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 Another Random Document on
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This apparent paradox is not difficult of explanation when we
consider the number of enemies which are always hovering near,
and ready with hungry mouths to snap up the infant embryos as
soon as they begin to show signs of vitality. The Hermit-Crabs are
especially fond of Doris spawn, so much so, indeed, that the writer
could never retain any for hatching purposes while any of the Paguri
were near. Mr. Peach says they (the young Dorides) have myriads of
enemies in the small Infusoria, which may be noticed, with a
powerful microscope, hovering round them, and ready to devour
them the instant weakness or injury prevents their keeping in motion
the cilia, which serve both for locomotion and defence. Let them
cease to move, a regular attack is made, and the animal is soon
devoured; and it is interesting to observe several of the scavengers
sporting with the empty shell, as if in derision of the havoc they
have made.
The same difficulty of calculation does not exist, at least to any such
extent, with the spawn of Eolis, which is laid in stringy coils. M.
Gosse mentions a specimen of E. papillosa that laid nine strings of
spawn in his tank between the 20th of March and the 24th of May,
all as nearly as possible of the same length. Each string contained
about a hundred convolutions, each convolution about two hundred
ova, and each ova including, on an average, two embryos, making a
total progeny of forty thousand, produced from one parent in little
more than two months.
I may mention that on no occasion have I ever found the spawn
coils of either Doridiæ or Eolididæ in my tanks, or at the sea-shore,
except during the months of January and February or March; neither
have any of my specimens spawned more than once during an entire
season. From noticing the same group of parent slugs congregated,
and remaining, as I can affirm, for weeks near their egg clusters,
evidently in a most enfeebled condition, it has occurred to me that
on the Frith of Forth, at least, vast numbers of these animals do not
long survive the hatching season.
Whether this be the case or not, it is a most singular fact that in this
locality, a Doris more than one or two inches in length is scarcely
ever to be met with.
There is at present in one of my tanks a specimen of the Doris of a
pearly-white colour, a second, tinted white and pink, and two others
which are quite black,—all being procured from the coast near
Edinburgh. The last-mentioned animals are, I think, somewhat
uncommon. When watching one of them in motion while the sun is
shining down upon it, the hue of the creature changes from a black
to a very deep purple, owing, no doubt, to its fleshy disc being many
shades lighter than its body, which, being extended, and exhibited
under a full glow of light, becomes semi-transparent. This peculiarity
is not evident, of course, when the Doris is lying in a passive state,
with all its gill-plumes closed up.
This sombre-coated gasteropod, although rare in some localities, is
very plentiful in foreign parts, if the following may be received as an
accurate narrative. 'On a reef of rocks near the island of Raiatea is a
huge unshapely black or brown slug, here called 'Biche,' from six to
seven inches long, and five to six broad. Is is caught in vast
quantities, and not only regarded as a great delicacy by the natives,
but being cured, has become a valuable article of commerce in the
China market, whither it is carried from many insular coasts of the
Pacific by American ships. We have seen a number of lads fill three
canoes in two hours with these sea-snails.'
Thus uninviting as this slimy animal seems to our English taste,
there is evidently no doubt of its being used by the Chinese as an
article of food, and according to the evidence of certain authors, is
esteemed by the 'barbarians' a high-class luxury; but then we must
remember that the inhabitants of the land of gongs and chopsticks,
have always been famed for their singular gastronomic tastes. One
poet writes:—

'That man had sure a palate covered o'er

With brass or steel, that, on the rocky shore,
 First broke the oozy oyster's pearly coat,
And risked the living morsel down his throat.'
But, 'Mandarins and Pigtails,' what was such risk, I ask, compared to
that which he endured, who swallowed the first mouthful of birds'-
nest soup? or horror of horrors, the first spoonful of sea-snail stew?
Yet we are told that both the 'mucilage' and the Bêches de Mer
dishes are savoury and highly grateful to the palate of an
appreciating gourmand.
A recent author, describing a Chinese dinner from personal
observation, tells us, that when the first dish, composed of birds'-
nest soup, was over, he waited the advent of the next course with
very nervous excitement. 'It was a stew of sea-slugs. They are
slippery, and very difficult to be handled by inexperienced
chopsticks; but they are most pleasant and succulent food, not at all
unlike in flavour to the green fat of the turtle. If a man cannot eat
anything of a kind whereof he has not seen his father and
grandfather eat before him, we must leave him to his oysters, and
his periwinkles, and his craw-fish, and not expect him to swallow the
much more comely sea-slug. But surely a Briton, who has eaten
himself into a poisonous plethora upon mussels, has no right to hold
up his hands and eyes at a Chinaman enjoying his honest, well-
cooked stew of Bêches de Mer.
'During the discussion of this dish our Chinese master of the
ceremonies solemnly interposed. We were neglecting the rudiments
of politeness, no one had offered to intrude one of these sleek and
savoury delicacies, deeply rolled in sauce, into the mouth of his
neighbour. Efforts were made to retrieve the barbarian honour, but
with no great success, for the slugs were evasive, and the proffered
mouthful was not always welcome.'
 CHAPTER XV.
The Crab and the Dainty Beggar.

'In taking a review of most, if not all the actions of the

animal world,
it must be obvious that, whether we allow them reason
or not, the actions
themselves comprehend those elements of reason, so to
speak, which we
commonly refer to rational beings, so that if the same
actions had been
done by our fellow-creatures, we should have ascribed
them without
hesitation to motives and feelings worthy of a rational
nature.'—Schleider.

'All things are bigge with jest; nothing that's

plain
But may be wittie, if thou hast the vein.'—
George Herbert.
 XV.
I have been observing for several days the movements of a Common
Shore-Crab, which has been almost all his life under my protection.
Although his present dimensions would render such a feat
impossible, when first I shook the little fellow off a bunch of C.
officinalis, he could have crawled with the greatest of ease into the
mouth of a small popgun. We all know that members of this family
are bold and daring in their attacks upon their weaker neighbours;
upon each and all they wage a constant predatory warfare. The poor
Pholades, however, are the favourite objects of their attacks. On
these innocent bivalves the Crustacea successfully prey, unless they
are protected by their usual rock-bound citadel, which, of course,
they cannot always be. In order to watch the Pholas at work, it is
necessary that the siphons should be more or less protruding from
his tubular dwelling. If supported, say, to the full depth of his valves,
the animal is secure; for I notice that neither crab nor fish can tear
away the gristly ends of the siphonal appendages when withdrawn;
and when disturbed, the poor Pholas leaves only this part in view. I
have frequently seen the Fiddler-Crab embrace a Pholas in his claws,
and struggle to pull him from his seat. On one occasion this
operation was performed successfully, much to my annoyance, as I
had been at some trouble to saw the rock away in order to watch
easily every movement of the animal within. At night when I looked
into the tank my pet was safe; next morning it was wedged under
some pebbles, and the crab was feasting leisurely upon his tender
flesh.
It is most amusing to watch the Blennies, too, attack a Pholas, cast
into the tank, and to witness their mode of pecking at and shaking
their victim, and turning innumerable somersaults with it in their
mouths. The strength they exhibit in these manœuvres is perfectly
astounding.
About two hours after they had received one of their favourite
'muttons' to feast upon, I peeped into the aquarium, and found, as I
expected, the Blennies hard at their work of destruction. Behind
them, among some bushy tufts of I. edulis, the little crab, before
alluded to, was seated. In his arms he held an object unlike anything
I had seen on sea or land. It appeared like a slender stick of
beautifully iridescent opal. My amazement at this sight may readily
be conceived, for I had not the remotest idea as to how he had
become possessed of such a prize.
Next day I placed another devoted Pholas in the tank, and after a
while looked in to see how its finny enemies were conducting
themselves, when, what should meet my eye, but the crab, sneaking
off with another opal baton in his arms! I was more puzzled than
ever. It was quite certain that the object in question had been
procured from the Pholas, yet I had not heard of, or ever seen
anything like it in that animal.
I was 'on thorns' until next day, so that I might by watching solve
the mystery. A third Pholas was flung into the den. The fishes, eager
as usual, instantly attacked and pulled the mollusc to pieces. After a
while the crab began to move about to and fro, evidently very
restless, and anxious for my departure. I did retire, but only to such
distance as would allow me a distinct view of his movements. In a
few moments he stepped out mincingly on the tips of his toes, and
crossed the tank to the spot where the poor Pholas lay, like some
fine beau in Queen Anne's reign tripping jauntily down the Mall, or
across St. James' Park, to feed the ducks in Rosamond's Pond.
The Blennies darted off at his approach. He then seated himself
before the mangled corpse, and scraped at it vigorously, manifestly
searching for some coveted treasure. Shortly after, perceiving him
clutch at something, I quickly approached and disturbed his
movements—took up the Pholas, and to my surprise found, on
drawing out an object that protruded from the foot of the animal,
that I possessed the pearly and gelatinous cylinder, such as the crab
had twice before devoured with such evident relish.[11]
It was plain then that the little rascal had become so dainty, that he
'turned up his nose,' or rather his 'pair of noses,' at what is vulgarly
termed the 'first cut,' and condescended only upon the tit-bits, for
his marine banquet. So his crabship, in order to save himself trouble,
actually waited until the fishes had cut up the Pholas to a certain
point, when he would rush forward and seize on his favourite fare.
Some of my readers will doubtless remember the anecdote of the
crossing sweeper, whose idiosyncrasy led him to covet diurnally a
mutton-chop situated in the middle of the loin. My Lady Pepys, or
Mr. Saccharine, the great grocer, couldn't always procure the desired
'cut!' n'importe the knight of the besom met with no such
disappointment.
This individual's place of business was luckily situated opposite to a
noted butcher's shop, which circumstance easily enabled him to
watch until, from the demands of sundry customers, the perspective
of the loin, which lay temptingly upon the chopping block, had
become adapted to his point of sight. He would then step in and
meekly order a simple pound avoirdupois. With this bonne-bouche
carefully packed in his pocket, he would again mount guard, and
remain until night. At dusk of evening he shut up shop,—that is, he
swept the dirt over the parallel path that he had all day kept
scrupulously clean, and then marched off to enjoy his dinner at a
fashionable hour, in private.
Are not these cases palpably alike? Passing by certain details, were
not the pawkiness and cunning of the epicurean beggar fully
equalled by our diminutive friend, C. mænas?
'But,' you ask, 'what then was the opal stick?' Ay, there's the rub, for
even the greatest naturalists cannot positively agree as to the use
and purpose of this mysterious organ. Yet it is to be found (as we
have seen) in the foot of the Pholas, in the Mussel, the Cockle; and,
in fact, it occurs in almost all bivalves both great and small. It is
termed the 'hyaline cylindrical stylet,' and is very lucidly and
scientifically described as 'an elastic spring to work the corneous
plate or attritor, and by the muscular action of the foot and body, to
divide and comminute the food, and especially the minute
crustaceous and testaceous alimentary matters received into the
stomachial cavity. It appears then that this appendage acts as a
gizzard, and the bivalve mollusca are thus supplied with a
masticatory apparatus very analogous to the gizzards of some of the
gasteropoda.'
Now, the simple fact that I have stated above, of the hyaline stylet
being found in the foot, and not in the stomach, at once proves that
it cannot possibly act as a gizzard to the Pholas, or any other bivalve
in which it is known to exist.
In the succeeding chapter I shall endeavour, from personal
observation, to shed a slender ray of light upon the function of the
stylet.
 CHAPTER XVI.
The Pholas, &c.
(ROCK-BORERS.)

'He that of greatest works is finisher

Oft does them by the meanest minister.'
 XVI.
At certain parts of the Scottish coast, the 'dykes,' or walls built near
the road-side, are constructed entirely of rough-hewn pieces of hard
sandstone rock, brought from the neighbouring shore. Sometimes a
dyke will extend for two or three miles, without presenting an
isolated fragment, in which the honeycomb-like perforations of
certain species of the boring Mollusca are not more or less apparent.
A fragment of soft sandstone lies before me, measuring three and a
half inches in length, and two inches in breadth, which, small though
it be, contains no fewer than seventeen cylindrical tunnels. Each of
these exhibits so wonderful a skill in construction, that human hands
could not surpass it, though aided by 'all the means and appliances
to boot,' of mechanical agency.
It is generally stated that the Pholas never intrudes itself into the
apartment occupied by a neighbouring 'worker.' The Pholas,
however, often intrudes on its neighbour; and such intrusion is
manifested in the small piece of stone alluded to in no less than four
instances. Here let me observe, that it is not always the larger
mollusc that bores through the smaller one; it as frequently happens
that the latter deserves the brand of wanton aggressor. Both cases
are common enough, and, indeed, must of necessity occur, wherever
at any time a colony of various sized Pholades are clustered together
in a small portion of rock.
A fragment of rock riddled by the Pholas is a much more pleasing
sight than can be witnessed at the sea-shore in connection with that
animal under usual circumstances. For this reason: When visiting the
habitat of the boring bivalves, a host of small circular holes are
sometimes seen; at other times the surface of the same portion of
the beach appears comparatively sound, and it is only by striking a
smart blow with a hammer upon the ground, that we render scores
of orifices instantly observable in all directions, from each of which is
thrown a small jet of water. This phenomenon is caused by the
Pholades in alarm retracting their siphons, which had hitherto filled
the entire extent of the tunnels. At such a locality, if a piece of rock
be excavated, various specimens of these boring molluscs, shrunk to
their smallest possible size, will be discovered at the base of the
cavities, which are invariably of a conical form, tapered at the top,
and gradually enlarging as they descend.
It must be evident, then, that neither the likeness of the animal, nor
the formation of its singular dwelling-place, can be seen by the
casual wanderer along the sea-shore.
It will also be apparent to the intelligent reader, that when once the
Pholas is located in a certain spot, he becomes a tenant for life; for
never by any chance whatever, can the poor miner leave his rocky
habitation by his own unaided exertions, even were he so inclined.
As he grows older and increases in size, nature teaches the animal
to enlarge his habitation in a proportionate and suitable manner.
During the period of the boring process, the orifice becomes clogged
above the shell with the debris of the rock, and this, if allowed to
accumulate would speedily asphyxiate the animal. To get rid of such
an unpleasant obstruction, the Pholas retracts, and closes the end of
its siphons, then suddenly extends the 'double barrelled' tube to its
full length, until it reaches the entrance of the tunnel. This
movement often repeated, causes portions of the pulverized stone to
be forced outwards at each operation.
It is interesting to watch the curious manner in which the end of the
principal siphon is alternately closed and spread out when it reaches
the water, like a man inspiring heavily after any unusual exertion; it
is then made again to descend, and renew its task, as above
described.
In extracting that portion of the debris which is deposited at the
base of the cavity, below the body of the industrious miner, a
different plan is adopted. Wherever a Pholas is at its labours, there
are always deposited within a circumference of several inches round
the tunnel, myriads of short thin threads, which are squirted out
from the smaller siphon.
The nodules on examination are found to be composed of pulverized
rock, which is drawn in at the pedal opening, and ejected in the
above manner, thereby effectually clearing the lower portion of the
orifice. It was suggested to me that these threadlike objects were
the fœcal matters of the Pholas, but this idea was soon dispelled by
the assistance of the microscope; and, moreover, from the fact that
the threads are never visible when the animal is in a quiescent state,
but only when it is busily engaged in its mysterious task of boring.
I was for some time puzzled to find any aperture in connection with
the club-like foot of the Pholas (P. crispata), although several of the
bivalves were sacrificed to the cause of science. But what the
microscope and scalpel in this instance failed to unfold, attentive
watching of the animal in the aquarium made palpably apparent, in
the following manner.
I had on one occasion captured about a dozen Pholades, some of
which were embedded in the solid rock, others detached.
The first mentioned, I knew would be quite safe among the blennies
and crabs, from the untempting and unedible nature of their
siphonal tubes. Very different was the case with the defenceless,
disentombed specimens. These were intended as food for their finny
companions, who happened to be particularly fond of a change of
diet. My 'pack' had subsisted for some time on Mussels, and on such
excellent food, had become impudent, corpulent, and dainty. But
overgorged epicures though they were, I knew that although
everything else failed, a 'real live' Pholas placed before them would
serve to speedily whet their appetites.
A splendid specimen of the siphoniferous bivalve was dropped into
the tank, the base of which it had no sooner reached, than the
fishes, with eager eyes and watering mouths, came hovering like a
flock of vultures round the welcome meal thus unexpectedly placed
before them.
One rascal, who seemed to be cock of the walk, came forward and
made the first grip at the delicate fleshy foot, that in appearance
was as white as a newly fallen snowflake. The pedal organ was, of
course, instantly and forcibly withdrawn, so much so, indeed, as to
be almost hidden from view, except at its extreme base. In this
position it remained for several seconds. When the finny gourmand
again boldly advanced to take a second mouthful, to my intense
surprise he was, apparently, blown to a distance of several inches. I
could scarcely credit the evidence of my senses. Another and
another of the fishes were in their turn served in like manner as their
leader. In a short time, however, the poor mollusc failed to repulse
his enemies, and finally fell a passive victim to their gluttonous
propensities.
Now comes the important question, 'How is the boring operation
performed?' How can this simple animal, with its brittle shell, and
soft fleshy body, manage to perforate the sandstone, or other hard
substances, in which it lives?
For hundreds of years this query has been asked, and various are
the replies which from time to time have been given. Singular to
state, although specimens of the Pholas, and its allies the Saxicavæ,
are to be procured in abundance in many parts of the kingdom, the
subject is not even yet positively settled.
There have been many theories advanced, some the result of fancy
or guess-work; others, of practical study. All these have their
supporters, but none have, by common consent, been adopted by
physiologists as the true one.
Having for several years made this subject a study of personal
observation, I believe I may venture to state, that I have succeeded
in casting a feeble ray of light upon it; and, although the result of
my labours may not be deemed conclusive, I may at least claim
some credit for my endeavours to clear up a most difficult, though
deeply interesting point in natural history.
The various theories promulgated on this knotty point are generally
classed under five heads: 1st, That the animal secretes a chemical
solvent—an acid—which dissolves the substance in which it bores.
2d, That the combined action of the secreted solvent, and rasping by
the valves, effects the perforations. 3d, That the holes are made by
rasping effected by silicious particles studding the substance of
certain parts of the animal. 4th, That currents of water, set in action
by the motions of vibratile cilia, are the agents. 5th, and lastly, That
the boring mollusca perforate by means of the rotation of their
shells, which serve as augurs.
Of all the above, the first which is quite a fancy theory, seems to
meet with greatest favour among certain naturalists. But as it is
rather puzzling to find a chemical solvent, which will act equally
upon sandstone, clay, chalk, wax, and wood, this hypothesis can
only be looked upon by practical men as ingenious, but incorrect.
Even were it proved that the animal really possessed the power of
secreting an acid sufficiently powerful, the question naturally arises,
How can the shell escape being affected in like manner with the
much harder substance in which it is situated?
The second theory, or the combined action of rasping and the
secreted solvent, is, for obvious reasons, equally objectionable.
The third theory, which endeavours to account for the wearing away
of the rock by means of silicious particles situated in the foot and
other parts of the animal, has been for some time proved to be
erroneous, from the fact, that the combined skill of some of our best
anatomists and microscopists has failed to discover the slightest
presence of any particles of silex in the Pholadidæ, although these
are believed to exist in other families of the boring acephala.
The fourth theory, that of ciliary currents as an accessory agent in
boring, is worthy of greater consideration, chiefly from the evidence
we possess of the immense power which the incessant action of
currents of water possess in wearing away hard substances.
We come now to what may be considered the most important of the
theories above enumerated, viz., the mechanical action of the valves
of the Pholas in rasping away the rock, &c. This hypothesis is one
which most naturally suggests itself to the mind of any impartial
person, on examining, for instance, the rasp-like exterior of the shell
of Pholas crispata.[12] But as I shall endeavour to show, although
the shell forms the principal, it does not by any means constitute the
sole agent in completing the perforating process.
Mr. Clark, a clever naturalist, considers with Mr. Hancock that the
powerfully armed ventral portion of the mantle of the closed boring
acephala is fully adequate to rub down their habitations, and that
the theories of mechanical boring, solvents, and ciliary currents, are
so utterly worthless and incapable of producing the effects assigned
to them, as not to be worth dwelling upon for one moment. Mr.
Clark, therefore, comes to the conclusion that 'the foot is the true
and sole terebrating agent in the Pholas.' This 'fact' he considers to
be 'incontestably proved,' for the following reason, viz., because he
had discovered specimens of this bivalve with the foot entirely
obliterated,—which phenomenon, Mr. Clark states, is caused by the
animal having arrived at its full growth, at which period the
terebrating functions cease; and as 'nature never permanently
retains what is superfluous,' the foot is supposed gradually to wither
away, and finally disappear.
This, I suspect, is another 'fancy' theory. Although I have excavated
hundreds of Pholades, some of giant-like proportions, it has never
been my lot to witness the foot otherwise than in a healthy and fully
developed condition.
Another writer, having no opportunity of viewing the living animal,
does not consider it difficult to imagine the Pholas 'licking a hole'
with its foot, from the fact that he (Mr. Sowerby) managed to make
'a sensible impression' upon a piece of kitchen hearthstone. 'I had,'
he says, 'not patience to carry the experiment any further, but as far
as it went, it left no doubt on my mind that, with the foot alone, and
without any silicious particles, without a chemical solvent, and
without using the rasping power of its shell, our little animal could
easily execute his self-pronounced sentence of solitary confinement
for life.'
Such an inconclusive statement as this would, I feel certain, never
have been penned, had its author been so fortunate as to have had
opportunity of watching a Pholas at work.
But, as Professor Owen truly observes, 'Direct observation of the
boring bivalves in the act of perforation has been rarely enjoyed, and
the instruments have consequently been guessed at, or judged of
from the structure of the animal.' Such, evidently, is the case with
Mr. Sowerby, and several other writers who treat on this subject.
Here we may call attention to the folly of naturalists endeavouring to
tag a pet theory upon all the boring acephala, to the exclusion of
every other. Such a system is defended upon the principle that, 'it is
much more philosophical to allow that animals, so nearly allied as
these in question, are more likely to effect a similar purpose by the
same means, than that several should be adopted. Surely this is
more consistent with the unity of the laws of nature, and that
beautiful simplicity which is everywhere prevalent in her works.'
How much more shrewd and philosophical are the opinions of such a
man as Professor Owen, who, when speaking of the mechanical
action of the valves of P. crispata, says, 'To deny this use of the
Pholas shell, because the shell of some other rock-boring bivalves is
smooth, is another sign of a narrow mind.' Again, this learned author
forcibly remarks, in direct opposition to the writer previously quoted,
'The diversity of the organization of the boring molluscs plainly
speaks against any one single and uniform, boring agent at all!'
The more I study this subject, the more does the truth of the last-
mentioned statement become apparent to my mind.
An examination of engravings of the shells, or even of the Pholas
itself, when lying loose in the tank, or quietly seated in the rock,
extending and retracting its siphons, fails to give one the slightest
idea of its extraordinary appearance when enlarging its dwelling. At
such times it seems to be a totally different animal, and to have
suddenly acquired a most marvellous degree of power, energy, and
perseverance, forming a striking contrast to its usual quiet, passive
habits.
In the first place, as I have elsewhere written, it retracts its tube to,
and even under, the level of its shell, just as a man, about to urge
onwards some heavy mass with his shoulders, would depress his
head to increase and concentrate his muscular power. Then follows
an expansion of the neck or upper part of the ventral border, from
whence the siphons protrude. This movement closes the posterior
portions of the valves below the hinge, and brings their serrated
points together. The next act on the part of the animal is to place its
foot firmly at the base of the hole; when leaning forward, it makes a
sweeping movement fully half round the cavity, pressing firmly-upon
the umboes, which nature has strengthened for the purpose by two
curved teeth fixed on the inside of the valves. At this stage it again
reclines on its breast, and tilting up the shell as much as possible, it
makes another motion round to its former position, leaning upon its
back. By these intricate movements, which the Pholas appears to
accomplish by a contraction almost painfully strong, it opens the
rasping points of the valves. These execute a very peculiar scooping
movement at the base of the cavity, and the animal having got so
far, prepares itself for further exertion by a short rest.
The specimen whose movements I have attempted to describe, lived
in my possession for a considerable time. It bored so completely
through the piece of rock in which it was embedded, that the whole
of its foot dropped through the aperture, and remained in this
position for months, the animal, in consequence, being unable to
change its position even in the slightest degree. Each movement of
this specimen, both before and while the hole at the base of the
cavity was gradually being enlarged, was watched, and every
striking and interesting feature that occurred noted down at the
moment. Various queries were put and answered, as far as possible,
by direct ocular demonstration of the labours of the animal in the
vase before me.
I consider myself to have been singularly fortunate in being able to
view the actions of the creature from beneath, in consequence of
the hole being bored through the rock. This circumstance allowed
me distinctly to see what was going on at the base of the orifice.
My early observations have fortunately been confirmed in other
captive Pholades, which at various periods have been domesticated
in my tanks.
I am convinced, then, that the shell forms the principal agent in
boring the animal's dwelling, without either acid or flinty particles.
The late lamented Professor Forbes held that if this were the case,
the rasping points on the surface of the valves would soon be worn
down,—an appearance which, he says, is never seen. With all
respect for such an eminent name, I must state that he was in error.
Not only are the edges at certain times worn, but the rough surface
is worn nearly smooth, appearing in certain parts of a white colour,
instead of a light drab, as usual.
But the reader may ask, if certain parts of the valves are occasionally
worn smooth, and the animal works so vigorously, how is it that they
are never rasped through? This is a very natural question, and one
that I put to myself repeatedly.
I have made frequent and careful observations while the animal was
actually at work, in order to satisfy myself upon this point, and have
always perceived that the particles of softened rock fell from, and on
each side of, the large and well-developed ligament that binds the
hinge, and extends to the lowest points of the valves. Moreover, this
leathery substance always seemed scraped on the surface. I cannot,
therefore, but believe that the ligament aids very materially in
rubbing off the rock, or at all events, in graduating the pressure of
the valves during the process, and that this curious organ, instead of
being worn away, may, like the callosity upon a workman's hand,
increase in toughness the more labour it is called upon to perform.
[13]

The reason why so few specimens of the Pholades exhibit a worn

shell may be thus explained: As the animal only bores the rock in
sufficient degree to admit of its increased bulk of body, it only
requires to bore occasionally, and there may be often an interval of
many months, during which time nature may have renewed the
serrated edge and rough surface of the valves, and thus enabled the
creature to renew its wondrous operations.
We now come to a consideration of the foot, which, as many writers
aver, forms the 'sole terebrating agent.'
Although this sweeping statement is incorrect, I will freely admit that
the foot constitutes an agent second only in importance to the shell
of the animal. A casual examination of any Pholas perforation will
show that the foot could not have been the only instrument by
which the cavity was formed, from the peculiar rings that line the
lower portion of its interior. These rough appearances, I feel
convinced, could be formed by no other means than the rotatory
motion of the shelly valves.
The valves, however, could not rotate and press against the surface
of the rock, were it not for the aid which the foot affords to the
animal, by its being placed firmly at the base of the hole, and thus
made to act as a powerful fulcrum.
This supposition fully accounts for the lowest extremity of the rocky
chamber being always smooth, and hollowed out into a cup-like form
by the action of the fleshy foot above alluded to.
The foot for a long time was a complete puzzle to me: I was unable
to satisfy my mind as to how it acquired its seeming extraordinary
power. The phenomenon was fully explained when I became aware
of the presence of that mysterious organ the hyaline stylet, situated
in the centre of the foot. The use of this springy muscle, which is, as
we have shown in the previous chapter, by naturalists erroneously
considered to be the gizzard of the animal, is, I believe, solely to
assist the Pholas in its boring operations.
Perhaps some of my readers would like to know how to procure a
sight of the stylet; if so, their wishes may be easily gratified. Take up
a disentombed Pholas in your hand, and with a sharp lancet or point
of a pen-knife, briskly cut a slit in the extreme end of the foot, and,
if the operation be done skilfully, the object of your search will spring
out of the incision to the extent, it may be, of a quarter of an inch. If
not, a very slight examination will discover the opal gelatinous
cylinder, which may be drawn out by means of a pair of forceps.
When extracted and held between the finger and thumb by its
smaller end, the stylet will, if struck with a certain degree of force,
vibrate rapidly to and fro for some seconds, in the same manner as a
piece of steel or whalebone would be affected, under like
circumstances.[14]
So long as a Pholas exhibits only the ends of its siphons to the eyes
of a greedy crab, it is perfectly safe from attack. It is only when the
fleshy foot is unprotected that it falls a prey to some hungry
crustacean.
The toughness of the siphonal orifices is, I believe, a most important
point, for, as I shall endeavour to explain, the siphonal tubes
constitute important accessory excavating agents, to those already
enumerated.
We all know that the hole which each young Pholas makes, when
first he takes possession of his rocky home, is extremely minute,—
not larger than a small pin's head; now, it stands to reason, that if
the shell was the only terebrating agent, the opening of the cavity in
question would always remain of the same size, or, perhaps, on
account of the action of the water, a slight degree larger than its
original dimensions. Such, however, is not the case.
Here is a fragment of rock exhibiting several Pholas holes. The
aperture of one of these, which I measure, is nearly half-an-inch in
diameter, while in juxtaposition with it is situated another cavity,
measuring across the entrance less than the eighth part of an inch.
The reader will at once perceive, if the foot and shell were the sole
augurs, that as the animal descended deeper into the rock, the
siphonal tube, as it enlarged in proportion to other parts of the
animal, would have to be drawn out to an extremely fine point to fit
the opening of the tunnel. But as this is not the state of matters, the
conclusion forces itself upon us, that that portion of the orifice
situated above the shell of the animal must be enlarged by the
constant extension and retraction of the siphons, aided by currents
of water acting on the interior surface of the cavity.
This same theory will also serve to explain how it is that all Pholades
situated at the same depth in the rock, are not all of a uniform size.
I have frequently seen a piece of rock exhibit the peculiarity of two
burrows of vastly different proportions as regards breadth, being
precisely the same depth from the surface of the stone. This appears
to me equally wonderful and puzzling at first sight, as the 'boring'
question.
What age is attained by any species of the rock-borers before they
arrive at full growth, there are no means of knowing. This point, like
several others in the history of these animals, still remains a
mystery, nor is it likely soon to be cleared up. The largest specimen
of P. crispata that I have seen is at present in my possession. Each
valve measures three and a half inches in length, by two inches in
breadth. Some foreign specimens of this species, and especially of P.
dactylus, are, however, frequently found of much larger dimensions.
On no occasion have I ever examined any Pholas excavation that
had lost its conical shape, a fact that seems to prove that the
successive stages of the boring operation must have taken place
solely in consequence of the animal not having reached its adult
form.[15] For had the shell attained its full development, and its
owner continued to labour, and rasp away the rock, the sides of the
cavity at its base would necessarily present a parallel appearance—a
phenomenon which is never witnessed.
From this we may conclude that the depth of the perforation, which
is seldom many inches, depends entirely upon the growth of the
mollusc.
When keeping specimens of the Pholas for observation, the usual
plan is to chip away the rock to the level of the valves, so that the
whole of the animal's siphonal tubes may be distinctly seen, however
slightly these organs may be extended. This plan, I found, did very
well for a time, but I was annoyed to witness, that in the course of a
few months, the siphons ceased to be either advanced or retracted,
—they having become, as it were, rudimentary.
To obviate such contingency, the writer adopted the following
scheme.
To place in the tank a Pholas completely embedded in a fragment of
rock, so that nothing but the tips of its siphons, when extended to
the utmost, were visible, would not afford much pleasure to the
student. I therefore managed to saw away the rock in such a
manner, as to leave a narrow slit along the entire length of the
tunnel, so as to expose the slightest movement of the animal within.
Having natural support for its siphons, I expected that these organs
would be constantly retracted and extended; but such was not the
case; at least for so long a period as I had anticipated.
After repeated experiments, I have now discovered that whether the
siphons be protected as above described or not, they will always be
vigorously exercised if the animal be placed in shallow water, so that
its tubes when fully extended will reach the surface of the fluid.
The conclusion, from what has been stated, is, that the Pholas can
no longer be considered a weak and helpless animal. Possessed of a
rasp-like shell, a horny ligament, retractile tubes, a strong muscular
foot, and a powerful spring or stylet, it is not by any means difficult
to conceive that these agents when they are all brought into play,
are fully equal to the task of excavating the rocky chamber in which
the animal lives.
CHAPTER XVII.
The Sea-Mouse.
(APHRODITE ACULEATA.)

'For seas have ...

As well as earth, vines, roses, nettles,
melons,
Mushrooms, pinks, gilliflowers, and many
millions
Of other plants, more rare, more strange
than these,
As very fishes living in the seas.'
1 THE SEA MOUSE (Aphrodite aculeata)
2 THE DORIS
3 YOUNG OF THE DORIS
4 EOLIS PAPILLOSA
 XVII.
Beauteous stars also the sea contains, as numberless, though not so
brilliant in appearance as those which stud the firmament of heaven;
flowers, too, grow beneath the wave, and rival in loveliness the
gems which adorn our fields and hedge-rows. Nay, more, like the
land, the ocean owns its various grasses, its lemons, and cucumbers,
its worms, slugs, and shelly snails, its hedgehogs, its birds, its ducks
and geese (anatidæ), its dogs, its hares, and lastly its mice
(aphroditæ.) The latter objects, despite their unprepossessing name,
being in no wise less interesting than those above mentioned.
The Aphrodite aculeata is, perhaps, one of the most gorgeous
creatures that inhabits the seas of our British coast. Its body is
covered with a coating of short brown hairs, but as these approach
the sides of the animal, they become intermixed with long dark
bristles, the whole of which are of an iridescent character. In one
respect this creature bears no resemblance to its namesake of the
land, being extremely slow and sluggish in its movements (at least
according to our experience) when kept in confinement. Some
writers, however, affirm that the Aphrodite possesses the power,
although seldom exercised, of both running and swimming through
the water with considerable speed.
In general the animal loves to tenant the slimy mud, and wherever
the writer has happened to come upon a specimen at the sea-shore,
its back has always been thickly coated with sand or dirt. The Sea-
Mouse, then, unlike the peacock, can never be deemed an emblem
of haughty pride, yet has nature in her lavish beauty endowed this
humble inhabitant of the deep with a richness of plumage, so to
speak, fully equal in its metallic brilliancy to that which decorates the
tail of the strutting bird we have mentioned. As the bristles of the
Aphrodite are moved about, tints—green, yellow, and orange, blue,
purple, and scarlet—all the hues of Iris play upon them with the
changing light, and shine with a metallic effulgence. Even if the
animal, when dead, is placed in clear water, the same varied effect is
seen as often as the observer changes his position.
Not only are the Setæ worthy of notice on account of their lustrous
beauty, but also for their shape, and the important part they play in
the economy of the animal. These lance-like spines seem to be used
by the Aphrodite as weapons of defence, like the spines of the
hedgehog or porcupine. In some species they are like harpoons,
each being supplied with a double series of strong barbs.
The instruments can all be withdrawn into the body of the animal at
will, but we can easily conceive that such formidable weapons being
retracted into its flesh would not add to the creature's comfort—in
fact they would produce a deadly effect, were it not for the following
simple and beautiful contrivance.
Each spine is furnished with a double sheath composed of two
blades, between which it is lodged; these sheaths closing upon the
sharp points of the spear when the latter is drawn inwards,
effectually guard the surrounding flesh from injury.
The shape of this animal is oval, the back convex, while the under
part presents a flat and curious ribbed-like appearance. Its length
varies from three to five inches; specimens, however, are sometimes
to be procured, even on our own shores, of much larger dimensions.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
Star-fishes.
(OPHIURIDAE AND ASTERIADAE.)

'As there are stars in the sky, so there are stars in the sea.'—Link.
 XVIII.
There are not a few persons still to be met with, who believe that
man and the lower animals appeared simultaneously upon the face
of the earth. Geology most forcibly proves the error of such an idea,
for although the fossilized remains of every other class of organized
beings have been discovered, human bones have nowhere been
found. This fact, though deeply interesting, is perhaps not more so
than many others which this wonderful science has unfolded. What
can be more startling to the student for instance, than the
information that for a long period, it may be thousands of years, no
species of fish whatever inhabited the primeval seas? True it is that
certain creatures occupied the shallows and depths of ocean, but
these were of the lowest type. The most conspicuous were the coral
polypes, which even then as now were ever industriously building up
lasting monuments of their existence, as the Trilobites, a group of
Crustacea, and the Crinoids, or Lily-stars.
The last-mentioned group of animals were analogous to the present
tribe of Star-fishes, and are now nearly extinct. The body of the Lily-
star, which resembled some beautiful radiate flower, was affixed to a
long, slender stalk, composed of a series of solid plates superposed
upon one another, bound together by a fleshy coat, and made to
undulate to and fro in any direction at the will of the animal. The
stalk was firmly attached to some foreign substance, and
consequently the Crinoid Star-fish, unlike its modern representative,
could not rove about in search of prey, but only capture such objects
as came within reach of its widely expanded arms. 'Scarcely a dozen
kinds of these beautiful creatures,' observes Professor Forbes, 'now
live in the seas of our globe, and individuals of these kinds are
comparatively rarely to be met with; formerly they were among the
most numerous of the ocean's inhabitants,—so numerous that the
remains of their skeletons constitute great tracts of the dry land as it
now appears. For miles and miles we may walk over the stony
fragments of the Crinoidae, fragments which were once built up in
animated forms, encased in living flesh, and obeying the will of
creatures among the loveliest of the inhabitants of the ocean. Even
in their present disjointed and petrified state, they excite the
admiration not only of the naturalist, but of the common gazer; and
the name of stone lily, popularly applied to them, indicates a popular
appreciation of their beauty.' Each wheel-like joint of the fossil
Encrinite being generally perforated in the centre, facility is thus
afforded for stringing a number of these objects together like beads,
and in this form the monks of old, according to tradition, used the
broken fragments of the lily-stars as rosaries. Hence the common
appellation of St Cuthbert's Beads, to which Sir Walter Scott alludes,
—

'On a rock by Lindisfarn

St. Cuthbert sits, and toils to frame
The sea-born beads that bear his name.'

One solitary species of the Crinoid Star-fishes has of late years been
found to flourish in our own seas; it is, however, affixed to a stalk
(pedunculated) only in the early periods of its existence.
When first discovered by Mr. Thompson in its infant state, the
Pentacrinus Europæus was believed to be a distinct animal. It was
taken attached to the stems of zoophytes of different orders, and
measured about three-fourths of an inch in height. In form it
resembled a minute comatula mounted on the stalk of a Pentacrinus.
Subsequent research has proved that the little stranger was merely
the young state of the feather star Comatula rosacea, and that
although for a certain period attached to a slender waving stem, the
Pentacrinus, when arrived at a certain stage of development, feels
fully able to start life on its own accord, and hence takes opportunity
to break off its early ties, and become a free animal, dependent
upon its own exertions for subsistence.
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