these cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living things, the basic units of organization
of all organisms.
3. Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell. Although
life likely evolved spontaneously in the environment of the early
earth, biologists have concluded that no additional cells are
originating spontaneously at present. Rather, life on earth
represents a continuous line of descent from those early cells.
NATURE OF THE CELL
• All cells share four common components
1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s
interior from its surrounding environment
2) Cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like cytosol within the cell in which
other cellular components are found
3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell
4) Ribosomes , which synthesize proteins
CELL
There are two fundamental type of cell
1. Prokaryotic Cell
No nucleus
No membrane bound organelle
They are relatively small in size
2. Eukaryotic Cell
They have true nucleus
They have a membrane bound organelle
They are larger than prokaryotic cell
CLASSIFICATION OF CELL
Cells are classify into six kingdom
✓Prokaryotic Classification
Eubacteria
Archae bacteria
✓Eukaryotic Classification
Protista
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia
PROPERTIES OF EUBACTERIA AND
ARCHAE BACTERIA
Both prokaryotes has no true nucleus
They both lack membrane bound organelle e.g. mitochondria and chloroplast
Reproduction is asexually by budding and fission
Extreme environment (high temperature)
They are relatively small in size
N.B: Cell wall of Eubacteria compose of PEPTIDOGLYCAN while cell wall
of archae bacteria has No PEPTIDOGLYCAN
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
Sizes
Some vital Components of Prokaryotic Cells
• Capsule; A thick polysaccharide layer outside of the cell wall. Used for sticking cells together,
as a food reserve, as protection against desiccation and chemicals, and as protection against
phagocytosis. In some species the capsules of many cells fuse together forming a mass of
sticky cells called a biofilm. Dental plaque is an example of a biofilm.
• Cell wall; Made of murein (not cellulose), which is a glycoprotein (i.e. a protein/carbohydrate
Complex, also called peptidoglycan).
• Plasma membrane; sometimes also called the "cell membrane" it is phospholipid bilayer. It is
flexible i.e. non-rigid.
• Cytoplasm; Prokaryote cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that consists mainly of water. In
general cytoplasm may also contain enzymes, salts, cell components and various organic
molecules.
• Flagellum; A rigid rotating helical-shaped tail used for propulsion. The motor is embedded in
the cell Membrane and is driven by an H+ gradient across the membrane. The bacterial
flagellum is quite different from the eukaryotic flagellum. The flagellum of a prokaryotic cell
does not "beat" but rotates about a "bearing" in the cell wall - resulting in a "corkscrew"
motion that drives the cell forwards as a propeller propels some ships forwards
Pili - a hair-like appendage many of which are present on the surface of
many bacteria. It is a protein rod that is sometimes called a proteinaceous
appendage. Pili help bacterial cells adhere to each other, to animal cells and
to inanimate objects. A single bacterium can have as many as 1,000 fimbriae.
Photosynthetic membranes; Photosynthetic membranes are surfaces on
which light-absorbing pigments are located. Bacteriochlorophylls are
photosynthetic pigments found in phototrophic bacteria.
Mesosomes; are structures of prokaryotic cells formed by folded
invaginations (sometimes described simply as "infoldings") of the plasma
membrane. Enzymes associated with respiration of the prokaryotic cell are
located on the infoldings. Not all prokaryotic cells have mesosomes.
Nuclear body (genetic material). The genetic material consists of a circular double-
stranded DNA which is not associated with proteins to form chromatin.
Plasmids; Plasmids are short pieces of circular DNA. Separate from the main DNA
loop. They replicate independently of the cell genome, and Used to exchange DNA
between bacterial cells, and also very useful for genetic engineering. Plasmids are not
present in eukaryotic cells.
Food Stores; The food stores in prokaryotic cells can be lipid globules or glycogen
granules.
Ribosomes; The ribosomes found in prokaryotic cells are much smaller than the ones in
eukaryotic cells. The (smaller) ribosomes in prokaryotic cells are the 70S type (50+30).
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
• Protista, fungi, plants and animals are all composed
of eukaryotic cells
• The hallmark of the eukaryotic cell is
compartmentalization
• Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bounded
organelles that carry out specialized functions
A generalized diagram of an animal cell.
A generalized diagram of a plant cell.
Functions of Eukaryotic organelles
Cell wall ; Plant cells have cell walls .
• The basic functions of plant cell walls are mechanical.
• Plant cell walls form part of a transport system known as apoplast system
through which water and some solutes can pass through plant tissue using
apoplastic pathways (along / through cell walls) and symplastic pathways (i.e.
via the cytoplasm of a series of adjacent cells).
Plasma membrane (also called the plasmalemma or the cell surface membrane)
Functions:
i. Act as differentially-permeable surface, it controls movement of solutes in and out of the cell.
ii. It synthesize and assemble cell wall components in plants
iii. The cell membrane maintains the physical integrity of the cell. Especially in animal cells
(because they do not have cell walls) .
iv. The cell membrane forms a barrier between the inside of the cell and the environment outside
the cell
v. The cell membrane physically separates the intracellular components (e.g. organelles in
eukaryotic cells) from the extracellular environment.
vi. Cell membranes can allow active transport of specific molecules across the cell membrane in
either direction, i.e. either into or out of the cell.
vii.The cell membrane protects the cell from some harmful chemicals in its external environment
viii.In many cases the cell membrane also helps to hold the cytoskeleton
ix. It helps in bulk transport (exocytosis and endocytosis).
x. It serves as makers and helps in signaling.
xi. It partakes in Metabolic Activities.
Plasmodesmata
They are tiny strands of cytoplasm that pass through pores in plant cell walls, forming
"connections" or "pathways" between adjacent cells. They specifically form the symplast
pathway for the movement of water and solutes through plant structures. These cell-cell
connections are especially important for the survival of plant cells during conditions of
drought
Cytoplasm
It is the part of a plant cell that includes all the contents within the cell membrane but
outside of the nucleus of the cell. It therefore includes the cytosol (i.e. the semi-fluid part
of a cell's cytoplasm) as well as the plant cell organelles .Also located within the
cytoplasm is the cytoskeleton, which is a network of fibres whose function is to provide
mechanical support to the cell, including helping to maintain the cell's shape. The
cytoplasm therefore consists mainly of water and contains enzymes, salts, organelles, and
various organic molecules. The cytoplasm helps to move materials around the cell and
also dissolves cellular waste.
Vacuole
Each vacuole is enclosed by a vacuolar membrane called the tonoplast
Content of vacuole
• Cell sap, which is a solution of salts, sugars and organic acids.
• Enzymes needed for recycling components of cells, e.g. chloroplast.
• Anthocyanins are sometimes present in cell vacuoles. These are chemical pigments
responsible for some of the (non-green) colours of glowers, e.g. reds, blues, purples.
Functions:
It maintain turgor pressure (turgidity) inside the cell. This pressure pushes the plasma
membrane against the cell wall. Plants need turgidity to maintain rigidity.
Nucleus
Nucleus is the "control center" of a eukaryotic cell (i.e. plant cells
and animal cells). The nucleus controls the activity of the cell by
regulating protein synthesis within the cell. The nucleus also
contain genetic material and a nucleolus.
✓ Nucleolus
The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the site of
synthesis of: Transfer RNA, Ribosomal RNA and ribosomal
subunits
Nuclear Membrane
The nuclear membrane is also called the nuclear envelope and encloses the contents of the
nucleus of the cell - separating the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cell. Nuclear
pores in the nuclear membrane enable various substances, such as nutrients and waste
products, to pass into and out of the nucleus.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough endoplasmic reticulum contain some ribosome specific transmembrane glycoprotein
called robophorins I and II which help in attachment of ribosomes. It is the site of protein
synthesis (which takes place within the ribosomes attached to the surface of the RER) as well
as storage of proteins and preparation for secretion of those proteins. RER also synthesize
membrane proteins and glycoproteins which are inserted into the rough endoplasmic reticulum
membranes, thus endoplasmic reticulum is the site of biogenesis of cellular membranes.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Is the site of lipid synthesis and secretion within cells, glycogenolysis and drug detoxification.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondria
Are structures found in both plant and animal cells. They are bounded by double
membranes, the inner of which is folded inwards, forming projections (called cristae).
The mitochondria matrix contain lipids, proteins, circular DNA molecule (mtDNA) and
55S ribosomes (mitoribosomes). They are considered semi autonomous organelle
because they can synthesize 10% of their proteins.
Function of mitochondria is energy production. Mitochondria contain enzyme systems
needed to synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by oxidative phosphorylation. Also,
the inner membrane contain F1 particles meant for ATP synthesis The quantity of
mitochondria within cells varies with the type of cell. In the case of plant cells,
mitochondria may be particularly abundant in sieve tube cells, root epidermal cells and
dividing meristematic cells.
Chloroplasts
They are the sites of photosynthesis within plant cells. They are very important parts of
plant cells. The number of chloroplasts per cell varies according to the type of cell and its
function. They are plentiful in leaf cells that receive sunlight - as opposed to root cells
that do not receive light. They comprise of two envelopes, outer and inner. There occurs a
third system of membranes within inner membrane called grana which is the main
functional unit of the chloroplast. The grana is bathed in homogenous matrix called the
stroma. Stroma contains a variety of photosynthetic enzymes.
Chloroplasts are a type of plastid. There are also other types of plastids (not all of which
are present in all plant cells but all of which are derived from proplastids). Others are
chromoplast (phaeoplast and rhodoplast) Leucoplast (amyloplast, elaioplast and
proteinoplast). All plastids contain small genome (DNA) and 70S ribosomes.
Golgi Body
It consist of at least three distinct classes of cisternae: cis Golgi, median
Golgi and trans Golgi, each has distinct enzymatic activities.
Golgi body performs the following functions:
i. Packaging of secretory materials, such as enzymes, mucin, melanin
pigment etc.
ii.The processing of proteins i.e phosphorylation, glycosylation,
sulphation and selective proteolysis
iii.Synthesis of certain polysaccharide and glycolipids
iv.Sorting of proteins destined for various locations in the cell
v. Proliferation of membranous element for the plasma membrane
vi.Formation of acrosome of sperms
Ribosomes
Ribosomes can either be "free" or "membrane-bound". They take part in the
synthesis of some proteins by catalyzing the formation of those proteins from
individual amino acids (using messenger RNA as a template). Examples of
proteins catalyzed by ribosomes include glycoproteins, lysosome proteins,
membrane proteins and some organelle proteins.
Ribosomes have sedimentation coefficient of about 80S comprising of two
subunits called 40S and 60S. The smaller 40S subunit contain one molecule of
18S rRNA and 30 proteins (named as S1, S2, S3 to S30). S= Svedbergs
The larger 60S ribosomal subunit contains three types of rRNA molecules
(28SrRNA, 5.8SrRNA, and 5SrRNA) and 40 proteins (named as L1, L2, L3 to
L40).
Lysosomes
They originate from golgi bodies and contain numerous hydrolytic
enzymes. There are four types
• Primary lysosomes (storage granules)
• Secondary lysosomes (digestive vacuoles)
• Residual bodies
• Autophagic vacuoles
Lysosomes have high acidic medium of pH 5, they digest materials
taken in by endocytosis. And can also digest the cell or worn-out
cells (autophagy).
Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their Functions
Levels of Organization
The levels of biological organization in order
from smallest to largest are:
atom → molecule → macromolecule →
organelle → cell → tissue → organ → organ
system → whole organism.
Tissues
Groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function.
4 major tissue types in animals
➢Epithelial tissue
➢Connective tissue
➢Muscle tissue
➢Nervous tissue
Plant Tissues
➢Vascular tissue
➢Dermal tissue
➢Ground tissue
➢Meristematic tissue
Organs
structures made of different types of tissues that work together to perform a
specific function.
• Examples
• Heart
• Lungs
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Liver
• Large Intestine
• Gall Bladder
• Plant Roots
• Plant Stems
• Plant Leaves
Organ Systems
Groups of organs that work together to perform a specific function.
• Examples:
• Digestive system
• Circulatory system
• Respiratory system
• Nervous system
• Muscular system
• Skeletal system
• Integumentary system (skin)
• Vascular system in plants
Organism
A complete, individual living thing.
• Examples:
•A single person
•A single plant
•A single bacterium
•A single protist
Forms in which Cells Exist
• Independent / free living – only posses one cell
• Filament – joining of identical cells end to end. Spirogyra, Zygnema,
Oscillatoria and Oedogonium
• Colony – similar cells joined together, cannot be differentiated from each
other. Volvox
• Part of living organism- A group of cells form tissue, a group of tissues
form organ, a group of organs form system, living organisms are made up
of systems
The simplest living multicellular organisms
• sponges, are made of many specialized types of cells that work together for a
common goal. Such cell types include digestive cells, tubular pore cells, and
epidermal cells. Though the different cell types create a large, organized,
multicellular structure — the visible sponge — they are not organized into
true interconnected tissues. If a sponge is broken up by passing it through a
sieve, the sponge will reform on the other side. However, if the sponge’s
cells are separated from each other, the individual cell types cannot survive
alone
Structure Description
Cell structure that is specialised to carry out a
Organelle
particular function or job
Basic structural and functional unit of a living
Cell
organism
Group of cells with similar structures, working
Tissue
together to perform a shared function
Structure made up of a group of tissues, working
Organ
together to perform specific functions
Group of organs with related functions, working
Organ system
together to perform body functions
METABOLISM
➢ Metabolism is a set of processes performed by living beings that allow them to interchange
matter and energy with their environment.
➢ Therefore, metabolism is a set of processes used by living beings for maintaining their
structure and molecular organization in a cuasi-stable state.
➢ Metabolism consists of two basic types of interdependent phases, the phase in which the
energy is freed and the phase in which energy is captured.
METABOLISM CONTD’
➢ The phase that consists of the disintegration of complex organic compound to release energy is known as
catabolism, whereas the phase that consists of the arrangement of organic compounds from simpler
compounds to store energy is called anabolism.
➢ Carbohydrates constitute the main source of energy for all living beings. Lipids are the second source of
energy, which could be used when the primary source is exhausted or independently of the exhaustion of
the primary source of energy. Proteins would be the ultimate organic compounds to which the cells
would resort like an energy source because most proteins function to regulate processes and/or to form
structures.
➢ When an organism is compelled to make use of its proteins, it could be suffering from undernourishment.
