MOOC for SWAYAM Platform ( www.swayam.gov.

in )
Module-1
Introduction to Buddhist Tourism

Component-I (A): Personal Details

Chief Coordinator Ven. Prof. (Dr.) Vice Chancellor (Addl.

Wangchuk Dorjee Charge)
Negi Central University of Tibetan
Studies, Sarnath (Varanasi)
Course Coordinator Dr. Shrikant Ganvir Assistant Professor, Dept. of
Ancient Indian History,
Culture and Archaeology,
Deccan College Post-Graduate
and Research Institute
(Deemed to be University),
Pune.
Course Co- Prof. Pradeep P. Adjunct Professor, Department
coordinator Gokhale of Pali and Buddhist Studies,
Savitribai Phule Pune
University, Pune
Content Writer Dr. Shrikant Ganvir Assistant Professor, Dept. of
Ancient Indian History, Culture
and Archaeology, Deccan
College Post-Graduate and
Research Institute (Deemed to
be University), Pune.
Content Reviewer Prof. Anand Singh Department of History,
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar
Central University, Lucknow

Component-I (B): Description of Module

Course Name Buddhist Tourism

Module Name/ Title Introduction to Buddhist Tourism
Module Id Module No. 1
Prerequisites Basic understanding of Heritages, monuments,
tourism, Buddhism
Objectives ✓ Introduction to Buddhist pilgrimage sites
✓ Basic introduction to architectural typology
✓ Distribution of Buddhist sites
✓ Understanding course outline
 Keywords Buddhist Tourism, aṣṭamahāsthānas, vihāra, stūpa,
caityagṛha, etc.

Component-II: E-Text of the Module (Quadrant-I)

1. Introduction
Heritage tourism is one of the important sub-branches of tourism. In recent years, it has gained
immense popularity in the society. Growing attraction towards visiting cultural heritage has
further led to the development of large scope in the field of cultural heritage tourism. Heritage
tourism not only plays a significant role to thrive economy but also establishes a strong bond
of cultural interaction among the citizens of different countries.
India is blessed with a rich legacy of diverse cultural heritage representing different
religious traditions and faiths. Among these religious traditions, Buddhism occupies a
remarkable place having an antiquity of more than 2500 years. In the span of around 2500
years, Buddhism flourished outside of India including South Asian, South-East Asian and East
Asian countries. This is one of the major reasons for the growing attraction and fascination to
visit Buddhist heritage sites of India including the eight important sites associated with the
Buddha’s life i.e., aṣṭamahāsthānas. But, interestingly, visit to Buddhist heritage sites has not
only been confined to the sacred Buddhist sites but also many of the Buddhist heritage sites
attracted international tourists such as Ajanta, Ellora, and Sanchi, to name a few. In the last
two–three decades, the domain of Buddhist heritage tourism has been continuously expanding
which has also widened substantial scope for the development of infrastructure and also
awareness regarding preservation of heritage sites.
The sixth century BCE was one of the most outstanding centuries in Indian history
which witnessed a series of historic events. This primarily includes the emergence of the
Śramaṇic religious movement from which new religions such as Jainism and Buddhism
evolved. The rise of second urbanization in the sixth century BCE played a vital role in making
an advanced society in various aspects such as political, economic, cultural, etc.
Buddhism is one of the most prominent Śramaṇic religions, which was established by
the Buddha, who was formerly known as Siddhartha Gautam, a prince of the Śākya gaṇarājya.
The Śākyas were ruling over the Tarai region of Nepal. Buddhism gained immense popularity
during the lifetime of the Buddha itself. The principles of dhamma, taught by the Buddha
attracted the people owing to its non-complexity and ethical nature. The notable features of the
Buddha’s teaching predominantly include an emphasis on the observance of moral principles,
the establishment of a monastic organization of religious preachers, the absence of complex
religious rites and rituals and admission into monastic organizations as well as the lay
community for all irrespective of social status or gender.
Buddhism, during the time of the Buddha itself, had received both- royal as well as
community patronage resulting in a widespread propagation chiefly in the Northern and
Eastern regions of ancient India. As mentioned earlier, patronage was one of the key factors for
the dissemination of Buddhism since the Buddha’s time. During the third century BCE, the
Mauryan Emperor Aśoka sent missionary monks to the different regions of (ancient) India and
outside of India, which fostered the spread of Buddhism especially in South Asian and South-
East Asian countries. Although the religio-cultural tradition of constructing vihāras
(monasteries- residential places for the members of monastic organizations), and stūpas (a
memorial constructed over the relics of the Buddha or his disciples) was initiated during the
time of Buddha.
The Mauryan emperor Aśoka was primarily credited for the enormous development of
the establishment of Buddhist monuments across the region of South Asia. This was a
breakthrough in the cultural history of Buddhism, which not only connected people across
entire South Asia but also played a vital role in the preservation of Buddhist values. Since the
time of King Aśoka, the religious and cultural movements of the establishment of Buddhist
centres and religious structures continued for many centuries. The Kuṣāṇas, Sātavāhanas,
̄ us, Maitrakas, Puṣ yabhut̄is and Pal̄as were a few notable dynasties/ political powers who
Ikṣvak
either patronized Buddhism or freely supported the establishment of Buddhist monuments.

2. Buddhist Monuments
Buddhist monuments and images constitute an integral part of Indian culture, which bear
testimony to the glorious saga of ancient Buddhism. Archaeological sources consisting of art-
historical and architectural remains, and textual sources provide seminal information to
comprehend the religious and cultural traditions of early Buddhism and its dissemination in the
Indian subcontinent and also shed light on contemporary religious practices and rituals.
2.1 Distribution of Buddhist Sites:
A study of various aspects of Buddhist monastic sites leads to categorising into sites on the
basis of their distribution pattern as follows:
1. Sites associated with the life of Buddha: This primarily includes eight Buddhist sites
related to four important events from the life of Buddha: Lumbinī (where Siddhartha
 Gautama was born), Bodhgayā (Siddhartha Gautama attained enlightenment and
became the Buddha), Sārnāth (where Buddha delivered his first sermon known as
Dhammacakkapavattana sutta) and Kuśī nagar (where Buddha attained
Mahāparinibbāna), and four sites associated with the performance of miraculous
events by the Buddha: Śrā vasti Sankisa, Rājagṛha and Vaisáli.̄
2. The second group includes Buddhist sites which gained importance due to strategic
location or due to royal patronage. In this context, the best example is Sanchi. Sanchi
received a significant place as it received patronage during the Mauryan period and also
it was located strategically. Julia Shaw has identified Buddhist monastic sites located
on the hills as hill-top monasteries. In the region of central India as well as in the eastern
Deccan, we find the presence of structural remains on the top of hills. Sites such as
Satdhara, Sonari, Andher are examples of hill-top Buddhist monastic sites. In the
eastern region too, we encounter sites located on hills such as Salihundam, Sankaram,
Thotlakonda, Phanigiri, etc.
3. The third group includes Buddhist sites situated on ancient trade routes and important
urban centres. Most of the Buddhist rock-cut cave sites are located on ancient trade
routes, for example, Bhaja, and Pitalkhora; urban centres like Junnar, and Nashik al so
emerged as Buddhist monastic centres.
The landscape played a vital role in the establishment of Buddhist monastic sites and
transforming them into Buddhist sacred centres or pilgrimage centres. Ancient trade routes also
played a crucial role in the making or establishing of Buddhist sites. The donative inscriptions
found in Buddhist monuments bear testimony to the seminal role of the traders/merchants in
the making of these sites. Patronage has been considered one of the most significant factors in
the dissemination of Buddhism since its inception. The epigraphic records confirm/attest that
not only royal patronage but also collective/community patronage were equally crucial/seminal
in the spread of Buddhism and the establishment of Buddhist sites and their management.

3. Outline of the Course

In the 1st credit, we will discuss the sacred sites related to the life of Buddha: Lumbinī
- where Siddhārtha Gautam was born, Bodhgayā- where he attained enlightenment, Sārnath-
where the Buddha delivered his first sermon called Dhammachakkapavattan Sutta and lastly,
Kuśīnagar- where the Buddha attained mahāparinibbāna. During the time of Mauryan King
Aśoka, Buddhism received royal patronage as a result of which Buddhism not only
disseminated in India but also crossed the boundaries of ancient India.
 The next three credits will throw light on the Buddhist heritage sites of India, spread in
different geographical regions as well as modern Buddhist tourist sites. In credit 2, we will
study the Buddhist Heritage Sites of Northern, Eastern and North-Eastern India. We will
undertake a virtual journey of the ancient Buddhist University of Vikramśilā, the grand
Buddhist stūpa at Kesariya, the Buddhist Heritage Triangle of Ratnagiri-Udaygiri-Lalitgiri and
other important sites.
Credit 3 is devoted to the study of the Buddhist Heritage Sites of Central and Western
India. The World Heritage Sites such as Sanchi, Ajanta and Ellora, in these regions have been
major points of attraction for international tourists. Besides a virtual journey to these sites in
this credit, we will also be discussing other important Buddhist sites from these regions such
as Sirpur, Junnar, Karle, Bhaja, Kanheri, Pitalkhora, and the recently excavated Buddhist site
of Vadnagar in Gujarat.
The 4th credit will shed light on Buddhist Heritage sites of South India and modern
Buddhist tourist sites. You will be virtually visiting and understanding important Buddhist sites
such as Amaravati, Nā garjunakoṇ ḍā, Guntapalli, Salihundam, Phanigiri. The 20th century
witnessed the revival of Buddhism in India. So, in the 4th credit, we are also going to study
Modern Buddhist Sites such as Deekshabhoomi at Nagpur, Dharamshala and Global Vipassana
Pagoda in Mumbai.
The course aims to provide an outline of Buddhist Heritage Sites in India. The course
focuses on sites in India. Though, the only exception is made in the case of Lumbinī . Lumbinī ,
though it belongs to Nepal, is included because it is Buddha’s birthplace, and it is easy to
approach from India.
4. Introduction to Buddhist Art and Architecture
It is necessary to have a brief introduction of the typology of Buddhist monuments and their
genesis and development through the ages and historical significance. Equally important is to
understand the process of the historical evolution of Buddhist symbols, Buddha images and
Buddhist deities and their relevance in Buddhist culture.
4.1. Structural Architecture
4.1.1. Stū pa
Stū pa is a commemorative monument, erected over sacred relics of the Buddha and his
disciples. The pre-Buddhist practice of constructing stū pas had attained wide acceptance in the
Buddhist tradition as a mode of veneration to the Buddha. In the Mahā parinibbā na Sutta, the
Buddha stated that stū pas should be erected over his and his disciples’ corporeal remains.
Stū pas on the sacred relics of Buddha were erected at eight places including Kusinārā, Vaiśā lī,
Kapilvastu and Rā jagrḥ a. The Buddhist stū pas are broadly classified into four categories: 1)
Ś ā rī rika stū pas are erected over the relics of the Buddha and Buddhist teachers, 2) Pā ribhogika
stū pas were constructed over belongings of the Buddha,3) Uddesíka stū pas were
commemorative of the events from the Buddha’s life and 4) Votive stū pas were erected by
pilgrims at sacred sites for attaining merit. A stū pa consists of a platform, hemispherical dome,
and squarish enclosure on the top with superimposed umbrellas and it is generally enclosed by
a railing and sometimes provided with a gateway. The stū pas of north and central India are
massive hemispherical structures, whereas the stū pas of south India are comparatively small in
size and constructed on a wheel-shaped pattern. Noteworthy Buddhist stū pas are located at
Sanchi, Sārnāth, Vaiśā lī, Amaravati, Nā gārjunakoṇḍa,̄ Kanaganahalli and Kesariya.
4.1.2. Vihā ra
Vihā ra (monastery) is an essential constituent of a Buddhist monastic establishment used for
residential purposes. The Buddha advised monks and nuns to stay in one place during the
monsoon, which necessitated the construction of monastic establishments. Early structural
monasteries were established at Rā jagrḥ a, Śrā vastī, Kauśā mbī , Vaiśā lī during the lifetime of
the Buddha. Structural vihā ras were generally squarish on a plan, with a central courtyard open
to the sky for ventilation having cells mostly on all the sides with an entrance at the front. They
also consisted of different structures such as upatṭḥ ā na-sā lā s (assembly halls), kappiya-kutịs
(storehouses), caṅ kama-sā lā s (rooms with walkway) etc. Early rock-cut vihā ras are of simple
plan having cells on either side of the cave. Later on, catuḥś ā la plan of the vihā ra caves was
developed, wherein a vihā ra consisted of a squarish hall with cells on three sides of the hall
except at the front with a verandah.
4.1.3. Caityagrhas
Caityagrhas, also mentioned as cetiyaghara in the epigraphic records, is a prayer hall meant
for the veneration of the Buddha. Buddhist textual sources mention caityas associated with the
worship of yakṣas and yakṣinị̄ s. It is generally apsidal on a plan with a stū pa or an image of the
Buddha in the curved end at the back. An arrangement of circumambulatory paths is an
important feature of the Buddhist caityagrhas. Besides the prevalent apsidal form, circular and
rectangular forms of caityagrhas are also noticed in Buddhist rock-cut and structural
architecture. In early caityagrhas, stū pa is a principal object of veneration, which has been
replaced by an image of the Buddha in the later period.
4.2. Rock-cut Buddhist monasteries
The excavation of Buddhist rock-cut caves commenced in Western India in the third-second
century BCE and continued till the ninth-tenth century CE. Buddhist caves were excavated
primarily for the accommodation of Buddhist saṅ gha during a rainy retreat (vassā vā sa). The
Buddhist rock-cut monuments are classified based on their plans which vary according to their
functions. These types include two important types i.e., caityagṛha (prayer hall) and vihā ra
(monastery) along with other types viz., maṇḍapa (congregation hall), nirvā na vī thi (memorial
stūpa gallery) and dhyāna kakṣa (meditation chambers).
Caitya is the abode of veneration of the Buddha. It is generally apsidal in plan with a
stūpa in the curved end at the back. Stūpa is the principal object of worship. Caitya is generally
divided into a central nave and side aisles with a row of pillars. The façade of caitya is provided
with a huge caitya arch which enables light to enter the hall. Besides religious significance, the
stūpa in caitya also serves as an important place in Buddhist meditation, as it represents the
master-the Buddha. Besides the widely seen apsidal form of caityagrh a, circular and
rectangular forms are also noticed in Buddhist caves of western India.
Vihā ra is an essential constituent of a Buddhist monastic establishment that serves
residential purposes. Although the architectural pattern of rock-cut monasteries was not
uniform in the Buddhist caves, the plan of the monasteries provides an outline of architectural
development. Early vihā ras are simple in plan having cells on either side of the cave. Later on,
catuhś āla (a rectangular structure having four rooms) plan of the vihā ra caves was developed,
wherein a vihā ra consisted of a squarish hall with cells on three sides of the hall except at the
front with a verandah.
Maṇdapa is a type of Buddhist cave found in Western India, which has been identified
on the basis of epigraphic evidence. Maṇdapa is mostly square in plan with or without a long-
running bench on three sides of the cave. These caves were excavated for religious meetings
especially, the fortnightly uposatha ceremony. The inscriptions refer to these caves as
upaṭṭhā na-sā lā .
Nirvāna vīthi is a memorial stūpa gallery wherein stūpas are either excavated or
constructed in memory of revered Buddhist monks. It is usually irregular in shape comprising
a series of stūpas excavated during different periods. These stūpas have sockets to preserve the
relics of monks. The inscriptional records from Kanheri, a Buddhist monastic site provides
pertinent information that such stūpas were erected in memory of learned monks. Early
Buddhist cave sites are located at Bhaja, Thanale, Junnar, Kondane, Bedsa, Pitalkhora, Nashik,
Karle, and Kanheri in Maharashtra.
A significant transformation occurred in Buddhist rock-cut architecture from the second
century CE onwards till the late third century CE, which gave rise to caitya-cum-vihā ra,
combining two different architectural models i.e., caitya and vihā ra in a single type. Buddhist
caves of this type are located at Kuda, Mahad, Shelarwadi, and Karad.
4.3. Buddhist symbols
The Buddha was predominately venerated in the aniconic form from the early period till the
first-second centuries of the Common Era. These symbols not only preserve the memories of
historic events from the life of the Buddha but also bear philosophical meanings. Symbols such
as stụ̄pa, bodhi-tree, diamond throne (vajrạ̄sana), triple gems (triratna), the wheel of Dhamma,
(dhammacakra) the footprints of the Buddha (buddhapada), lotus (padma), elephant, horse,
vase of plenty, (pū rnaghatạ ) etc., were prevalent in the early Buddhist visual imagery. Among
these symbols, the lotus, bodhi tree and diamond throne, the wheel of Dhamma, and stū pa
represent the birth, enlightenment, the first sermon and Mahā parinibbā na of the Buddha
respectively. During the early period, the Buddha has been portrayed in symbolic form.
The major transformation could be witnessed in Buddhist rituals and religious practices
from the fourth-fifth centuries CE. It seems that the advent of numerous Buddhist sects and the
impact of contemporary religious practices brought out this transformation. The Buddhist
imagery of the late period was marked by the presence of numerous Buddhist deities. The
Buddhist architecture of the late period also exhibits modification in the architectural pattern.
4.4. Origin of Buddha image
During the early Buddhist phase, the Buddha was venerated in a symbolic form. From the first-
second century CE onwards, the Buddha was worshipped in iconic form after the rise of
Mahā yā na sect. The Mahā sā ṅ ghikas played an imperative role in the genesis of the Buddha
imagery. Scholars have diverse opinions about the theories of Gandhā ra or Mathurā origin of
the Buddha image. However, archaeological evidence confirms that the Buddha image was
introduced in Gandhā ra and Mathurā regions during the early centuries of the Common era. A
study of the early Buddha imagery attests to the influence of yaksa sculptures on Buddha
images. Early Buddha imagery is highly inspired by the concept of 32 mahạ̄purusa-laksanas
and artisans were successful in portraying many of the mahā purusạ -laksạ nas in a Buddha
image. Seated or standing Buddha images widely started exhibiting different mudrā s (gestures)
such as dharmacakrapravartana (teaching), dhyā na (meditation), bhū misparś a (earth-
touching), abhaya (protection), and varada (boon-giving) mudrā . Buddha images of the
Mathurā school, made of a fine variety of red sandstone, exhibit combined expressions of an
ideal of an emperor and an ascetic. On the other hand, Buddha images of the Gandhā ra school,
made of schist stone, display an influence of Greco-Roman art, representing the predominance
of the royal aspect. Buddha images of the post-fifth century CE are known for their
representation of regional features.
4.5. The imagery of Buddhist deities
The advent of Vajrayā na brought about an immense transformation in Buddhist rituals and a
schema of Buddhist deities. The five aggregates (pañca skandhas) were given
anthropomorphic forms and deified into Vajrayā na as five Buddhas (pañca tathā gatas) thus
giving rise to polytheistic Buddhism. However, the five Buddhas are said to have emerged from
Ā di-Buddha or Vajradhara, the primordial Buddha, the embodiment of ultimate reality (Ś unya).
The sculptures of pañca tathā gatas, Past Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and Buddhist goddesses were
profusely depicted in the Buddhist visual imagery from the sixth-seventh century CE onwards.
Bodhisattvas emerged as the saviour deities protecting the laity from the miserable world by
their virtue of compassion (karunạ̄ ). Among the Bodhisattvas, the most prominent was
Avalokiteśvara, whose different iconographic forms and images were abundantly seen in the
Buddhist art of early medieval India. Bodhisattva Maitreya, also known as future Buddha, had
been depicted in Buddhist art since the first-second century CE, more prominently in Gandhā ra
region. Among Buddhist goddesses, the most notable was Tā rā , who with her wisdom and
compassion was shown as helping the laity to come out from miseries.
4.6. Mahā vihā ra
Mahā vihā ra was a Buddhist monastic establishment, engaged in educational activities, and
dissemination of Buddhist teaching and philosophy. In the early period, Buddhist monasteries
were engaged in the propagation of Buddha’s teaching, but from the fifth-sixth century CE
onwards, a major shift could be seen in the functioning of Buddhist monastic establishments.
These establishments were now engaged in educational activities in an organised way to spread
Buddhist teaching under the royal patronage of dynasties such as the Guptas, Pusỵ abhū tis and
Pā las. Students not only from the Indian subcontinent but also from South-East Asian and East
Asian countries got admitted to this Mahā vihā ra. The archaeological remains of Nā landā
Mahā vihā ra are testimony of its magnificence in the early medieval period. Other significant
Mahā vihā ras were located at Vikramśilā , Odantapuri, Krṣ ṇạ giri (̣ Kanheri), etc.
This module has presented a brief outline of Buddhist art and architecture ‒‒ its genesis
and development to understand its history as well as multiple perspectives of Buddhist heritage
sites.

Component-III: Bibliography
Dhavalikar, M. K 2004. Satavahana Art. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House.
Huntington, Susan. 1985. The Art of Ancient India. New York and Tokyo: Weather Hill.
Mitra, Debala. 1971. Buddhist Monuments. Calcutta: Sahitya Samsad.

Shaw, Julia. 2007. Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of
Religious and Social Change, c. 3rd century BC to 5th century AD. London: British
Association for South Asian Studies/Leftcoast Press.
Singh, Rana P. B. 2004. The Wheel and Its Track: A Companion to the Buddhist Places of
India. Varanasi: Indica Books.

Component- IV: Additional Readings

Alone, Y.S. 2015. Buddhist Caves of Western India: Forms and Patronage. New Delhi: Kaveri
Books.
Bapat, P. V. (ed.). 1997. 2500 Years of Buddhism. Delhi: Publication Division, Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting.
Dutt, Sukumar. 1962. Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India. London: George Allen and
Unwin.
Sarkar, H. 1966. Studies in Early Buddhist Architecture. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Pvt. Ltd.
Sekhar, Sasi. 2006. The Wheel and Its Track: A History of Buddhism in Early Andhra.
Rajahmundry: Mokkapati Subbarayudu.