Chapter 2

Differentiation

2.1 The First Principle

y = f (x)
Q

P
h R

M N x

Figure 2.1: Graph of y = f (x)

The above figure shows the graph of a general function y = f (x). M and N are points (a, 0)
and (a + h, 0) respectively. P and Q are the points on the curve given by x = a and x = a + h.
So M P = f (a) and N Q = f (a + h). It can be observed that

RQ = N Q − N R
= NQ − MP
= f (a + h) − f (a)

The gradient of
RQ
PQ =
PR
f (a + h) − f (a)
=
h

15
16 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

Hence, the gradient at

f (a + h) − f (a)
P = lim .
h→0 h
Thus, the gradient of the function f (x) at any point on the curve is given by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim .
h→0 h
f ′ (x) is called the derived function of f (x), and this method used in obtaining f ′ (x) is generally
known as the first principle.

Example 2.1.1. Use the first principle method to find f ′ (x) given that

(a) f (x) = x

(b) f (x) = 2x2

x
(c) f (x) =
x+1
Solution.

(a) Here, f (x) = x, f (x + h) = x + h.

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h) − x h
f ′ (x) = lim = = =1 (h ̸= 0).
h→0 h h h

(b) f (x) = 2x2 ,

∴ f (x + h) = 2(x + h)2
= 2(x2 + 2hx + h2 )
= 2x2 + 4hx + 2h2
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
2x2 + 4hx + 2h2 − 2x2
= lim
h→0 h
4hx + 2h 2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 4x + 2h = 4x
h→0

x x+h
(c) Here, f (x) = , f (x + h) =
x+1 x+h+1
x+h x
x+h+1 − x+1
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x+h)(x+1)−x(x+h+1)
(x+h+1)(x+1)
= lim
h→0 h
(x + h)(x + 1) − x(x + h + 1)
= lim
h→0 h(x + h + 1)(x + 1)
x + hx + x + h − x2 − hx − x
2
= lim
h→0 h(x + h + 1)(x + 1)
2.1. THE FIRST PRINCIPLE 17

h
= lim
h(x + h + 1)(x + 1)
h→0
1
= lim
h→0 (x + h + 1)(x + 1)
1
=
(x + 1)(x + 1)
1
=
(x + 1)2

Example 2.1.2. Find f ′ (x) by the first principle method in each of the following:
1
(a) f (x) = x 2

(b) f (x) = xn
1
(c) f (x) = x− 2

Solution.
1 √ √
(a) Here f (x) = x 2 = x. f (x + h) = x + h.

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
√ √
x+h− x
= lim
h→0 h
√ √ √ √ 
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ×√ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
x+h−x
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1
= lim √ √
h→0 x+h+ x
1 1
= √ = x−1/2
2 x 2

(b) f (x) = xn ,

f (x + h) = (x + h)n
n(n − 1) n−2 2
= xn + nxn−1 h + x h + · · · + hn
2!
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
x + nxn−1 h + n(n−2)
n
2 xn−2 h2 + · · · + hn − xn
= lim
h→0 h
n−1 n(n−2) n−2 2
nx h+ 2 x h + · · · + hn
= lim
h→0
 h 
n−1 n(n − 2) n−2 n−1
= lim nx + x h + ··· + h
h→0 2
= nxn−1
18 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

1 1 1
(c) Here, f (x) = x− 2 = √ and f (x + h) = √ .
x x+h
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
√1 − √1
x+h x
= lim
h→0 h
√ √
x− x+h
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x x + h)
√ √ √ √
x− x+h x+ x+h
= lim √ √ ×√ √
h→0 h( x x + h) x+ x+h
x − (x + h)
= lim √ √ √ √
h→0 h( x x + h)( x + x + h)
−1
= lim √ √ √ √
h→0 ( x x + h)( x + x + h)
−1
= √
x×2 x
−1
= 3
2x 2
1 3
= − x− 2
2

Exercise

1. Find from the first principles the derived function of the following

(a) y = x3 + 2x
(b) f (x) = x2 + x
(c) g(x) = 4x2 + 2
1
(d) h(x) = 3
2x
(e) y = x4 − x2
1
(f) f (x) =
2x + 3
1
(g) y = 3
x
2. Find the derived function of the following:

(a) (x2 + 1)(x − 1)

(b) (x + 21 )2
2
(c)
x5
1
(d) √
4x2 + 1
√
x
(e) 3
x2
2.2. TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION 19

2.2 Techniques of Differentiation

In the preceeding examples; we used the limit definition to find derivatives. The process of
finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation. A function is differentiable at x if
its derivative exists at x, and is differentiable on an interval (a, b) if it is differentiable at every
point in the interval. In addition to f ′ (x), which is read as f prime of x. Other notations are
dy ′ d
used to denote the derivative of y = f (x). The most common are ,f, [f (x)] and Dx [y].
dx dx
dy
The notation is read as the derivative of y with respect to x or simply, dy − dx. Using the
dx
limit notation, we can write

dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim = f ′ (x).
dx h→0 h
In what follows, we introduce several rules that allow us to find derivatives without the direct
use of the limit definition. We start with the simplest of all functions, the constant function
f (x) = c.

2.2.1 Derivatives of a Constant Function

The derivative of a constant function is 0. That is if f (x) = c, a real number, then

d
[c] = 0.
dx
dy
For example, if y = 7, then = 0.
dx

2.2.2 The Power Rule

If n is any real number, then the function f (x) = xn is differentiable and

d
[f (x)] = nxn−1 .
dx
dy
Example 2.2.1. Find if
dx
(a) y = x3
√
(b) y = x

Solution.

(a) If y = x3 , then by the power rule,

dy
= 3x3−1 = 3x2 .
dx
1
(b) We express the function in index form. That is, y = x 2 . Therefore,

dy 1 1 −1
= x2
dx 2
1 −1
= x 2
2
20 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

1 1
= = √
1
2x 22 x

2.2.3 The constant multiple rule

If c is any constant and f (x) is a differentiable function, then

d d
[cf (x)] = c [f (x)].
dx dx
Example 2.2.2. Differentiate the following

(a) y = 6x4
4
(b) f (x) =
x2
Solution.
dy
(a) = 4(6)x4−1 = 24x3
dx
(b) f (x) can be rewritten as f (x) = 4x−2 . Thus,

f ′ (x) = −2(4)x−2−1
= −8x−3
8
= − 3
x

2.2.4 The Sum and Difference rule

If f and g are both differentiable, then
d d d
[f (x) + g(x)] = [f (x)] + [g(x)]
dx dx dx
and
d d d
[f (x) − g(x)] = [f (x)] − [g(x)].
dx dx dx
Example 2.2.3. Differentiate the following:

(a) f (x) = −2x3 + 9x2 − 2

t4
(b) g(t) = + 3t3 − t2 − 13t
2
Solution.

(a) f ′ (x) = −6x2 + 18x

4t3
(b) g ′ (t) = + 9t2 − 2t − 13
2

2.2.5 The Product Rule

If f and g are both differentiable, then
d d d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x) [g(x)] + g(x) [f (x)].
dx dx dx
2.2. TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION 21

Example 2.2.4. Find the derivative of h(x) = (3x − 2x2 )(5 + 4x).
Solution.
d d
h′ (x) = (3x − 2x2 ) [5 + 4x] + (5 + 4x) [3x − 2x2 ]
dx dx
= (3x − 2x2 )(4) + (5 + 4x)(3 − 4x)
= (12x − 8x2 ) + (15 − 8x − 16x2 )
= −24x2 + 4x + 15

2.2.6 The Quotient Rule

If f and g are differentiable, then
d d
[f (x)] − f (x) dx
 
d f (x) g(x) dx [g(x)]
= 2
.
dx g(x) [g(x)]

x2 + x − 2 dy
Example 2.2.5. If y = , find
x3 + 6 dx
Solution.
d d
dy (x3 + 6) dx [x2 + x − 2] − (x2 + x − 2) dx [x3 + 6]
=
dx (x3 + 6)2
(x3 + 6)(2x + 1) − (x2 + x − 2)(3x2 )
=
(x3 + 6)2
(2x + x + 12x + 6) − (3x4 + 3x3 − 6x2 )
4 3
=
(x3 + 6)2
−x4 − 2x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 6
=
(x3 + 6)2

Exercise
1. Find y ′ in each of the following
(a) y = 7x5 − 3x4 + x2
2
(b) y = 2t4 − 6t + t − 2
√ t
(c) y = 6 3 x
2. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x:
(a) f (x) = (x3 + 1)(x4 + 1)
(b) g(x) = (x + x3 )(x2 − 1)
dy
3. Find in the following:
dx
x2
(a) y =
x+1
t3 + t
(b) y = 4
t −2
x2
(c) y = √
1+ x
22 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

2.2.7 The Chain Rule

If y = f (u) is a differentiable function of u, and u = g(x) is a differentiable function of x, then
y = f (g(x)) is a differentiable function of x and

dy dy du
= × .
dx du dx
Example 2.2.6. Differentiate the following functions:
√
(a) y = x2 + 1

(b) y = (3x2 − 4)4

Solution.
√ dy 1 du
(a) Using the chain rule, we let u = x2 + 1, then y = u and = √ , = 2x.
du 2 u dx

dy dy du
∴ = ×
dx du dx
1
= √ × 2x
2 u
x x
= √ =√
u 2
x +1

(b) Here again, using the chain rule, we let u = 3x2 − 4, then y = u4 and by the general power
rule,
dy du
= 4u3 and = 6x.
du dx
Thus,
dy dy du
= × = 4u3 × 6x
dx du dx
= 4(3x2 − 4)3 × 6x
= 24x(3x2 − 4)3

1
Example 2.2.7. If f (x) = , find f ′ (x).
(3x − 4)2
Solution. Note that you don’t need to use the quotient rule every time you see a quotient. Here
we can rewrite the function as
f (x) = (3x − 4)−2 .
If we let u = 3x − 4, then f (u) = u−2 and by the general power rule,

f ′ (u) = −2u−3 and u′ (x) = 3.

Thus,

f ′ (x) = f ′ (u) × u′ (x)

= −2u−3 × 3
= −6u−3
6
= − 3
u
2.2. TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION 23

−6
=
(3x − 4)3

2.2.8 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

We now extend our technique of differentiation to include the trigonometric functions. We begin
by stating a special theorem on trigonometric limits without proof, which shall be required later.
Theorem 2.2.8.
sin x 1 − cos x
lim = 1 and lim =0
x→0 x x→0 x
This result plays a crucial part in finding the derivatives of sin x and cos x. To obtain their
derivatives, we must work in radians.

2.2.9 Derivative of sin x and cos x

If f (x) = sin x, then

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin(x + h) − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h − sin x + cos x sin h
= lim
h→0 h
sin x(cos h − 1) + cos x sin h
= lim
h→0
  h   
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
     
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + lim cos x
h→0 h h→0 h
   
cos h − 1 sin h
= sin x lim + cos x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
   
1 − cos h sin h
= − sin x lim + cos x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= − sin x(0) + cos x(1)
= cos x

Thus,
d
[sin x] = cos x.
dx
Similarly, if f (x) = cos x, then f ′ (x) = − sin x. That is,

d
[cos x] = − sin x. (Prove as an exercise).
dx
Example 2.2.9. Differentiate the following functions:
(a) y = sin 3x
cos x
(b) f (x) =
2
24 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

(c) g(x) = sin(4x2 − 3)

(d) y = x6 cos x + 2x5

Solution.

(a) Here, we let u = 3x, then y = sin u by the chain rule. Thus,

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= cos u × 3
= 3 cos u
= 3 cos 3x

cos x 1
(b) Let f (x) = = cos x. Thus,
2 2
1 1
f ′ (x) = × − sin x = − sin x.
2 2

(c) Let u = 4x2 − 3, then g(u) = sin u and by the chain rule,

g ′ (x) = g ′ (u) × u′ (x)

= − cos u × 8x
= −8x × cos u
= −8x cos(4x2 − 3)

(d)

dy d d d
= x6 [cos x] + cos x [x6 ] + [2x5 ]
dx dx dx dx
= x6 × (− sin x) + cos x × 6x5 + 10x4
= −x6 sin x + 6x5 cos x + 10x4
= x4 (−x2 sin x + 6x cos x + 10)

Example 2.2.10. Differentiate the following with respect to x.

(a) tan x

(b) csc x

(c) sin3 x

1 − cos x 2
 
(d)
sin x
Solution.
sin x
(a) Here, we express tan x as and apply the quotient rule i.e.,
cos x
 
d d sin x
[tan x] =
dx dx cos x
2.2. TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION 25

d d
cos x dx [sin x] − sin x dx [cos x]
= 2
cos x
cos x × cos x − sin x × (− sin x)
=
cos2 x
2 2
cos x + sin x
=
cos2 x
1
= = sec2 x
cos2 x
Thus,
d
[tan x] = sec2 x.
dx

1
(b) Here again, we set csc x = so that we can we can write
sin x
 
d d 1
[csc x] =
dx dx sin x
d d
sin x dx [1] − 1 × dx [sin x]
=
sin2 x
sin x(0) − cos x
=
sin2 x
cos x
= − 2
sin x
−1 cos x
= ×
sin x sin x
= − csc x cot x

Thus, if y = csc x then y ′ = csc x cot x.

(c) Here, we let y = sin3 x and let u = sin x. Then y = u3 and

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 3u2 × cos x
= 3 sin2 x × cos x

 2
1 − cos x 1 − cos x
(d) Here again, we let y = and let u = . Then y = u2 and
sin x sin x

dy dy du
= ×
dx du "dx #
d d
sin x dx [1 − cos x] − (1 − cos x) dx [sin x]
= 2u ×
sin2 x
 
sin x sin x − (1 − cos x) cos x
= 2u ×
sin2 x
 2
sin x − cos x + cos2 x
 
1 − cos x
= 2
sin x sin2 x
  
1 − cos x 1 − cos x
= 2
sin x sin2 x
26 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

2(1 − cos x)2

=
sin3 x

Exercise
1. Differentiate the following functions
2
(a) y =
(x − 13)5
 3
sin x
(b) f (x) =
1 + cos x
2 2
 
(c) g(x) = x −
x
(d) h(x) = (3x2 − 4)4
dy
2. If y = cos x, find using the first principle
dx
3. Find the derivative of each of the following:

(a) f (x) = csc x

(b) y = cot x
(c) g(x) = tan2 x
(d) h(x) = x2 tan2 4x
1
(e) y = √
4x2 − 3
4. Differentiate the following with respect to x.
sin x
(a) y =
x2
3x2
(b) y =
cos x
(c) y = 8x2 (1 + sin x)(1 + cos x)
(d) y = 4x2 sin x − 3x2 cos x

2.2.10 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Function

Just as sin x, cos x and tan x depend on x, so also sin−1 x, cos−1 x and tan−1 x, of course, depend
on the values assigned to x and we may be required to find their derivatives. So, we deal with
then in turn.

Derivative of sin−1 x
dy
If y = sin−1 x, to find , we rewrite as x = sin y. We differentiate this with respect to y and
dx
obtain
dx
= cos y.
dy
Thus,
dy 1
= .
dx cos y
2.2. TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION 27

We now express y in terms of x, thus; we know that cos2 y + sin2 y = 1, therefore, cos2 y =
1 − sin2 y = 1 − x2 . So p
cos y = 1 − x2 .
Thus,
dy 1
=√ .
dx 1 − x2
i.e.,
d 1
[sin−1 x] = √ .
dx 1 − x2
Similarly, if y = cos−1 x, we can write as x = cos y. So that
dx
= − sin y.
dy
Thus,
dy −1
= .
dx sin y
√
Expressing sin y in terms of x from cos2 y + sin2 y = 1, we obtain sin y = 1 − x. Therefore,
dy −1
=√ .
dx 1 − x2
That is
d −1
[cos−1 x] = √ .
dx 1 − x2
We can also obtain the derivative of y = tan−1 x by setting x = tan y and differentiating with
respect to y. That is, if x = tan y,
dx dy 1
= sec2 y, or = .
dy dx sec2 y

Now, sec2 y = 1 + tan2 y = 1 + x2 , so we can write

dy 1 d 1
= 2
or [tan−1 x] = .
dx 1+x dx 1 + x2
Example 2.2.11. Differentiate the following:

(a) y = sin−1 3x

(b) y = cos−1 x2
 
−1 2
(c) y = tan
x

(d) y = x2 cos−1 x

Solution.

(a) If we set u = 3x, then y = sin−1 u and

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
28 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

1
= √ ×3
1 − u2
1
= p ×3
1 − (3x)2
3
= √
1 − 9x2

(b) Let u = x2 then y = cos−1 u and

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
−1
= √ × 2x
1 − u2
−2x
= p
1 − (x2 )2
−2x
= √
1 − x4

(c) Let u = 2
x then y = tan−1 u and

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx  
1 2
= × − 2
1 + u2 x
−2
=
x2 (1 + x42 )
−2
= 2
x +4

(d) Exercise
1 − x2
 
dy
Example 2.2.12. If y = tan−1 2
, find .
1+x dx
1 − x2
 
Solution. Let u = . Then y = tan−1 u, and
1 + x2

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
d d
1 (1 + x2 ) dx [1 − x2 ] − (1 − x2 ) dx [1 + x2 ]
= ×
1 + u2 (1 + x2 )2
1 (1 + x2 )(−2x) − (1 − x2 )(2x)
= 2 ×
1 − x2 (1 + x2 )2

1+
1 + x2
1 −2x − 2x3 − 2x + 2x3
= ×
(1 − x2 )2 (1 + x2 )2
1+
(1 + x2 )2
1
(1+x2 )2 +(1−x2 )2 −4x
= ×
(1 + x2 )2 (1 + x2 )2
2.2. TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION 29

(1 + x2 )2 −4x
= 2 2 2 2
×
(1 + x ) + (1 − x ) (1 + x2 )2
−4x
=
1 + 2x + x + 1 − 2x2 + x4
2 4
−4x
=
2 + 2x4
−2x
=
1 + x4

Exercise
1. Find the derivatives of the following functions

(a) y = csc−1 x
(b) y = sec−1 x
(c) y = cot−1 x

2. Find f ′ (x) in each of the following

2
 
−1 1 − x
(a) f (x) = sin
1 + x2
 
−1 2x
(b) f (x) = tan
1 − x2
(c) f (x) = cos−1 2x2
dy
3. Find if
dx
√ 
(a) y = sin−1 1 − x2
 
5x
(b) y = cos−1
2
x
(c) y = tan−1
a

2.2.11 Derivative of Implicit Functions

For simplicity, all the functions we have differentiated so far have been expressed in the form
f (x), i.e., y has been expressed directly or explicitly in terms of x. On the other hand, a function
dy
may be given indirectly or implicitly, for example, x2 y − 5x = 3 or x3 + y 3 = 3xy. To find dx
in such case, we would solve for y and then differentiate. However, where it is not possible to
solve for y, we use the product rule.
dy
Example 2.2.13. Find dx in each of the following

(a) x2 y − 5x = 3

(b) x3 + y 3 = 3xy

(c) x2 + y 2 + sin y = 3

Solution.
30 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

(a) We differentiate term by term with respect to x, treating x2 y as a product. i.e.,

dy
x2 × + y × 2x − 5 = 0
dx
dy
x2 + 2xy − 5 = 0
dx
or
dy
x2 = 5 − 2xy
dx
dy 5 − 2xy
∴ =
dx x2
Note that this can also be solved by first solving for y and using the quotient rule.

(b) Here, we treat y 3 as a composite function and 3xy as a product. i.e.,

 
2 2 dy dy
3x + 3y = 3 x +y
dx dx
dy dy
3x2 + 3y 2 = 3x + 3y
dx dx
dy
Solving for dx , we have

dy dy
3y 2 − 3x = 3y − 3x2
dx dx
dy
(3y 2 − 3x) = 3y − 3x2
dx
dy y − x2
∴ =
dx y2 − x

(c)

dy dy
2x + 2y + cos y = 0
dx dx
dy
(2y + cos y) = −2x
dx
dy −2x
∴ =
dx 2y + cos y

2.3 Higher Derivatives

dy
If y = f (x) is a function of x, then in general the derivative dx = f ′ (x) will be some other
function of x. We can therefore find its derivative with respect to x. That is the derivative
dy
of dx . This derivative is called the second differential coefficient of y with respect to x and is
d2 y ′′ d2 y
written dx 2 . (Read dee two y by dee x squared). This is also sometimes written as f (x). If dx2
d y 3
is further differentiated with respect to x, we have dx3 , and so on. The nth differential coefficient
dn y n
of y with respect to x is denoted by dxn or f (x).

cos x d2 y
Example 2.3.1. If y = , find
1 − sin x dx2
2.3. HIGHER DERIVATIVES 31

Solution.
d d
dy (1 − sin x) [cos x] − cos x [1 − sin x]
= dx dx
dx (1 − sin x)2
(1 − sin x)(− sin x) − cos x(− cos x)
=
(1 − sin x)2
2
sin x − sin x + cos2 x
=
(1 − sin x)2
1 − sin x
=
(1 − sin x)2
1
=
1 − sin x
d d
d2 y (1 − sin x) dx [1] − (1) dx [1 − sin x]
∴ =
dx2 (1 − sin x) 2
cos x
=
(1 − sin x)2
x−1
Example 2.3.2. If y = , show that
x+1

d2 y dy
(x + 1) 2
+2 =0
dx dx
Solution. Here, we rewrite as y(x + 1) = x − 1. Differentiating implicitly, we have

dy
y + (x + 1) = 1.
dx
Differentiating implicitly again, we have

dy d2 y dy
+ (x + 1) 2 + = 0
dx dx dx
d2 y dy
∴ (x + 1) 2 + 2 = 0.
dx dx

Exercise
1. Differentiate the following functions:

(a) xy = 5
(b) x2 y 2 + x + y = 0
(c) xy + sin y = 2
(d) x2 + y 2 + cos xy = 2
d2 y
2. Find in each of the following
dx2
(a) y = cos2 x
1
(b) y =
2−x
sin x
(c) y =
1 + cos x
32 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

1
3. If y = , show that
1+x
d2 y dy
(1 + x) 2
+2 = 0.
dx dx

2.3.1 Derivative of Exponential and Logarithmic Function

Before we extend our technique of differentiation to exponential and logarithmic functions, we
look at a very important constant, the number e.
1 n
 
Definition 2.3.3. e is the number which arises as the limit of 1 + as n tends to infinity.
n
That is,
1 n
 
e = lim 1 + .
n→∞ n
The numerical value for e is approximately equal to 2.71828. The function f (x) = ex is called
the natural exponential function, while the function g(x) = loge x is called the natural logarithm.
It is usually denoted by ln x. It is the inverse function of the natural exponential function. It is
also important to note that
ln(ex ) = x and eln x = x.

2.3.2 Derivative of the Logarithmic Function

Let u be a differentiable function of x, then
d 1
1. [ln x] =
dx x
d 1 du
2. [ln u] = ×
dx u dx
Example 2.3.4. Differentiate the following
(a) y = ln(x3 + 1)
(b) y = ln(sec x)
 
x+1
(c) y = ln √
x−2
Solution.
(a) Here, we let u = x3 + 1. Then y = ln u.

dy dy du 1 du
= × =
dx du dx u dx
1
= 3
× 3x2
x +1
3x2
=
x3 + 1

(b) Here, we let u = sec x. Then y = ln u and

dy dy du 1 du
= × =
dx du dx u dx
1
= × sec x tan x
sec x
= tan x
2.3. HIGHER DERIVATIVES 33

(c) The differentiation becomes easier if we first simplify the given function using the laws of
logarithms. That is,
1
y = ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2).
2
 
dy 1 1 1
∴ = −
dx x+1 2 x−2
1 1
= −
x + 1 2x − 4
2x − 4 − x − 1 x−5
= =
(x + 1)(2x − 4) (x + 1)(2x − 4)

Note that a logarithmic function with base a can be expressed in terms of the natural
logarithmic function as follows:
ln x
loga x = .
ln a
Since a is a constant, we can differentiate as follows:
 
d d ln x 1 d
[loga x] = = [ln x]
dx dx ln a ln a dx
1
=
x ln a

Example 2.3.5. Differentiate f (x) = log10 (2 + sin x)

Solution. To use the chain rule, we let u = 2 + sin x. Then f (u) = log10 u and

f ′ (x) = f ′ (u) × u′ (x)

u′ (x)
=
u ln 10
cos x
=
(2 + sin x) ln 10

2.3.3 Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function

Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then
d x
1. [e ] = ex
dx
d u du
2. [e ] = eu
dx dx
Example 2.3.6. Differentiate
2 −1
(a) y = e2x

(b) y = etan x
3
(c) y = x2 e− x

Solution.
34 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

(a) Let u = 2x2 − 1. Then y = eu and

dy dy du du
= × = eu ×
dx du dx dx
2x2 −1
= e × 4x
2 −1
= 4xe2x

(b) Let u = tan x. Then y = eu . Therefore,

dy dy du du
= × = eu ×
dx du dx dx
tan x
= e × sec2 x

(c)

dy d h −3 i 3 d
= x2 e x + e− x [x2 ]
dx dx dx
3 3 3
= x2 × e− x × 2 + e− x × 2x
x
3 3
= 3e− x + 2xe− x
3
= (3 + 2x)e− x

2.3.4 Derivatives for Bases other than e

Let a be a positive real number (a ̸= 1) and let u be a differentiable function of x. Then
d x
1. [a ] = ax ln a
dx
d u du
2. [a ] = au ln a ×
dx dx
2
Example 2.3.7. Differentiate y = 10x
Solution. Here, we let u = x2 . Then y = 10u and
dy dy du du
= × = au ln a ×
dx du dx dx
x2
= (10 ln 10) × 2x
2
= (2 ln 10)10x x

Exercise
1. Differentiate the following functions:

(a) y = esin x
2
(b) y = e−2x
x
(c) y = xe 4
(d) f (x) = 2x3
(e) g(x) = e2x cos 2x

2. Find the derivatives of the following functions:

2.3. HIGHER DERIVATIVES 35
√
(a) f (x) = ln x2 − 2
(b) y = (ln x)x
(c) y = ln(sec x2 )
(d) y = log2 (x2 + 2 sin x)
√
x(4 + x2 )
(e) y = . (Hint: Take the ln of both sides.)
2x + cot x

2.3.5 Differentiation from Parametric Equations

Sometimes, it is more convenient to define y as a function of x by expressing both y and x in
terms of a third variable t, x = h(t) defines y as function of x. This follows by eliminating t from
the two relationships. In general, if y is a differentiable function of t and x is also a differentiable
function of t, then
dy dy dx
= ÷ .
dx dt dt
dy
Example 2.3.8. Find if
dx

(a) x = t3 + t and y = 2t2

(b) x = sin 2t and y = cos 4t

Solution.
dy dx
(a) Let = 4t and = 3t2 + 1. So,
dt dt
dy dy dx
= ÷
dx dt dt
4t
=
3t2 + 1

dy dx
(b) Let = −4 sin 4t and = 2 cos 2t. Thus,
dt dt
dy dy dx
= ÷
dx dt dt
−4 sin 4t
=
2 cos 2t

Exercise
dy
1. Find if
dx
(a) y = sin θ and x = 3 cos θ
1
(b) y = t2 and x =
t

dy d2 y
2. Find and if y = 2x and x = t2
dx dx2
36 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION

2.3.6 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function

y = f (x)
B

x
0 a x1 x2 x3 b

Figure 2.2: Stationary Points

Consider the function y = f (x) whose graph is shown above. The point A is a maximum point
of the function y. The point B is a minimum point of y while C is a point of inflexion of y.
All the points A, B and C are called stationary points on the graph or stationary values of y.
dy
Generally, for any curve y = f (x), a stationary point is any point where dx = 0. Also,
d2 y
1. y is maximum when dx2
is negative
d2 y
2. y is minimum when dx2
is positive
d2 y
3. for point of inflexion dx2
=0

Example 2.3.9. If y = x3 − 2x2 + x + 4, find

(a) the stationary points of y

(b) the maximum and minimum values of y

Solution.
dy dy 1
(a) = 3x2 − 4x + 1. At the stationary points, = 0. That is 3x2 − 4x + 1 = 0. i.e., x = 3
dx dx
or x = 1. So the stationary points are x = 13 or x = 1.

d2 y d2 y
(b) = 6x − 4. The maximum value of y is obtained when < 0. This holds when
dx2 dx2
x = 13 . i.e., 6( 13 ) − 4 = −2 < 0. So the maximum value of y is
 3  2  
1 1 1 1 2 1
−2 + +4 = − + +4
3 3 3 27 9 3
112
=
27
2.3. HIGHER DERIVATIVES 37

112 d2 y
So the maximum value of y is . y has a minimum value when > 0. i.e., when
27 dx2
6x − 4 > 0. This is true when x = 1. i.e., 6(1) − 4 = 2 > 0. The value of y when x = 1 is

(1)3 − 2(1)2 + 1 + 4 = 4.

So the minimum value of y = 4.

Exercise
1. Find

(a) the stationary points of y

(b) the maximum and minimum values of y in each of the following
i. y = 2x3 + 3x2 − 36x + 5
ii. y = x3 − 3x2 + 3x + 2
iii. y = x3 − 7
iv. y = x4 − 4x3