EVOLUTIONARY THEORY Auguste Comte is known for developing

the Law of Three Stages which outlines the

stages through which societies evolve. He
1. Introduction to the Theory
proposed that societies move from a
theological stage (dominated by religious
Herbert Spencer is one of the most
explanations), to a metaphysical stage
well-known proponents of evolutionary
(dominated by philosophical reasoning), and
theory in sociology.
finally to a scientific or positive stage
(where empirical and scientific reasoning
Auguste Comte, often considered the father
takes precedence).
of sociology, developed the law of three
stages in social development, which
Émile Durkheim contributed to
suggests that societies progress through
evolutionary theory by exploring the
three stages.
changes in social solidarity as societies
evolve.
Émile Durkheim is not strictly an
evolutionary theorist, his ideas about social
Walt Rostow’s Modernization Theory
solidarity and the division of labor fit within
offered a more structured approach to
the broader framework of evolutionary
societal development. He proposed that
thought.
societies pass through five stages of
development.
Walt Rostow
Rostow’s Modernization Theory aligns with
Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer
evolutionary thought by proposing that
(Critical Theory)
societies pass through distinct stages of
Although more critical of linear
development.
evolutionary theories, Adorno and
Horkheimer examined how capitalist
Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer:
societies evolve and the negative
Their Critical Theory examined how society
consequences of this evolution. The
evolves under capitalism, showing that
contributions of these key proponents have
social change can lead to both progress and
shaped our understanding of evolutionary
regression.
theory in social change and development.
What are their main contributions?
The historical and social context in which
Herbert Spencer applied Darwin's theory
evolutionary theory in social change and
of natural selection to societies,
development emerged deeply tied to the
arguing that just like species in nature,
massive transformations of the 19th century.
societies evolve through a process of
competition, adaptation, and survival.
The Industrial Revolution, the influence of How does the theory explain social change
Darwin’s theory of evolution, the and development?
Enlightenment’s ideals of progress, and the
social and political upheavals of the time all Evolutionary theory explains social change
created a fertile ground for new ways of as a gradual process where societies evolve
thinking about society. Evolutionary over time, adapting to changes in the
theorists, drawing on the ideas of natural environment. Just like species evolve to
selection and social progress, sought to survive, social systems change based on
understand how societies evolve, adapt, and economic, political, and cultural shifts.
develop over time. While these ideas helped Development occurs as societies become
frame our understanding of societal growth, more complex and better suited to their
they also reflected the historical conditions surroundings.
that shaped the world during a time of great
change. What are the key assumptions about
society, individuals, and structures in this
The key concepts of this theory in social theory?
change and development revolve around the
idea that societies evolve, adapt, and Society: Society is constantly changing and
progress over time. These changes are adapting, not staying the same. It evolves in
driven by the forces of adaptation and response to various challenges and needs.
competition, with societies moving through
predictable stages toward greater complexity Individuals: People can influence social
and organization. The principles of social change through their actions, but they are
evolution, progress, stages of development, also shaped by larger social, economic, and
adaptation, cultural evolution, linear change, political forces.
and differentiation and integration help
explain how societies grow and transform. Structures: Social structures (like family,
While evolutionary theory has been economy, education) are the result of
criticized for its oversimplification of social long-term changes. They evolve to meet the
change, it provides an important framework needs of society over time.
for understanding the long-term
development of human societies and their How does this theory view the
structures. relationship between power, economy,
and social structures?
Evolutionary theory sees power, economy,
and social structures as interconnected.
Economic factors influence power, which in
turn affects social structures. As societies
grow and
change, power may shift, leading to new constructed and can be changed to promote
economic systems and changes in how equality and dismantle patriarchal systems.
resources are distributed.
In summary, evolutionary theory supports
3. Comparative Analysis biologically-based gender roles that
1. Addressing Gender and Social reinforce inequality, while the Engendered
Inequalities: Lens critiques this and advocates for gender
equality by focusing on social constructs and
Evolutionary Theory: Gender roles are power dynamics.
seen as biologically driven, with men and
women fulfilling distinct roles for survival 4. Application to current developments
and reproduction, often overlooking social Evolutionary theory dictated and provided
inequalities. evidence that the world is not constant, that
Engendered Lens: Critiques this by if it is shifting overtime that would help
emphasizing that gender roles are socially analyze how we should manage, stabilize
constructed, not biologically inevitable, and design and organize world wide issues.
challenges the power structures that sustain
inequality. Some examples of social changes that can
be easily noticed in this generation is how
2. View on Development: young adults view and defend what they
think is politically correct. The other one is
Evolutionary Theory: Views development how people's perspective changes depending
as driven by survival and natural selection, on what is trending or famous with the
with gender roles evolving to fit biological influence of social media. These are just a
needs. few of those examples of societal changes
but still serve as evidence that evolutionary
Engendered Lens: Sees development as a theory does not only occur in scientific
process shaped by social factors, advocating geographical, biologically phenomena.
for gender equality and a more inclusive
approach to progress. Strengths and Criticisms

3. Challenging or Reinforcing Traditional What are the main strengths of

Gender Roles: evolutionary theory in explaining
development?
Evolutionary Theory: Reinforces
traditional gender roles by viewing them as • The main strengths of evolutionary theory
natural and essential for survival, thus in explaining development are its ability to
sustaining existing power structures. provide a unifying framework for
Engendered Lens: Challenges traditional understanding diverse species' development
gender roles, arguing they are socially patterns, its focus on
adaptation through natural selection,
explaining the underlying reasons for • Life history strategies:
species-typical behaviors and traits, and its Evolutionary theory can explain how
capacity to integrate genetic and organisms allocate resources throughout
environmental factors impacting their lifespan based on environmental cues,
development across generations, allowing including developmental timing and
for analysis of life history strategies and reproductive strategies.
potential trade-offs.
• Comparative analysis:
Main Strengths By comparing development across diverse
species, evolutionary theory allows for
• Explaining Power identification of common patterns and
Evolutionary theory provides a evolutionary convergences.
comprehensive explanation for why certain
developmental patterns exist, linking them • Scientific basis for research:
to the environmental pressures faced by Evolutionary theory provides a robust
ancestors and the need to maximize theoretical framework for guiding research
reproductive success. in developmental biology, psychology, and
related fields.
• Adaptive Perspective
By focusing on natural selection, What are the criticisms or limitations of
evolutionary theory highlights how this theory?
developmental traits that enhance survival • Gaps in the Fossil Record – Missing
and reproduction in a given environment are transitional fossils make species evolution
more likely to be passed on to future difficult to fully verify.
generations. • Challenges in Explaining Complex
Traits – Some structures (e.g., the eye,
• Species-typical development: brain) seem too intricate for gradual
It explains why different species exhibit evolution alone.
distinct developmental trajectories, • Oversimplification of Human Behavior
reflecting their unique evolutionary history – Reduces complex traits to survival and
and adaptations. reproduction, ignoring cultural factors.
• Determinism & Reductionism – Implies
• Integration of genetics and fixed biological roles, downplaying social
environment: and environmental influences.
Evolutionary theory acknowledges the • Social & Ethical Misuse – Used to justify
interplay between genetic predispositions Social Darwinism, eugenics, and inequality.
and environmental factors in shaping
development, allowing for a more holistic
understanding.
Limitations of Evolutionary Theory Case studies and Practical Examples
• Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium
– Evolution may happen in rapid bursts, not Are there real-world policies, programs,
slow, steady change. or movements influenced by this theory?
• Epigenetics & Non-Genetic Inheritance
– Environmental factors can influence gene Case Study: The Evolution of Antibiotic
expression across generations. Resistance
• Lack of Predictability – Cannot precisely The rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
predict future evolutionary changes. perfectly illustrates evolutionary principles.
• Horizontal Gene Transfer – Challenges Before widespread antibiotic use, bacterial
the traditional "tree of life" by showing infections were deadly. Antibiotics created a
genes can transfer between species. selective pressure: bacteria with resistance
genes survived and reproduced more
successfully than susceptible bacteria. This
led to a rapid increase in resistant strains.
How has this theory evolved or been
challenged by other scholars? Emergence of Methicillin-resistant
• Modern Synthesis (Neo-Darwinism) – Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Combined Darwin’s natural selection with Methicillin's introduction was quickly
Mendelian genetics, explaining how traits followed by the emergence of MRSA strains
are inherited through genes. with a modified protein that resisted the
• Punctuated Equilibrium (Gould & antibiotic. Continued and often improper
Eldredge) – Challenged gradualism by antibiotic use has accelerated this, creating
proposing that evolution happens in rapid multi-drug resistant "superbugs" that are
bursts, not slow, continuous change. extremely difficult to treat. This
• Epigenetics – Showed that environmental demonstrates how human actions can
factors can influence gene expression across unintentionally drive rapid and dangerous
generations, challenging the idea that only evolutionary changes.
genetic mutations drive evolution.
• Horizontal Gene Transfer – Found that Are there real-world policies, programs,
genes can transfer between species or movements influenced by this theory?
(especially in microorganisms),
complicating the traditional "tree of life." This theory helps us solve real-world
• Extended Evolutionary Synthesis (EES) problems in health, society, and the
– Incorporates new ideas like niche economy. By understanding how things
construction (organisms shaping their own change over time, we can create better
evolution) and developmental plasticity solutions. For example, health, agriculture,
(how organisms adapt and policy making. In health, we can fight
during growth). diseases more effectively by
understanding how bacteria become resistant Rostow argued that all nations follow a
to antibiotics. This helps us develop smarter predictable path toward industrialization and
ways to use antibiotics and prevent high mass consumption.
resistance. Another is agriculture farmers
use this theory to create crops and livestock Proponents and Their Contributors
that are naturally resistant to pests and Marquis de Condorcet – First to connect
diseases, reducing the need for harmful economic and social development,
pesticides. On the other hand, policy making advocating for continuous human progress.
by understanding how societies and the
environment change helps policymakers Émile Durkheim – Developed
create more effective plans to address issues functionalism, emphasizing social
like climate change and social inequality. institutions' role in maintaining unity.
We can anticipate problems and create
solutions before they become major crises. Talcott Parsons – Stressed that societies
must remain open to change for
How does this theory help in solving development.
social problems today?
This theory helps solve contemporary social David Apter – Linked democracy,
problems by tracking past changes to predict governance, and modernization,
future trends and identify root causes. emphasizing political development.
Analyzing historical data reveals underlying
factors contributing to these problems, Seymour Martin Lipset – Argued that
enabling the development of preventative economic development fosters democracy
strategies. through social changes.
____________________________________
David McClelland – Proposed the "need for
MODERNIZATION THEORY achievement" as a psychological driver of
Modernization.
Introduction of Modernization Theory
Alex Inkeles – Defined the modern
Modernization theory, as proposed by Walt personality as rational, independent, and
Whitman Rostow, presents a linear model open to change.
of
economic development, outlining how Edward Said – Critique modernization
societies progress from traditional to modern from the perspective of societies undergoing
economies. rapid transformation (Orientalism).

In his influential book, The Stages of W.W. Rostow – Proposed the "Stages of
Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Economic Growth" model, focusing on
Manifesto (1960), economic modernization.
History Core Ideas and Perspective
Modernization Theory explains how
Rostow’s Modernization Theory emerged societies develop from traditional to modern
after World War II, when many African economies through industrialization,
and Asian nations gained independence technology, and social change.
(decolonization). During the Cold War, the
world was divided between the United Rostow’s Five Stages of Economic
States (capitalism) and the Soviet Union Growth
(communism). Rostow promoted capitalism Traditional Society – Agriculture-based,
as the best path for development. He limited technology, rigid social structure.
believed that societies progress in stages, Preconditions for Takeoff – Infrastructure
starting from traditional farming to development, investment in new industries.
industrialized economies. His model Takeoff – Rapid industrialization, economic
suggested that all countries could follow the growth, and investment increase.
same path as the U.S. and Western Europe to Drive to Maturity – Advanced technology,
achieve modernization. diverse industries, improved living
standards.
Key concepts Age of High Mass Consumption –
Consumer-driven economy, widespread
●​ Stages of Development affluence.
●​ Economic Growth as the Path to
Development Key Assumptions
●​ Western Countries as the Model for ●​ All societies follow the same path of
Development development.
●​ Role of Technology and ●​ Economic growth leads to
Industrialization modernization and social progress.
●​ Urbanization and Social Change ●​ Traditional values must change to
●​ Democracy and Free Markets as End support industrialization.
Goals Principles ●​ Governments and external influences
●​ Linear Progression (like Western nations) help
●​ Economic Growth is Key modernization.
●​ Technology and Innovation Drive
Modernization. Relationship Between Power, Economy,
●​ Cultural Change is Necessary and Society
●​ Westernization as the Ideal Model ●​ Industrialized nations become
powerful in global trade and politics.
●​ Social mobility increases as societies
modernize.
 ●​ Critics argue the theory ignores 3. How does this theory help us
global inequalities and dependency understand issues like poverty,
on Western influence. globalization, and
neoliberalism?
Application to Current Development o Poverty: Modernization theory implies
Trends poverty arises from being "stuck" in earlier
1. How can this theory be applied to stages, requiring economic and institutional
analyze contemporary global or local reforms.
development o Globalization: Suggests that globalization
Issues? spreads modernity and accelerates the
development process through international
o Modernization Theory can analyze trade, technology, and communication.
global/local development by viewing o Neoliberalism: Supports neoliberal
countries as progressing through stages of policies as part of the modernizing process,
economic growth. It suggests that nations promoting free-market capitalism to
should follow a linear path from traditional stimulate growth and reduce poverty.
to modern societies, emphasizing
industrialization, infrastructure, and
education to spur development. Strengths
1. Clear Development Path- Provides a
2. How can What examples of social step-by-step model for economic growth.
change (e.g., economic policies, social 2. Based on Real Examples-Inspired by
movements, Western countries and success stories like
environmental issues) can be explained Singapore.
using this theory? 3. Encourages Industrialization-Highlights
investment, infrastructure, and technology as
o Economic Policies: Structural adjustment key to development.
programs in developing nations often 4. Useful for Policy Planning- Helps
align with the theory’s stages, promoting governments create strategies for economic
free-market reforms and industrialization. progress.
o Social Movements: Movements pushing
for education and modernization (e.g., Criticisms
women’s rights, tech development) reflect 1. Western-Centered- Assumes all
the shift toward modernity. countries should follow the same path as
o Environmental Issues: The theory could Western nations.
explain industrialization’s environmental 2. Too Simplistic- Not all countries develop
impact as societies modernize without in fixed stages or the same way.
prioritizing sustainable practices. 3. Ignores Social & Political Factors-
Overlooks governance, inequality, and
historical struggles.
4. Overlooks Global Inequality- Does not to the modernization of the Philippines
address colonial history and economic through remittances, skills transfer, and
dependency. cultural influence.
5. Encourages External Dependence-
Suggests poor countries need outside help to 3. Philippines' Digitalization Initiatives
grow. Programs like the National ID System
(PhilSys) and E-Government Initiatives aim
to modernize public services and improve
Case Studies (Practical Examples) governance. The integration of digital
platforms for transactions and social
The Green Revolution in the Philippines services aligns with the modernization
One of the most prominent applications of theory's idea that technological adoption
Modernization Theory in the Philippines leads to social progress.
was the Green Revolution during the 1960s
and 1970s. This movement aimed to 4. Build! Build! Build! Program
modernize the country’s agricultural sector (2016–2022)
by introducing high-yield crops, mechanized The Duterte administration's infrastructure
farming, and chemical fertilizers. It was program aimed to modernize the
influenced by the idea that technological Philippines' transportation, energy, and
advancement and industrialization would communication systems. This aligns with
lead to economic growth and social Rostow's emphasis on infrastructure
progress, a key principle of modernization development as a precondition for economic
theory. growth.

Policies, Programs, and Movements How Modernization Theory Helps Solve

Influenced by Modernization Theory Social Problems Today
1. Export-Oriented Industrialization 1. Poverty Reduction through
(EOI) Policies (1970s–1980s) Industrialization and Economic Growth
The Philippines shifted from ISI to EOI, Modernization Perspective: Economic
focusing on producing goods for export growth is the primary solution to poverty. As
(e.g.,electronics, garments). countries industrialize, new industries create
This policy aimed to integrate the more job opportunities, raising income
Philippines into the global economy and levels. Example in the Philippines: The
generate foreign exchange. Build, Build, Build infrastructure program
attracted foreign investments, created
2. OFW Remittance-Driven Development thousands of jobs, and boosted the economy,
The government encourages overseas work lifting people out of poverty.
as a means of economic development,
reflecting the assumption that exposure to
more developed economies will contribute
2. Enhancing Education and Human Example: The rise of women in leadership
Capital Development roles in business, politics, and education in
Modernization Perspective: Modern the Philippines reflects modernization’s role
societies invest in education and in breaking traditional gender norms.
technological skills to prepare individuals 6. Urbanization and Infrastructure
for advanced economies. Development
Example: The K-12 Education System and Modernization Perspective: Modern cities
TESDA Skills Training equip Filipinos with offer better housing, transportation, and
globally competitive skills, enabling them to sanitation, improving quality of life.
work in high-income jobs domestically or Example: The expansion of Metro Manila’s
abroad. railway systems and smart city initiatives in
3. Improving Public Health through Cebu and Davao modernizes urban living
Medical Advancements and reduces congestion and pollution.
Modernization Perspective: Scientific ____________________________________
progress and better healthcare systems
reduce disease prevalence and increase life SOCIAL CHANGE AND
expectancy. Example: The Philippines'
adoption of telemedicine and digital health
DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
services during the COVID-
19 pandemic modernized healthcare access, Introduction to the Theory
reducing health disparities in rural areas.
Social Constructionism, developed by
4. Strengthening Governance and Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann in
Reducing Corruption their 1966 book (The Social Construction of
Modernization Perspective: As societies Reality), argues that reality is shaped by
modernize, institutions become more human interactions, language, and shared
efficient, democratic, and transparent, meanings rather than being inherently
reducing corruption. objective.
Example: The National ID System (PhilSys)
and e-Government Services have made Key Concepts
public services more accessible and less
prone to bureaucratic inefficiencies and 1.​ Institutionalization - how repeated
corruption. behaviors form social norms.
2.​ Legitimation - how these norms are
5. Gender Equality and Social Progress reinforced through culture and
Modernization Perspective: Economic and education.
social development leads to greater gender
equality as women gain education, job Core Ideas and Perspectives
opportunities, and political representation. Social Constructionism explains social
change as a process driven by shifting
ideas, narratives, and collective beliefs
rather than material conditions alone. It social narratives influence legal and
emphasizes human agency, suggesting that institutional change.
individuals actively participate in shaping
society rather than simply being shaped by Social Constructionism provides a
social forces. Power, economic systems, and powerful lens for understanding how
social structures are seen as social constructs societies create and transform social
rather than natural or inevitable. realities. It is particularly useful for
analyzing issues of power, gender, and
Comparative Analysis (Engendered Lens) inequality, offering insights into how
Social Constructionism is particularly useful dominant ideologies are maintained and
for analyzing gender and social inequalities, challenged. Despite its limitations, the
demonstrating that gender roles are socially theory remains highly relevant in addressing
created rather than biologically determined. contemporary global and local social issues.
It contrasts with Marxist theories, which
focus on material conditions, by Social Constructionism, developed by
emphasizing the power of discourse in Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann,
shaping development. argues that reality is socially constructed
through human interactions, language,
Strengths and Criticisms and institutions. It challenges the idea that
social structures are naturally given, instead
One of the strengths of Social emphasizing that they are maintained and
Constructionism is its ability to reveal how reinforced through societal norms. This
social realities are fluid and changeable, perspective is important in analyzing social
providing a framework for challenging policies, especially in areas like gender,
dominant ideologies. race, and class, as it reveals how inequalities
are perpetuated through discourse. However,
Despite these criticisms, the theory has critics argue that it does not sufficiently
evolved through its intersection with critical address material conditions and economic
theory and postcolonial studies, making it structures that shape social realities.
more nuanced in analyzing social change. ____________________________________

Case Studies and Practical Examples Dialectical and Historical

A key example is the changing perception of
Materialism
mental health, where advocacy efforts have
reconstructed mental illness as a legitimate Dialectical Materialism is a philosophical
health issue rather than a personal weakness. approach to reality derived from the writings
Similarly, the decriminalization of same-sex of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
relationships demonstrates how shifting
Historical materialism is a specific arises from it.
application of this outlook to the study of Interconnection and Interdependence: All
human history. things are interconnected and
interdependent, constantly changing and
Dialectical materialism focuses on the influencing each other.
general laws of change and development, Change and Motion: Reality is not static
while historical materialism examines the but dynamic, characterized by constant
specific ways in which these laws operate in change and motion.
human history. Contradiction as the Driving Force:
Contradictions within things are the driving
Historical materialism emphasizes the role force of change and development.
of economic factors and class struggle in Quantitative Change into Qualitative
shaping historical development, while Change: Gradual quantitative changes
dialectical materialism is concerned with the eventually lead to a qualitative leap,
interplay of all aspects of reality. transforming the nature of a thing.
Negation of the Negation: Development
Dialectical Materialism combines two key proceeds through a process of negation,
philosophical concepts: where an existing thing is negated, and then
that negation is itself negated, leading to a
Materialism: The material world, new, higher level of development.
perceptible to the senses, has objective
reality independent of mind or spirit. Historical Materialism:
Dialectics: Change and development occur Forces of production: These are the tools,
through the interaction of opposing forces technology, raw materials, and knowledge
or contradictions. used to produce goods and services. Think
Historical Materialism is a specific of everything from a simple hand plow to
application of dialectical materialism to the complex industrial machinery, as well as the
study of history. It argues that the primary skills and knowledge needed to use them.
driving force in historical development is the
mode of production, which includes the Relations of production: These are the
forces of production (technology, tools, social and economic relationships that
knowledge) and the relations of production people enter into in the process of
(social and economic relationships production. Most importantly, this refers to
surrounding production, the relationships between different classes,
such as class relations). such as owners and workers.

Core Principles of Dialectical

Materialism:
Primacy of Matter: The material world is
the foundation of reality, and consciousness
Marx and Engels saw social change as a leads to a social revolution. This is a period
process driven by the internal contradictions of radical social change where the old
within society, particularly the conflict relations of production are overthrown and
between the forces of production and the replaced by new ones that are more
relations of production. compatible with the developed forces of
production. For example, the Industrial
1. Development of Forces of Production: Revolution, driven by new technologies, led
Technological advancements, new tools, and to the rise of capitalism and the decline of
increased knowledge lead to a continuous feudalism.
development of the forces of production. 5. New Mode of Production:
This is a progressive process, constantly The social revolution results in the
improving humanity's ability to produce. establishment of a new mode of production,
2. Contradiction with Relations of a new way of organizing production and
Production: social relations. This new mode of
At a certain point, the developing forces of production allows
production come into conflict with the for further development of the forces of
existing relations of production (the social production.
and economic structures governing 6. Historical Progress:
production). These structures, which were Marx and Engels saw this process as a
once suitable for the level of productive progressive one, with each mode of
forces become a hindrance to further production representing a step forward in
development. For example, feudalism, with human history. They believed that
its rigid class structure and land ownership, capitalism, despite its inherent
eventually became an obstacle to the contradictions, was a necessary stage for the
development of capitalism and its need for a development of productive forces and the
free labor market. eventual transition to communism.
3. Class Struggle:
This contradiction manifests itself in class The role of class struggle and economic
struggle. Different classes, with their forces in shaping society
conflicting interests, emerge based on their
relationship to the means of production Class struggle: Marx and Engels saw class
(e.g., owners vs. workers). The class that struggle as the central dynamic in history.
benefits from the existing relations of They argued that societies are divided into
production tries to maintain them, while the classes based on their relationship to the
class that is hindered by them struggles to means of production (e.g., owners vs.
change them. workers). These classes have conflicting
4. Social Revolution: interests, leading to ongoing struggles for
When the contradiction between forces and power and resources.
relations of production becomes acute, it Economic forces: They emphasized the role
of economic forces, particularly the
development of the forces of production, in social revolution. This is a period of
shaping society. They believed that changes fundamental social change where the old
in the way goods are produced have relations of production are overthrown and
profound effects on social relations, political replaced by new ones that are more
institutions, and even ideas. compatible with the developed forces of
Dialectical and Historical Materialism production. This revolution leads to a
offers a framework for understanding transition to a new mode of production.
social transformation as a process driven Progressive but Contradictory: Marx and
by internal contradictions within Engels saw this process as progressive,
societies, primarily the conflict between with each new mode of production
forces of production and relations of representing a step forward in human
production. history, allowing for greater productivity and
potential for human development. However,
Here's how it explains the flow of social they also emphasized that each stage is
transformation throughout history: marked by contradictions and class
struggles.
Stages of Development: History is seen as a
series of stages, each characterized by a Dialectical and Historical Materialism
specific "mode of production" (e.g., views these economic systems as stages in
primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, historical development, each emerging
capitalism). Each mode of production has its from the contradictions of the previous
own internal logic and set of class one:
relations.
Development of Productive Forces: Within Feudalism: Characterized by land
each stage, the forces of production ownership, serfdom, and a hierarchical
(technology, tools, knowledge) develop and social structure. It eventually became an
advance. This is a continuous process obstacle to the development of productive
driven by human ingenuity and the need to forces, leading to its decline.
improve production. Capitalism: Emerged from the breakdown
Contradiction and Class Struggle: As the of feudalism. It is based on private of the
forces of production develop, they means of production, wage labor, and the
eventually come into conflict with the pursuit of profit. Capitalism spurred
existing relations of production (the social tremendous growth in productive forces but
and economic structures that organize also created new contradictions, particularly
production). This conflict manifests as class between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the
struggle, as different classes have opposing proletariat (workers).
interests regarding the organization of Socialism: Marx and Engels predicted that
production. capitalism would eventually be overthrown
Revolution and Transformation: When the by the proletariat, leading to socialism.
contradiction becomes acute, it leads to a Socialism would be a transitional stage
where the means of production are policies that address economic inequality
collectively owned and used to meet social and its consequences, such as poverty,
needs rather than generate profit. This would unemployment, and lack of access to
eventually lead to communism. resources.

The views of power, oppression, and Critique of Capitalism: By critiquing

revolution in social change capitalism's inherent inequalities, historical
materialism has inspired policies aimed at
Power: Power is seen as rooted in economic mitigating its negative effects. This includes
relations, specifically control over the welfare programs, progressive taxation, and
means of production. The class that owns regulations on labor practices.
and controls the means of production holds
economic and political power. Emphasis on Collective Action: The theory
Oppression: Oppression is a direct result of highlights the importance of collective
class relations. The exploiting class (e.g., action and social movements in driving
slave owners, feudal lords, capitalists) social change. This has influenced the
oppresses the exploited class (e.g., slaves, development of policies that empower
serfs, workers) to maintain its power and marginalized groups and promote their
extract surplus labor. participation in decision-making processes.
Revolution: Revolution is seen as a
necessary and inevitable outcome of class 2. Shaping Social Work Practices:
struggle when the contradictions between Systemic Analysis: Historical materialism
forces and relations of production become encourages social workers to analyze social
unbearable. It is a process where the problems within their broader economic and
oppressed class overthrows the ruling class political context. This means looking
and establishes a new social order. Marx and beyond individual failings and
Engels viewed revolution as a progressive understanding how systemic inequalities
force in history, driving social change and contribute to people's struggles.
ultimately leading to a classless society. Empowerment and Advocacy: Social
workers are encouraged to empower clients
Impact of Historical Materialism on by helping them understand their rights and
Social Policies and Social Work: advocating for social change that addresses
the root causes of their problems.
1. Influence on Social Policies and
Welfare Systems: Social Justice Focus: The theory promotes
a social justice-oriented approach to social
Focus on Economic Structures: Historical work, where practitioners strive to challenge
materialism emphasizes the role of oppressive structures and promote equality
economic structures in shaping society and for all.
individual lives. This has led to social
Class Consciousness: Historical Historical materialism has had a profound
materialism helps organizers raise awareness impact on social policies, social work
about class divisions and how they impact practices, and community organizing. By
people's lives. This can mobilize emphasizing the role of economic structures
communities to fight for better working and collective action, it provides a
conditions, affordable housing, and other framework for understanding and
social justice issues. challenging social inequalities. While some
of its predictions may not have come to
Building Solidarity: The theory emphasizes fruition, its core insights remain relevant for
the importance of building solidarity among addressing the challenges of the 21st
different groups facing similar forms of century.
oppression. This can create powerful
movements for social change that transcend Major Criticisms:
individual identities. Economic Determinism: Critics argue that
the theory overemphasizes economic
Strategic Action: By understanding the factors, neglecting the influence of other
dynamics of power and economic structures, aspects like culture, politics, and individual
organizers can develop effective strategies agency. They see it as reducing everything
for challenging dominant forces and to economic relations, which they find too
achieving their goals. simplistic.
Teleological View of History: The idea that
4. Contemporary Examples: history inevitably progresses towards
Occupy Movement: The Occupy Communism is seen as teleological,
movement, which protested economic meaning it assumes a predetermined end.
inequality and corporate greed, was inspired Critics argue that this ignores the role of
by Marxist ideas about class struggle and the chance, contingency, and human choice in
concentration of wealth. shaping historical events.
Black Lives Matter: The Black Lives Lack of Empirical Support: Some argue
Matter movement, which fights against that the theory lacks sufficient empirical
systemic racism and police brutality, draws evidence to support its claims. They point to
on historical materialism to understand the historical examples that don't fit the Marxist
historical roots of racial inequality and its framework, such as the failure of communist
ongoing impact. revolutions in some countries and the
Labor Movements: Contemporary labor persistence of capitalism in others.
movements, such as the fight for a $15 Suppression of Individuality: Critics worry
minimum wage, utilize historical that the emphasis on class struggle and
materialism to analyze the power dynamics collective action can lead to the suppression
between workers and employers and to of individual rights and freedoms. They
advocate for better working conditions and argue that the focus on the collective good
fair wages.
can justify authoritarian regimes and between countries and within them. It
disregard for individual needs. highlights how global capitalism can lead to
Unrealistic Utopianism: The vision of a the exploitation of developing nations and
communist society without class divisions the concentration of wealth in the hands of a
and exploitation is seen by some as few.
unrealistic and utopian. Critics argue that it
ignores the inherent inequalities and Analyzing Power Dynamics: It provides a
conflicts that exist in any society. framework for understanding the power
dynamics between developed and
Evolution and Challenges by Modern developing countries, as well as the role of
Thinkers: multinational corporations and international
institutions in shaping global development.
Frankfurt School: This group of thinkers,
while influenced by Marx, moved away Critiquing Development Models: The
from strict economic determinism and theory can be used to critique dominant
explored the role of culture, ideology, and development models that prioritize
mass media in shaping social consciousness. economic growth over social justice and
Post-Marxism: This diverse set of theories environmental sustainability. It can also
critiques traditional Marxism and attempts inspire alternative approaches to
to update it for the contemporary world. development that focus on empowering
They often incorporate insights from other marginalized communities and promoting
schools of thought, such as feminism, equality.
post-structuralism, and environmentalism.
Feminist Marxism: This perspective Conclusion:
combines Marxist analysis with feminist
insights, arguing that gender inequality is Dialectical and Historical Materialism is a
intertwined with class exploitation. It complex and contested theory with both
challenges the traditional Marxist focus on strengths and weaknesses. While it has faced
economic class by highlighting the significant criticisms and challenges, it
importance of gender relations. continues to be a valuable tool for analyzing
social and economic phenomena, including
Application to Contemporary Global contemporary global development. By
Development: understanding its limitations and engaging
Despite the criticisms, Dialectical and with its critics, we can use this framework to
Historical Materialism can still offer develop a more nuanced and critical
valuable insights into contemporary global understanding of the world we live in.
development: ____________________________________

Understanding Inequality: The theory

helps analyze the deep inequalities that exist
FEMINIST THEORY emphasizing the social construction of
gender.
Betty Friedan (1921–2006) – A leading
1. Introduction to the Theory figure in liberal feminism, Friedan’s book
Who are the key proponents of this The Feminine Mystique (1963) critiqued the
theory? What are their main idea that women should be confined to
contributions? domestic roles and helped ignite the
What is the historical and social context second-wave feminist movement.
in which this theory emerged? Bell Hooks (1952–2021) – A key proponent
What are the key concepts and principles of intersectional feminism, Hooks argued in
of the theory? Ain’t I a Woman? Black Women and
Feminism (1981) that race, class, and gender
Feminist theory is a broad framework that must be analyzed together when discussing
examines gender inequality, patriarchy, and oppression.
the social, political, and economic Judith Butler (b. 1956) – A postmodern
oppression of women. The theory is feminist and queer theorist, Butler’s Gender
interdisciplinary, drawing from sociology, Trouble (1990) challenged the idea of fixed
psychology, political science, and literature gender identities, arguing that gender is
to analyze gender roles, identity, and performative rather than innate.
intersectionality (Tong, 2009). On the other
hand the feminist perspective is an approach Key Proponents:
used in various disciplines to analyze power Liberal Feminism: John Stuart Mill (1869)
dynamics related to gender. It focuses on in The Subjection of Women argued for
issues such as women's rights, gender equality based on individual rights
representation, and the deconstruction of and freedoms.
gender norms. (Hooks, 2000). Radical Feminism: Catharine MacKinnon
and Andrea Dworkin critiqued patriarchal
There are several scholars and activists systems, particularly in areas such as sexual
that have shaped the feminist theory : violence and pornography.
Socialist Feminism: Friedrich Engels
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) – Often (1884) in The Origin of the Family, Private
considered one of the earliest feminist Property, and the State linked gender
theorists, Wollstonecraft argued for women's oppression to capitalism.
education and equal rights in A Vindication Intersectional Feminism: Kimberlé
of the Rights of Woman (1792). Crenshaw (1989) coined the term
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) – A "intersectionality" to describe how race,
French existentialist philosopher who wrote gender, and class intersect in experiences of
The Second Sex (1949), where she discrimination.
introduced the idea that "one is not born, but
rather becomes, a woman,"
Feminist theory developed through biologically determined but socially and
different historical waves, each culturally constructed. Simone de Beauvoir
addressing gender inequalities in response (1949) stated, “One is not born, but rather
to social, political, and economic changes. becomes, a woman,” highlighting how
society shapes gender roles. Judith Butler’s
First Wave (Late 18th – Early 20th (1990) Gender Trouble introduced the idea
Century) – Focused on women’s suffrage, of gender as performative rather than innate.
education, and property rights, influenced by
Enlightenment ideals. Key events included 2. Patriarchy and Power Structures
the Seneca Falls Convention (1848) and the Feminists critique patriarchy, a system
women’s suffrage movement, leading to where men hold power in social, political,
voting rights in many countries. and economic spheres. Radical feminism
(e.g., Kate Millett, Sexual Politics, 1970)
Second Wave (1940s–1980s) – Addressed argues that patriarchy is deeply embedded in
workplace discrimination, reproductive institutions such as law, religion, and media.
rights, and gender roles, emerging alongside
civil rights movements. Key moments 3. Intersectionality
included the publication of The Feminine Developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989),
Mystique (1963), the formation of the intersectionality examines how multiple
National Organization for Women (1966), identities (e.g., race, class, gender, sexuality)
and the legalization of abortion in Roe v. intersect to create unique experiences of
Wade (1973). Oppression. This concept challenges
feminism to be more inclusive of
Third Wave (1990s–2000s) – Focused on marginalized groups.
intersectionality, LGBTQ+ rights, and media
representation, critiquing the second wave’s 4. Feminist Epistemology (Ways of
lack of inclusivity. Important developments Knowing)
included Kimberlé Crenshaw’s Feminist theory critiques traditional
intersectionality theory (1989) and the Riot knowledge production, arguing that most
Grrrl punk movement. Fourth Wave historical knowledge is male-centered.
(2010s–Present) – Characterized by digital Feminist scholars advocate for standpoint
activism, addressing sexual harassment, theory (Sandra Harding, 1986), which
workplace inequality, and trans rights. Key emphasizes that marginalized perspectives
movements include #MeToo (2017) and offer valuable insights into society.
the Women’s March (2017).
5. Equality and Social Justice
What are the key concepts and principles Feminism seeks legal, social, and economic
of the theory? equality between genders. Liberal feminism
1. Gender as a Social Construct (e.g., Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of
Feminist theory argues that gender is not
the Rights of Woman, 1792) emphasizes that gender norms are learned and reinforced
equal rights in education, work, and politics. through socialization processes, media
representations, educational systems, and
6. Body Autonomy and Reproductive institutional structures. Social change, from
Rights a feminist viewpoint, involves challenging
Feminist theory argues for women’s right to and transforming these gendered norms and
control their own bodies, including roles to create a more equitable society.
reproductive choices and freedom from
sexual violence. Second-wave feminists ● The concept of intersectionality,
(e.g., Betty Friedan, The Feminine developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989), is
Mystique, 1963) fought for access to a key framework in feminist theory for
contraception, abortion rights (Roe v. Wade, understanding how various social categories,
1973), and protections against workplace such as race, class, sexuality, and gender,
harassment. intersect and impact individuals' experiences
of oppression and privilege. Intersectionality
7. Media and Cultural Representation highlights that social change and
Feminists critique how media portrays development cannot be fully understood if
women, often reinforcing stereotypes. we only focus on one axis of inequality.
Laura Mulvey’s (1975) male gaze theory
argues that women are often objectified in ● Patriarchy is central to the structures of
films and visual culture. social inequality. Patriarchy is deeply
embedded in institutions, such as family,
2. Core Ideas and Perspectives religion, the state, and the economy.
How does the theory explain social change Feminists argue that patriarchy must be
and development? dismantled to achieve true social change.
Feminist theory challenges traditional The theory of hegemonic masculinity
narratives of social change by focusing on (Connell, 1995) plays a significant role in
the intersections of gender, race, class, feminist understandings of social change, as
sexuality, and other axes of identity. it describes how dominant forms of
Feminist scholars argue that social change masculinity are privileged over others and
cannot be understood without addressing contribute to gendered power imbalances.
gender inequality and the way gender roles
are constructed and maintained within ● Traditional models of development, which
society. often overlook gender and treat women as
passive beneficiaries of development
● Gender is not a biologically determined policies. Instead, feminist approaches to
trait but a social construct shaped by culture, development seek to transform the structures
history, and power relations (Butler, 1990). that perpetuate gendered inequalities and
This perspective emphasizes offer more inclusive frameworks for
economic, social, and political progress.
● The Gender and Development (GAD) societies. These scholars, including Chandra
approach emerged as a critique of the Talpade Mohanty (2003), argue that
Women in Development (WID) approach, development must consider different
which focused on integrating women into historical, cultural, and social contexts. They
existing development frameworks without highlight the importance of local knowledge,
challenging the structural causes of community-driven development, and
inequality. GAD, influenced by feminist decolonizing development practices to
theory, emphasizes the need to address the ensure that marginalized women’s voices are
power relations that shape gender heard and respected in the development
inequalities. It focuses on the redistribution process. This approach emphasizes
of power, resources, and opportunities, solidarity with women’s movements in the
advocating for a more inclusive Global South and the need for transnational
development process that recognizes feminist alliances to challenge global
women's agency and the importance of inequalities.
transforming social, economic, and political
structures to achieve gender equality What are the key assumptions about
(Cornwall, 2007). society, individuals, and structures in this
theory?
● Martha Nussbaum (2000) and Amartya a. Society
Sen (1999) developed the capability ● The existence of patriarchy, a system in
approach, which has been influential in which men hold primary power in various
feminist development theory. This approach spheres of life, including politics, family,
emphasizes the importance of expanding economics, and culture. Feminists argue that
individuals' capabilities and freedoms rather patriarchy is not just a set of individual
than focusing solely on material wealth or behaviors or attitudes but a pervasive social
economic growth. Feminist scholars have system that structures society in ways that
adopted this framework to argue that systematically disadvantage women (Tong,
development should focus on enhancing 2009). This patriarchal structure is deeply
women's capabilities, enabling them to lead embedded in social institutions and norms,
lives they value, and addressing the systemic which perpetuate gender inequalities.
barriers that limit their freedoms. The
capability approach links gender equality ● Gender roles and expectations are socially
with development outcomes, suggesting that constructed and maintained through cultural
empowering women leads to more practices, media representations, and
sustainable and equitable development. institutional processes. Judith Butler’s
(1990) concept of "gender performativity"
● Postcolonial feminist scholars critique suggests that gender identities are enacted
mainstream development for its roots in and reproduced through repeated actions,
colonialism, which often imposed Western which are influenced by societal
ideals and norms on non-Western expectations. Feminists argue that changing
these norms and behaviors is essential for personal choices and the broader social
achieving gender equality. structures in which they live (Collins, 2000).

● In contemporary feminist thought, ● Individuals, particularly women, possess

feminists emphasize the importance of agency—the ability to make choices and act
intersectionality, as introduced by Kimberlé independently. However, this agency is often
Crenshaw (1989). This concept asserts that constrained by societal norms and structures
social categories such as race, class, of power. Feminists emphasize the need to
sexuality, and gender are interconnected and empower individuals to exercise their
cannot be analyzed in isolation. Feminist agency by challenging and transforming the
theory contends that individuals experience structural barriers that limit their freedom.
multiple forms of oppression This empowerment can take many forms,
simultaneously, and understanding social including education, political participation,
inequality requires attention to how these economic independence, and personal
intersections shape lived experiences. autonomy (Nussbaum, 2000).
● Individuals’ identities are heavily
● For society to become just and equitable, influenced by the gender norms and
it is necessary to challenge and dismantle expectations imposed upon them. These
the systems of oppression that structure norms dictate how individuals should
society. This includes not only fighting behave, what roles they should assume, and
gender-based discrimination but also what they can aspire to. Feminist scholars
addressing intersecting forms of oppression, argue that the construction of gender identity
such as racism, classism, and is not just about personal choice but is
heteronormativity (Crenshaw, 1989). shaped by external societal pressures and
Feminists advocate for transformative social institutionalized expectations. Gendered
change, which involves restructuring social, socialization begins early in life and
political, and economic systems to ensure reinforces ideas about “appropriate”
equality and fairness for all genders. behaviors and roles for men and women,
which shape individual self-perceptions and
b. Individuals experiences (Butler, 1990).
● Individuals do not exist in isolation but are
socially situated within specific cultural, ● Individuals have the capacity to resist and
political, and economic contexts that challenge the gendered structures that limit
influence their identities, behaviors, and their opportunities and freedoms. Feminist
opportunities. Feminists reject the idea of movements, often centered on women's
the "universal" individual, arguing that collective action, have demonstrated how
identity is shaped by the intersection of individuals can come together to create
various social categories, including gender, significant social change. Feminists argue
race, class, and sexuality. Thus, individuals' that resistance is a key tool in the fight for
experiences are shaped by both their gender equality, whether it takes the form of
activism, personal transformation, or legal women but also creates pressures on men to
challenges (hooks, 2000). conform to restrictive gender norms.
● Social institutions, such as the legal
c. Structures system, education, religion, and the media,
● Social structures are gendered, meaning are key mechanisms for the perpetuation of
that they are organized in ways that benefit gender inequalities. These institutions
men and disadvantage women. For example, reinforce patriarchal values and shape the
the family is often seen as a patriarchal way gender is perceived and enacted in
institution, where traditional gender roles society. For instance, feminist legal scholars
assign men to positions of authority and (MacKinnon, 1989) argue that law itself is
women to domestic roles. Similarly, the gendered and that it often fails to protect
economy is often structured in ways that women from violence or discrimination in
devalue women’s labor and contribute to the workplace.
gender wage gaps. Feminist theorists like
Simone de Beauvoir (1949) argue that these How does this theory view the
structures are not natural but are socially relationship between power, economy,
constructed to maintain men’s dominance in and social structures?
public and private life. ● Patriarchal systems are structures of
power that privilege men and subordinate
● Social structures are not monolithic or women. Patriarchy is seen as a collection of
immutable. They are sites of both power and individual behaviors and an overarching
resistance. While these structures perpetuate system that shapes institutions and social
inequality, they also provide spaces where practices. From family dynamics to
social change can occur. Feminists argue workplace hierarchies, education, and
that challenging and transforming these politics, patriarchy creates power
structures is necessary to achieve gender imbalances that marginalize women and
equality. This could involve changes in laws, other gender minorities. Feminists argue that
policies, and institutional practices that patriarchy is ingrained in the fabric of social
perpetuate gendered power imbalances structures and must be dismantled to achieve
(Fraser, 2009). genuine equality (Tong, 2009).

● Social structures are shaped by hegemonic ● Michel Foucault’s (1980) concept of

masculinity—dominant ideals of manhood power is influential in feminist theory.
that are constructed in opposition to Feminists draw on Foucault’s idea that
femininity. These ideals often promote traits power is not merely something that one
like aggression, dominance, and emotional group holds over another, but is diffused
detachment, which are valorized in various throughout society and enacted through
institutions (Connell, 1995). Hegemonic everyday practices, institutions, and social
masculinity not only privileges men over norms. In this view, power is reproduced in
subtle, institutionalized ways: through the
gendered division of labor, the by economic restructuring. They are
reinforcement of traditional gender roles, frequently employed in low-wage,
and the control of women’s bodies and precarious jobs in industries such as textiles
sexuality. and agriculture, which are often associated
with exploitative working conditions
● Capitalist economies tend to depend on (Mohanty, 2003). The feminization of labor
the unpaid or underpaid labor of women, in these global industries contributes to the
particularly in the home. Feminists have widening gender gap in wealth and
long pointed out that traditional gender roles resources.
have assigned domestic labor (cooking,
cleaning, and caregiving) primarily to ● The family, as a primary social structure,
women, while this labor is not compensated plays a significant role in the reproduction
in the market economy. Scholars, such as of gender roles. Feminists like Engels
Silvia Federici (2004) and Arlie Hochschild (1884) argued that the capitalist system
(1989), argue that this division of labor is a relies on the unpaid labor of women in the
form of exploitation, as it supports the home to reproduce the workforce. The
capitalist system by subsidizing the family, traditionally seen as a private sphere,
workforce without recognition or pay for the is thus a key site for the reproduction of
work done by women in the home. gendered power dynamics. Women’s
domestic labor supports male participation
● “Feminization of poverty,” referring to the in the formal economy, while women’s roles
disproportionate number of women living in in childbearing and caregiving are
poverty compared to men, particularly undervalued in economic terms.
among single mothers, elderly women, and
women of color. Economic policies and ● Social institutions, like education, play a
structures, such as low wages for women in critical role in perpetuating gendered
certain industries, limited access to credit, socialization, teaching children from a
and the lack of affordable child care, young age how to perform gender roles.
compound the difficulties women face in Schools and educational systems reinforce
achieving economic equality. The gender traditional gender norms, creating different
pay gap, for example, is not only an expectations for boys and girls. For
individual issue but is deeply rooted in the example, girls may be socialized to
economic structures that undervalue prioritize nurturing roles or domestic skills,
women’s work and overburden them with while boys may be encouraged to take up
unpaid domestic responsibilities (Seguino, more authoritative or “professional” career
2000). paths. This socialization leads to gendered
disparities in later life, particularly in the
● As multinational corporations and labor market (Sadker & Sadker, 1994).
neoliberal economic policies expand, ● Feminists critique legal systems that have
women are often disproportionately affected historically marginalized women’s rights,
such as restrictions on reproductive rights, Focus of Analysis
unequal pay, or laws that protect ● Traditional Theories (Modernization,
perpetrators of gender-based violence. Dependency, Marxism) - Prioritize
Political representation is another area economic growth, industrialization, and
where feminists focus attention, as women class struggle as primary drivers of
are often underrepresented in development.
decision-making bodies and political offices. ● Feminist Theory - Centers gender
Feminist scholars like Catharine MacKinnon relations, social roles, and power dynamics
(1989) argue that law itself is gendered and in shaping development outcomes.
often fails to address systemic
discrimination. View on Inequality
● Traditional Theories - Attribute
3. Comparative Analysis (Engendered inequality to factors like economic
Lens) dependency, colonial history, or class
How does this theory address gender and structures.
social inequalities? ● Feminist Theory - Argues that inequality
● Feminist theory highlights how patriarchal is also deeply rooted in patriarchal systems
structures uphold male dominance and that disadvantage women and marginalized
reinforce gender roles that disadvantage genders.
women and marginalized genders.
● Feminists critique traditional gender Approach to Social Change
norms that limit opportunities for all ● Traditional Theories - Advocate for
genders, advocating for greater freedom and structural changes in the economy, political
equality in roles, behaviors, and systems, or global trade to achieve
expectations. development.
● Feminist perspectives examine how ● Feminist Theory - Calls for both
institutions (e.g., law, education, economy, structural and cultural shifts, including
media) reinforce gender disparities and changes in gender roles, labor division, and
advocate for policy reforms, equal pay, and policy reforms to ensure gender justice.
anti-discriminatory laws.
● Many feminist perspectives, such as Role of Women in Development
Marxist feminism, argue that capitalism ● Traditional Theories - Often treat women
exploits women’s labor, both paid and as passive beneficiaries rather than active
unpaid (e.g., domestic work, caregiving), agents of development.
contributing to economic inequality. ● Feminist Theory - Highlights women’s
contributions to economies, communities,
How does it compare or contrast with and policymaking, emphasizing their agency
other theories in terms of its view on in shaping development.
development?
Perspective on Labor and Economy these inequalities.
● Traditional Theories - Focus on paid
labor, industrialization, and market-driven 4. Application to Current Development
progress. Trends
● Feminist Theory - Recognizes both paid How can this theory be applied to analyze
and unpaid labor (e.g., caregiving, domestic contemporary global or local
work) as essential to economic and social development issues?
well-being.
●​ What examples of social change
Does this theory challenge or reinforce (e.g., economic policies, social
traditional gender roles and power movements, environmental issues)
structures? can be explained using this theory?
● Traditional gender roles assign men to ●​ How does this theory help us
positions of authority and economic power understand issues like poverty,
while confining women to domestic and globalization, and neoliberalism?
caregiving responsibilities. Feminist theory
argues that these roles are socially Analyzing Contemporary Global or Local
constructed, not natural or inevitable, and Development Issues
should be redefined to allow individuals the
freedom to choose their paths. Judith Butler: Gender is socially
constructed; norms affect women’s roles in
● Historically, men have held more political, work, politics, and development.
economic, and social power in patriarchal Bell Hooks: Intersectionality shows how
societies. Feminist theory critiques these race, class, and gender shape economic
imbalances and advocates for equal inequality.
representation in leadership, WID & WAD: Address women’s
decision-making, and access to resources. participation in development but differ in
tackling systemic issues.
● Traditional structures often limit women’s Example: Gender pay gap and women’s
economic independence by valuing men’s underrepresentation in leadership.
labor over women's. Feminists push for
equal pay, workplace rights, and access to Feminist Theory & Social Change
education, ensuring that all genders have Economic Policies: Equal pay laws,
equal opportunities. microfinance for women.
Social Movements: ‘MeToo, domestic
● Many societies normalize gender-based workers’ rights.
discrimination, violence, and restrictions on Environmental Issues: Women-led climate
women's rights. Feminist movements work activism.
to change laws, policies, and cultural
attitudes that sustain
Feminist Theory and Understanding 5. Strengths and Criticisms
Poverty, Globalization, and Neoliberalism - What are the main strengths of this theory
Poverty: Women face wage gaps, unpaid in explaining development?
care work. - What are the criticisms or limitations of
Globalization: Exploits cheap female labor this theory?
in developing countries. - How has this theory evolved or been
Neoliberalism: Ignores gender disparities in challenged by other scholars?
market-driven policies.
Strengths of Feminist Theory
Globalization and regionalization are 1. Intersectionality of Race, Class, and
overtaking the standard unit of development, Gender (Hooks)
the nation. International institutions and ● Bell Hooks emphasized how racism,
market forces overtake the role of the state, classism, and sexism intersect to shape
the conventional agent of development. individuals' experiences. This approach
The classic aim of development, moves beyond gender alone, recognizing the
modernization or catching up with advanced unique struggles faced by other
countries, is in question because marginalized groups.
modernization is no longer an obvious
ambition. Modernity no longer seems so 2. Gender as Socially Constructed and
attractive in view of ecological problems, Performed (Butler)
the consequences of technological change ● Judith Butler argued that gender is not an
and many other problems. Westernization no inherent trait but rather a series of behaviors
longer seems compelling in a time of and roles shaped by societal expectations.
revaluing local culture and cultural diversity. This perspective challenges binary gender
In view of the idea of multiple modernities, norms and opens space for non-conforming
the question is modernization towards which identities.
modernity? Several Development decades
have not measured up to expectations, 3. Advocacy for Marginalized Groups
especially in Africa and parts of Latin Beyond White, Middle-Class Women
America South Asia.The Universalist ● Feminist theory has evolved to include
Claims Of Neo- classical economics and voices from various backgrounds, such as
structural adjustment policies have Black feminism, Indigenous feminism, and
undermined the foundation of development ecofeminism, ensuring that the movement is
studies, the notion that developing countries not limited to the experiences of privileged
Form a special case. women.

4. Expansion to Include LGBTQ+ Rights

and Identities
● Modern feminist theory embraces the
rights of LGBTQ+ individuals. This
reinforces the fact that gender identity and Strengths of Women in Development
sexual orientation are integral to the fight for (WID)
equality. 1. Emphasizes Women's Economic
Empowerment
Criticisms or Limitations of Feminist ○ WID promotes women's active
Theory participation in development projects,
1. Theoretical language can be hard to focusing on job creation, entrepreneurship,
apply practically. and financial independence.
● Concepts like "performativity" and
"intersectionality" can be complex and 2. Promotes Education, Employment, and
challenging to translate into grassroots Microfinance
activism or policy-making. ● Education and skills training are
prioritized to help women secure better
2. Risk of focusing too much on identity employment opportunities, while
politics microfinance programs provide capital for
● An excessive focus on personal identity small businesses.
can sometimes overshadow broader
structural issues, such as economic 3. Highlights Women’s Contributions to
inequality and access to resources. Economic Growth
● By integrating women into the workforce
Evolution and Challenges of Feminist and development initiatives, WID
Theory recognizes their role in boosting national
economies.
a. Kimberlé Crenshaw's Expansion of
Intersectionality Criticisms or Limitations of Women in
● Crenshaw extended Bell Hooks' Development (WID)
intersectional framework into the legal 1. Focuses Only on Integration, Not
system, showing how discrimination cases Transformation
often overlooked how multiple identities ● WID aims to integrate women into
intersect. This helped shape existing development frameworks without
anti-discrimination laws and policies challenging the underlying power structures
worldwide. that perpetuate inequality.

b. Nancy Fraser’s Critique of Identity 2. Treats Women as Tools for Growth, Not
Focus Rights Holders
● Fraser argued that while Butler's emphasis ● Women are often viewed as contributors
on identity was valuable, feminism should to economic productivity rather than
also prioritize economic justice, ensuring individuals with inherent rights to equality
that women have access to resources, and justice.
opportunities, and fair working conditions.
Evolution of Women in Development Evolution of Women and Development
(WID) (WAD)
The shift to Gender and Development
emerged to address the power relations Like WID, WAD also influenced the rise of
between men and women, emphasizing GAD, which recognizes the need to
social transformation rather than mere transform gender relations alongside
participation. It recognized that true economic structures. GAD emphasizes
development requires changing the equity, participation, and challenging
structures that perpetuate gender inequality. societal norms rather than simply integrating
women into development projects.
Strengths of Women and Development
(WAD) 6. Case Studies and Practical Examples
1. Critiques Capitalism as the Root of Provide a case study where this theory is
Oppression applicable (historical or contemporary).
● WAD views women’s oppression as a
result of global economic structures, Case Study: The Seneca Falls Convention
particularly capitalism, which exploits both (1848) – A Turning Point for Women's
women and developing nations. Rights

2. Focus on the Solidarity Among Women Case Background

in the Global South
● It promotes collective action among In the 19th century, women in the United
women from developing countries, States had few legal rights. They could not
emphasizing shared experiences of vote, own property after marriage, or hold
economic marginalization. important jobs. Many were expected to
focus only on household duties. Elizabeth
Criticisms or Limitations of Women and Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, both active
Development (WAD) in abolitionist and women's rights
1. Heavy Focus on Global Economic movements, recognized these injustices.
Structures After being denied a role in an anti-slavery
● WAD has a tendency to overlook local, convention because they were women, they
cultural, and social factors that also decided to organize their own meeting to
contribute to gender inequality. demand equal rights. This led to the Seneca
Falls Convention on July 19-20, 1848,
2. Romanticizes Traditional Roles where around 300 people, including men,
Without Questioning Limitations gathered to discuss women's legal and social
● While valuing women’s traditional roles, status.
WAD does not always challenge the
constraints these roles impose on women's
autonomy.
Problem: Are there real-world policies, programs,
●​ No voting rights for women or movements influenced by this theory?
●​ Limited access to education and
employment Real-World Influence of Feminist Theory
●​ Legal Disadvantages
Feminist theory has shaped various policies,
Intervention: The Declaration of programs, and movements aimed at
Sentiments achieving gender equality. Some key
Inspired by the Declaration of examples include:
Independence, Stanton and other leaders
drafted the Declaration of Sentiments, listing 1. Policies and Laws
grievances against gender discrimination Title IX (1972, U.S.) – Prohibits gender
and calling for women’s suffrage, legal discrimination in education, ensuring equal
equality, and better job opportunities. This opportunities for women in schools and
was one of the first organized efforts to sports.
demand women’s rights in the U.S.
Equal Pay Act (1963, U.S.) – Aims to close
Resistance and Challenges the gender wage gap by mandating equal
The demand for women’s right to vote was pay for equal work.
the most controversial issue. Even some
supporters of women’s rights thought this CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination
was too radical. The convention faced of All Forms of Discrimination Against
backlash from newspapers and political Women, 1979) – A global treaty advocating
leaders, but activists continued their fight. for women’s rights and gender equality in all
aspects of life.
Outcome and Impact
The Seneca Falls Convention sparked the 2. Programs and Initiatives
fight for women’s rights. Though change
was slow, It inspired more conventions and UN Women – A United Nations entity
discussions on gender equality. Over time, dedicated to gender equality and women’s
this movement led to the 19th Amendment empowerment, working globally to improve
in 1920, granting women the right to vote. women’s rights.
Its principles continue to influence feminist Gender Sensitivity Training –
movements, emphasizing the power of Implemented in workplaces, schools, and
collective action. Today, its legacy inspires government institutions to reduce gender
ongoing advocacy for gender equality in bias and discrimination.
education, work, and politics.
3. Social Movements DEPENDENCY THEORY
Women’s Suffrage Movement – Led to the
Dependency Theory was developed by
passage of the 19th Amendment (1920) in
Theotonio Dos Santos, a Brazilian
the U.S., granting women the right to vote.
economist and sociologist, in the 1960s and
1970s. He researched how the developing
#MeToo Movement – A global movement
world is economically dependent on the
against sexual harassment and gender-based
developed world. The theory was developed
violence, leading to stronger workplace
at the time of decolonization and the Cold
policies and legal actions.
War, when there were numerous newly
independent nations with immense
Fourth Wave Feminism – Focuses on
challenges in opening their economies and
issues like online harassment,
seeking alternatives from Western capitalist
intersectionality, and reproductive rights,
structures.
continuing the fight for gender equality
today.
Key Concepts and Principles:

How does this theory help in solving

Core-Periphery Relationship – Wealthy
social problems today?
nations (the core) control and exploit poorer
Feminist theory helps solve today’s
nations (the periphery), creating a cycle of
problems by fighting gender inequality and
dependence.
pushing for fair laws and policies. It has led
Structural Inequality – Economic systems
to equal pay policies, better protection
are designed to benefit developed countries
against gender-based violence, and stronger
while limiting the growth of underdeveloped
reproductive rights (UN Women, 2023;
nations.
Human Rights Watch, 2021). By
External Dependence – Developing
recognizing that different people face unique
countries rely on foreign investment, aid,
struggles, it ensures that solutions are
and markets, restricting their ability to
inclusive (UN CSW, 2023). Through
develop independently.
activism, legal changes, and awareness,
feminist ideas continue to create a fairer
II. Core Ideas and Perspectives
society.
Dependency Theory explains social change
____________________________________
and development by arguing that economic
inequality is caused by historical
exploitation and structural imbalances in
global trade.
● Society is divided into dominant and
dependent economies, where wealth is
transferred from poor to rich nations.
● Power and economy are interconnected, Globalization renders poorer nations reliant
with economic dependence reinforcing on trade, investment, and technology from
political and social inequality. wealthier nations. Economic policies such as
● Global structures (e.g., multinational foreign investments, exports, and foreign
corporations and financial institutions) workers' remittances illustrate how
maintain inequality, making development dependency influences national
difficult for dependent countries like the development. Social movements against
Philippines. neoliberal economic policies and free trade
agreements are those that employ
III. Comparative Analysis (Engendered Dependency Theory to identify unequal
Lens) global economic systems that benefit
● Gender and Social Inequalities - wealthier nations and disadvantage
Dependency Theory deals with economic developing nations.
inequality nearly solely, but never with
gender issues directly. Still, it can be applied V. Strengths and Criticism
in studying how economic dependency
affects peripheral groups, even low-income Strengths
female and informal labor force workers. Dependency Theory explains how structure
and history result in economic inequality
● Comparison with Other Theories - and why all but a few countries cannot
Unlike modernization theory, which develop. It shows how world economic
suggests that all societies progress in a linear structures prevent nations from developing
fashion toward development, Dependency and severely criticizes neoliberalism and
Theory argues that underdevelopment is globalization.
actively maintained by global economic
structures. Criticism
And yet it has also been faulted for not
● Impact on Gender Roles and Power considering issues of corruption and
Structures - Economic dependency governance that impact development
reinforces traditional gender roles, with domestically. Other researchers also argue
women often experiencing the worst effects that developing nations can still develop
of poverty and labor exploitation, using smart policies, just like countries such
particularly in industries like manufacturing as South Korea and China. The theory is
and domestic work. also poor in its gender aspect, as it fails to
strictly examine how economic dependence
IV. Application to Current Development impacts various social groups.
Trends
Dependency Theory illustrates how the
poorer nations, such as the Philippines, are
reliant on wealthier nations for development.
VI. Case Studies and Practical Examples emphasizes the power struggles and
inequalities that characterize social life.
●​ Historical Economic Dependence –
The Philippines was colonized by Key Proponents and Their Contributions
Spain and the U.S., shaping its trade - Karl Marx: Often regarded as the father
patterns and economic policies. of conflict theory, Marx focused on class
●​ Reliance on OFW Remittances – conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners of
The economy depends heavily on the means of production) and the proletariat
money sent by overseas workers, (working class). He argued that this conflict
illustrating continued economic was inevitable due to the exploitation of the
dependence. proletariat by the bourgeoisie.
●​ Foreign Investment in Key
Industries – Many industries, - Max Weber: Expanded on Marx's ideas by
including manufacturing and mining, introducing the concepts of status and
are controlled by multinational power. Weber argued that conflict arises not
corporations, limiting national only from economic disparities but also
self-sufficiency. from struggles over social honor, political
power, and cultural values.
Real- World Applications
●​ Policies promoting local industries - Lewis Coser: Emphasized the functional
and self-sufficiency align with role of conflict in society, arguing that
efforts to reduce conflict can strengthen group solidarity and
●​ Dependency. lead to social change.
●​ Social movements advocating for
fair trade and economic justice use Historical and Social Context
Dependency Theory to challenge - Conflict theory emerged during the 19th
exploitative global structures. century, a time marked by significant social
●​ Programs supporting sustainable and economic changes. The Industrial
development seek to break the cycle Revolution led to the rise of capitalism,
of dependence by investing in creating stark divisions between the wealthy
education, infrastructure, and industrialists and the working class. This
technological innovation. period also saw large-scale civil unrest,
____________________________________ extreme poverty, and a wide gap between
the interests and wealth of workers and
owners.
CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict Theory is a sociological perspective
that views society as composed of groups
competing for limited resources. It
Key concepts and principles of conflict over social honor, political power, and
theory cultural values. Power struggles can occur in
- Class Conflict, refers to the ongoing various social arenas, including politics,
struggle between different social classes for education, and family dynamics.
power and resources. According to Karl
Marx, the primary conflict is between the II. CORE IDEAS AND PERSPECTIVES
bourgeoisie (owners of the means of How does the theory explain social change
production) and the proletariat (working and development?
class), with the bourgeoisie exploiting the • It explains social change and development
proletariat for economic gain. through the lens of power struggles and
- Alienation, describes the sense of inequalities. According to this theory,
disconnection individuals feel from their society is characterized by constant conflict
labor, the products of between different groups, such as the
their labor, and ultimately, from themselves. bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the
Marx argued that in capitalist societies, proletariat (working class), or other
workers become alienated because they do competing social, economic, or political
not own the means of production and have factions. Social change, in this context arises
little control over their work and its from these conflicts. As groups with
outcomes. opposing interests struggle for resources,
- Bourgeoisie and Proletariat represent the power, and control, tensions build up. Over
two main classes in conflict. The time, these tensions can lead to
bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of revolutionary movements or reforms that
production, while the proletariat are the disrupt the status quo and create new social
working class who sell their labor to the Structures.
bourgeoisie. This relationship is
characterized by exploitation and power What are the key assumptions about
imbalances. society, individuals, and structures in this
- Class Consciousness is the awareness theory?
among members of a social class regarding 1. Base and Superstructure: Society's
their shared interests and the recognition of economic base (the means and relations of
the inequalities they face. Marx believed production) fundamentally shapes the
that the development of class consciousness superstructure (culture, ideology,
among the proletariat would lead to institutions). Changes in the economic base
revolutionary change. lead to changes in the superstructure.
- Power and Status addresses struggles 2. Class Conflict: The primary engine of
over power and status. Max Weber expanded societal change is the conflict between
on Marx's ideas by emphasizing that classes, particularly between the bourgeoisie
conflicts arise not only from economic (owners of production) and the proletariat
disparities but also from battles (working class). This struggle is rooted in
economic disparities and exploitation.
3. Power Dynamics: Wealth and power are characterized by ongoing conflict over
concentrated in the hands of the bourgeoisie, resources and control.
who use their resources to maintain and 3. Social Structures as Products of
enhance their status. The proletariat, lacking Conflict:
power,moften find themselves oppressed by Social institutions—such as legal systems,
the decisions of the elite. education, and family structures—reflect
4. Revolution and Change: Marx believed and uphold the interests of the dominant
that the inherent conflict between the class. These structures reinforce inequality,
bourgeoisie and the proletariat would benefiting the bourgeoisie while
eventually lead to revolutionary movements, perpetuating the exploitation of the
where the oppressed would rise up to proletariat.
overthrow their oppressors and reshape 4. Revolution as a Catalyst for Change:
society. Marx theorized that the class struggle would
5. Authority and Legitimacy: Power is culminate in a revolution, enabling the
seen as the ability to enforce one’s will, proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie and
while authority is the socially recognized establish a socialist society. This would
right to exert power. The bourgeoisie fundamentally transform the relations
maintain authority through economic and among power, economy, and social
political systems that legitimize their structures, aiming for a more equitable
dominance. system.

How does this theory view the III. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

relationship between power, economy, (ENGENDERED LENS)
and social structures? How does this theory address gender and
1. Economic Determinism: Marx posits social inequalities?
that the economy is the foundation of • Conflict theory defines society through the
society, dictating power dynamics and social perpetual battle between social groups
structures. The mode of production—how which fight over minimal resources.
goods are produced—shapes the distribution According to conflict theory gender
of resources and power. In capitalism, the functions as male attempts to keep power
private ownership of production creates a and advantages above women through
conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners) discriminatory behavior. Men occupy the
and the proletariat (workers). position of dominant group while females
constitute a subordinate group. Gender roles
2. Power and Class Struggle: The that were relevant to hunter-gatherer times
bourgeoisie wields power by controlling continue existing because the dominant
production and exploiting the proletariat, social group fights to preserve its supremacy
who must sell their labor to survive. This and position of authority. The conflict theory
dynamic leads to inherent class struggle, states that dominant social groups produce
problems through their exploitation or
oppression of subordinate social groups. agreement among groups. This perspective
Their solution contains normative elements contrasts sharply with Marx's conflict-driven
because they prescribe changes to the power view of social progress.
structure which should create equal power • Overall, these theoretical perspectives
distribution between men and women. illustrate that social development can either
stem from class conflict, as Marx proposed,
How does it compare or contrast with or from stability through shared values and
other theories in terms of its view on individual interactions, as suggested by
development? consensus theory, structural-functionalism,
• Karl Marx established conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.
which explains societal advancement
through the ongoing struggles between Does this theory challenge or reinforce
social classes: the bourgeoisie (owners of traditional gender roles and power
production) and the proletariat (working structures?
class). Marx viewed class conflict as the • The conflict theory battles conventional
driving force behind social transformation, gender roles together with power structures
with oppressed classes striving to dismantle because they preserve dominance and social
existing structures to create fairer systems. inequality across different groups.
• In contrast, structural-functionalism According to this interpretation dominant
views society as a complex system of groups primarily known as men employ
interrelated components that work together social norms and institutions to maintain
to achieve stability and harmony. their control of resources.
Structural-functionalists argue that social • Traditional gender roles exist because the
institutions and structures serve vital conflict theory demonstrates that male
purposes for societal cohesion and supremacy develops through social
continuity, emphasizing gradual constructs which support male dominance.
evolutionary shifts to maintain social Traditional social roles assigned women
stability rather than radical change. mostly lower-ranking positions that prevent
• Symbolic interactionism focuses on how them from fully obtaining economic power
individuals and small groups develop or political influence. Women face
meanings through daily social interactions. professional and financial setbacks through
This perspective suggests that social their expected role of domestic priority over
development occurs through ongoing their workplace careers.
interactions and personal interpretations, • The theory advocates to fight traditional
minimizing the role of extensive class gender roles since it supports institutional
conflicts. reforms that will establish greater equality
• Consensus theory highlights the between men and women. Such
importance of shared norms and values in transformation seeks to examine traditional
maintaining social order, emphasizing that power structures that have demoted women
social development requires collective and subordinate groups by establishing fair
distribution of resources between genders as force acceptance of the current conditions by
well as opportunities. the proletariat. Conflict theory assumes that
• According to conflict theory the analysis the elite will set up systems of laws,
and opposition of conventional gender traditions, and other societal structures in
structures functions as social oppression order to further support their own
tools which distribute advantages among dominance while preventing others from
dominant elites to exploit minorities. joining their ranks.
• Marx theorized that, as the working class
IV. APPLICATION TO CURRENT and poor were subjected to worsening
DEVELOPMENT TRENDS conditions, a collective consciousness would
Applied to analyze contemporary global or raise more awareness about inequality, and
local development issues this would potentially result in revolt. If,
• Marx’s version of conflict theory focused after the revolt, conditions were adjusted to
on the conflict between two primary classes. favor the concerns of the proletariat, the
Each class consists of a group of people conflict circle would eventually repeat but in
bound by mutual interests and a certain the opposite direction. The bourgeoisie
degree of property ownership. Marx would eventually become the aggressor and
theorized about the bourgeoisie, a group that revolter, grasping for the return of the
represented members of society who hold structures that formerly maintained their
the majority of the wealth and means. The dominance.
proletariat is the other group, composed of
those considered working-class or poor. Examples of Social Change that can be
• With the rise of capitalism, Marx theorized explained using Conflict Theory
that the bourgeoisie, a minority within the • Examples of social change that can be
population, would use their influence to explained through his lens
oppress the proletariat, the majority class.
This way of thinking is tied to a common Class Conflict
image associated with conflict theory-based Marx's theory primarily focuses on the
models of society. Adherents to this conflict between the working class
philosophy tend to believe in a pyramid (proletariat) and the capitalist class
arrangement in terms of how goods and (bourgeoisie), where the proletariat is
services are distributed in society. At the top exploited by the bourgeoisie, leading to
of the pyramid is a small group of elites that social change through movements aimed at
dictate terms and conditions to the larger redistributing power and wealth.
portion of society because they have an Social Movements
outsized amount of control over resources The Civil Rights Movement, feminist
and power. movements, and anti-colonial movements
• Uneven distribution within society was can be analyzed through a Marxist lens,
predicted to be maintained through where oppressed groups fight against the
ideological coercion; the bourgeoisie would dominant class to achieve equality.
Environmental Issues Neoliberalism.
Marxist analysis can be applied to Conflict Theory critiques neoliberal policies
environmental movements that argue that like privatization, deregulation, and reduced
capitalist exploitation of natural resources social protections, arguing that they weaken
leads to environmental degradation, and workers’ rights and increase inequality by
therefore, environmental activism is a form favoring businesses and the wealthy over the
of class struggle against the capitalist working class.
system.
V. STRENGTHS AND CRITICISM
How does Conflict Theory help us What are the main strengths of this
understand issues like poverty, theory in explaining development?
globalization, and neoliberalism • Conflict Theory provides a lens to
• Conflict Theory helps us understand issues understand societal development through the
like "poverty, globalization, and lens of power struggles and resource
neoliberalism" by revealing how power and competition, contrasting with views that
resources are unequally distributed in emphasize harmony. It highlights how
society. It emphasizes the struggle between change arises from conflict, tension, and
the wealthy elite (bourgeoisie) and the resistance, revealing the underlying power
working class (proletariat), showing how dynamics that foster inequality. The theory
economic systems create and sustain illustrates that development is often
inequalities. manipulated by elites and corporations to
serve their interests at the expense of
Poverty marginalized groups. Historical movements,
Conflict Theory explains poverty as a such as labor rights and civil rights,
systemic issue, not just an individual failure. demonstrate how oppressed populations
The capitalist system prioritizes profit over have driven social change through
fair wages, keeping workers in low-income resistance. By analyzing these power
conditions while wealth concentrates in the dynamics, Conflict Theory aids in
hands of the elite. identifying the motivations of various social
actors and formulating strategies for more
Globalization equitable development.
This theory highlights how globalization
benefits the ruling class by expanding What are the criticisms or limitations of
markets, outsourcing labor to low-wage this theory?
countries, and increasing corporate profits Conflict Theory provides a framework for
while workers face job insecurity, understanding power dynamics and
exploitation, and worsening conditions. inequality in society, highlighting struggles
between social groups. However, it faces
significant criticisms:
• Overemphasis on Conflict: Critics argue • The evolution of Conflict Theory also
that it can oversimplify social reality by includes the concept of intersectionality,
focusing excessively on conflict while recognizing that oppression involves
neglecting cooperation and consensus that multiple factors, including gender and race.
also shape society. Feminist theorists like bell hooks and Judith
• Economic Determinism: The theory often Butler applied the theory to examine
reduces social phenomena to economic patriarchy, while critical race theorists such
factors, overlooking other influences like as W.E.B. Du Bois and Angela Davis
culture, ideology, and individual agency, explored the links between systemic racism
which can obscure the complexities of social and economic exploitation. Additionally,
interactions. postcolonial theorists like Frantz Fanon and
• Neglect of Social Cohesion: By Edward Said expanded the framework to
concentrating on power struggles, Conflict address global power dynamics,
Theory tends to ignore the elements that emphasizing the ongoing exploitation of
promote social stability and cohesion, developing nations by former colonial
presenting a pessimistic view of society as powers
constantly on the brink of disruption.
• Limited Individual Agency: Individuals VI. Case Studies and Practical Examples
are often depicted as victims of larger Provide a case study where this theory is
structures, which diminishes the recognition applicable (historical or contemporary)
of personal agency and grassroots
movements that can drive social change. - The Philippine land reform movement,
• Insufficient Practical Solutions: While particularly during the 1970s and 1980s,
effective in critiquing systemic inequalities, exemplifies Conflict Theory. The struggle
the theory is criticized for not providing between landowners (bourgeoisie) and
clear solutions or policies for achieving a tenant farmers (proletariat) highlighted class
more just and equitable society. conflict over land ownership, access to
resources, and economic power. The
How has this theory evolved or been Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
challenged by other scholars? (CARP) was introduced in 1988 to address
• Conflict Theory, initially developed by these inequalities, aiming to redistribute land
Karl Marx to explain economic class to landless farmers and promote social
struggles between the bourgeoisie and the justice.
proletariat, has evolved significantly over
time. Scholars like Max Weber expanded the Are there real-world policies, programs,
theory by incorporating additional or movements influenced by this theory?
dimensions of inequality, such as status and 1. Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
political power, highlighting that social Program (CARP): This policy was
stratification extends beyond wealth. influenced by the need to address social
inequalities in land ownership. It aimed to
empower marginalized farmers and reduce Liberalism, which emphasizes individual
the power of large landowners. political and economic freedoms within a
2. Peasant Movements: Organizations such balanced government framework,
as the Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas Neoliberalism prioritizes economic
(KMP) have advocated for land rights and efficiency and market
agrarian reform, drawing on Conflict Theory forces over government regulation and
to emphasize the struggle against oppressive social welfare. Classical Liberalism,
landholding systems. associated with thinkers like Adam Smith
and John Locke, was rooted in the
How does this theory help in solving protection of individual liberties and limited
social problems today? government but still recognized a role for
1. Economic Inequality: Conflict Theory state intervention in cases of market failure.
provides a framework for understanding and In contrast, Neoliberalism — popularized in
addressing the persistent economic the late 20th century — asserts that the state
disparities in rural areas, advocating for should primarily serve as a facilitator of
policies that promote equitable land market mechanisms rather than a direct actor
distribution. in economic or social planning.
2. Social Justice Advocacy: The theory
informs contemporary movements fighting Key figures in Neoliberalism thought
for the rights of farmers and indigenous include Friedrich Hayek and Milton
peoples, emphasizing the need for systemic Friedman, both of whom played significant
change to empower marginalized roles in shaping modern economic policies.
communities. Hayek, in works like The Road to Serfdom
3. Policy Development: By highlighting (1944), argued that excessive government
class struggles, Conflict Theory encourages control leads to authoritarianism and
the development of policies aimed at economic inefficiency. He emphasized the
addressing historical injustices and idea of “spontaneous order,” where market
promoting inclusive economic growth. mechanisms naturally organize society
____________________________________ without centralized intervention. Milton
Friedman, a leading advocate of
NEOLIBERALISM monetarism, influenced global economic
Neoliberalism is a political-economic policy through his belief that governments
philosophy that advocates for free-market should focus on controlling money supply
capitalism, emphasizing privatization, rather than engaging in direct economic
deregulation, and minimal state intervention. planning. His work, particularly in
It emerged in the mid-20th century as a Capitalism and Freedom (1962), argued that
response to the perceived failures of welfare programs, government subsidies,
Keynesian economic policies, particularly in and trade protections distort markets and
the context of economic stagnation and high reduce economic growth. These ideas were
inflation in the 1970s. Unlike Classical embraced by leaders such as Margaret
Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, leading to dominance of multinational corporations in
widespread adoption of Neoliberal policies shaping national economies. While these
in the late 20th century. policies have contributed to economic
growth in some regions, they have also
Neoliberalism is based on several key exacerbated social inequalities. The shift
principles that prioritize market efficiency towards market-driven policies has resulted
and competition. The free market is viewed in the erosion of labor protections, the
as the most effective mechanism for expansion of precarious work conditions,
allocating resources, driving innovation, and and reduced job security. In many cases,
fostering economic growth. Privatization is social welfare programs have been
another central tenet, wherein public dismantled, leading to increased poverty and
services and state-owned enterprises are a widening gap between the wealthy and the
transferred to private control to supposedly working class.
enhance efficiency and accountability.
Deregulation aims to remove state-imposed ● What are the effects of Neoliberal
restrictions on businesses, allowing for policies on developing countries?
greater corporate flexibility and reduced Developing countries have been profoundly
costs. Additionally, Neoliberal thought affected by Neoliberal policies, often
promotes minimal state intervention in through Structural Adjustment Programs
economic and social affairs, advocating for (SAPs) implemented by the International
reduced government spending on welfare Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
programs and social safety nets, which are These programs, which condition loans on
seen as distorting market mechanisms. market-oriented reforms, have led to
These policies collectively aim to create a austerity measures that significantly reduce
self-regulating economy driven by supply government spending on social services like
and demand. education and healthcare. Additionally,
privatization of industries in developing
2. Neoliberalism and Social Change nations has often resulted in foreign
ownership of critical resources, undermining
● How has Neoliberalism shaped local economies and exacerbating economic
economic and social development dependence on developed nations. While
globally? these policies have facilitated economic
Neoliberalism has significantly influenced liberalization and foreign investment, they
global economic and social development by have frequently deepened economic
promoting policies that prioritize economic instability and social disparities.
liberalization, free trade, and financial
deregulation. These measures have led to ● How does Neoliberalism impact social
increased foreign direct investment, inequality, labor rights, and public
international trade expansion, and the services?
Neoliberalism has intensified social 3. Impact on Social Policies, Social Work,
inequality by concentrating wealth and and Community Development
resources among the elite while reducing ● How has Neoliberalism influenced
state support for marginalized communities. social welfare programs and policies?
Labor rights have been significantly
weakened as governments prioritize Neoliberalism has significantly reshaped
business-friendly policies over worker social welfare programs, prioritizing
protections. Many countries have seen a rise market-driven approaches over
in temporary and gig work, with fewer state-provided services. Many governments,
benefits and less job security. Public influenced by Neoliberal policies, have
services have suffered due to widespread reduced direct spending on welfare and
budget cuts, making essential services like encouraged private-sector participation in
healthcare and education increasingly areas such as healthcare, education, and
inaccessible to low-income populations. pensions. This shift has led to the
These developments have fueled growing privatization of public services, making
dissatisfaction with Neoliberal policies and access to essential resources increasingly
led to calls for alternative economic models. dependent on an individual’s economic
means rather than universal rights.
● How does it differ from Keynesian Additionally, welfare programs have
economics in shaping development become more conditional, often requiring
policies? recipients to meet strict eligibility criteria or
Keynesian economics, which dominated participate in workfare programs,
mid-20th-century economic policy, differs reinforcing the idea that social assistance
from Neoliberalism in its emphasis on state should be limited and temporary rather than
intervention to mitigate economic downturns a fundamental aspect of economic security.
and ensure social welfare. Keynesian
policies advocate for government spending ● How does it affect social work practice?
during recessions to stimulate demand and Neoliberalism has transformed social work
prevent mass unemployment. In contrast, practice by shifting its focus from
Neoliberalism argues that government addressing structural inequalities to
intervention distorts markets and should be emphasizing individual responsibility. This
minimized. As a result, Neoliberal policies paradigm change has led to a preference for
prioritize deregulation, privatization, and short-term, efficiency-driven interventions
fiscal austerity, often at the cost of social rather than holistic, long-term support.
protections. The shift from Keynesian to Social workers are increasingly required to
Neoliberal approaches in the late 20th adhere to bureaucratic frameworks that
century marked a transformation in prioritize cost-cutting and performance
economic governance, reducing state metrics over client-centered care. As a
responsibilities in favor of market-driven result, interventions often focus on
development. individual behavior modification rather than
addressing systemic poverty, Income (UBI) represents another challenge
unemployment, or housing insecurity. This to Neoliberal logic, advocating for
shift has generated criticism, as many argue guaranteed financial support to all
that social work should challenge structural individuals regardless of employment status.
injustices rather than merely managing their Additionally, global labor movements have
consequences. fought against precarious work conditions,
demanding stronger union protections and
● How has Neoliberalism shaped fair wages. These movements reflect a
community development and service growing resistance to the Neoliberal
delivery? emphasis on market efficiency at the
Neoliberalism has reshaped community expense of social welfare.
development by promoting decentralization
and outsourcing service delivery to 4. Criticisms and Alternatives
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) ● What are the major criticisms of
and private entities. While this approach Neoliberalism?
allows for more localized and specialized
interventions, it often comes at the cost of Critics argue that Neoliberalism exacerbates
stable government support. Many social and economic inequality by
community organizations struggle with disproportionately benefiting the wealthy
inconsistent funding and the pressure to and corporations while eroding protections
operate like businesses, prioritizing for workers and the poor. The emphasis on
efficiency over long-term social impact. deregulation has also contributed to
Additionally, the reliance on philanthropy financial crises, most notably the 2008
and corporate social responsibility initiatives global economic collapse, which was fueled
has created an uneven distribution of by unregulated banking practices and
services, where aid depends on market speculative investments. Furthermore,
interests rather than actual community Neoliberalism’s prioritization of corporate
needs. power often undermines democratic
governance, as policymaking is increasingly
● What are examples of social movements influenced by business interests rather than
or policy shifts resisting Neoliberalism? public needs. The erosion of public services
Various social movements and policy and social safety nets further deepens social
initiatives have emerged in response to divisions, leading many to question the
Neoliberalism’s effects on inequality and long-term viability of Neoliberal economic
public service reduction. Anti-austerity policies.
protests, such as those seen in Greece,
Spain, and the UK, have called for the
reversal of Neoliberal policies that cut
public spending on healthcare, education,
and welfare. The push for Universal Basic
● How has Neoliberalism contributed to expansion and calls for a shift towards
issues like poverty, social inequality, and environmentally sustainable and
environmental degradation? community-oriented economic practices.
Neoliberal policies have contributed to These alternatives reflect a growing
growing social inequality by reducing the consensus that purely market-driven policies
role of the state in wealth redistribution and are insufficient for addressing contemporary
allowing market forces to dictate economic social and environmental challenges.
outcomes. As a result, wages have stagnated
while corporate profits have surged, leading ● Can Neoliberalism and social justice
to a widening gap between the rich and the approaches coexist?
poor. The decline of labor protections has The coexistence of Neoliberalism and social
also increased precarious employment, with justice approaches is highly debated, as the
more workers facing job insecurity and two often operate on conflicting principles.
lower benefits. Additionally, Neoliberalism prioritizes market
Neoliberalism’s emphasis on economic competition and individual responsibility,
growth at all costs has led to environmental whereas social justice frameworks
degradation, as deregulation allows emphasize collective well-being, equality,
corporations to exploit natural resources and state intervention to protect vulnerable
with minimal accountability. Climate change populations. However, hybrid models have
and ecological crises have been exacerbated emerged in some countries, where
by policies that prioritize short-term profits market-driven policies are combined with
over long-term sustainability. social protections, such as in Scandinavian
welfare states. While these models seek to
● What are some alternative development balance economic efficiency with social
models to Neoliberalism? welfare, critics argue that Neoliberal
Several alternative models challenge principles ultimately undermine long-term
Neoliberal assumptions about market efforts toward social justice by reinforcing
efficiency and minimal state intervention. systemic inequalities. The challenge remains
Democratic socialism advocates for stronger in finding a sustainable economic model that
state involvement in wealth redistribution, prioritizes both growth and equitable social
public services, and economic planning to outcomes.
ensure social equity. Post-Keynesian ____________________________________
economics proposes policies such as
progressive taxation, government-led job
creation, and financial regulation to stabilize
markets and promote inclusive growth. The
degrowth movement, on the other hand,
questions the sustainability of perpetual
economic
 - Dialectical Method: Critical Theory
CRITICAL THEORY employs a dialectical approach, drawing
Critical Theory, primarily associated with
from Hegelian philosophy, to analyze and
the Frankfurt School, was developed by key
critique social phenomena by examining
figures such as Max Horkheimer and
contradictions within society.
Theodor Adorno in the early to mid-20th
- Emancipation: A central goal of Critical
century. Here's an overview of the main
Theory is to promote human emancipation
aspects of the theory:
by critiquing social injustices and providing
insights into how individuals can achieve
1. Key Proponents
freedom and autonomy.
- Max Horkheimer: As the director of the
- Critique of Positivism: Horkheimer
Institute for Social Research, Horkheimer
criticized the positivist approach to social
emphasized the importance of a critical
science, advocating for a more
social theory that critiques society and
interdisciplinary and reflective approach that
culture while addressing the relationship
considers the historical and social contexts
between theory and practice.
of knowledge production.
- Theodor Adorno: A prominent
- Reification: This concept refers to the
philosopher, sociologist, and musicologist,
process by which social relations are
Adorno contributed significantly to the
transformed into seemingly objective and
critique of culture, particularly through his
autonomous entities, leading to alienation
analysis of the cultural industry and its
and a lack of critical awareness among
impact on society.
individuals.

2. Historical and Social Context

Overall, Critical Theory seeks to understand
Critical Theory emerged in the early 20th
and critique the societal structures that
century, particularly between the two World
inhibit human freedom and to foster a more
Wars. The rise of fascism, the failures of
just and equitable society.
capitalism, and the socio-political upheavals
of the time influenced its development. The
Strengths of Critical Theory:
Frankfurt School scholars aimed to
• Look at how culture, economy, and politics
understand and critique the conditions that
are connected, showing how systems can
led to societal domination, totalitarianism,
create inequality.
and the loss of individual freedoms.
• Examines power and how it affects class,
race, and gender, encouraging awareness of
3. Key Concepts and Principles
unfair structures.
- Cultural Industry: Adorno and
• Promotes action, not just ideas, to
Horkheimer argued that popular culture is
challenge oppression and push for change.
commodified, leading to a standardization of
• Helps people see how dominant beliefs
cultural products that inhibit critical thinking
keep society the same and encourages
and promote passivity among consumers.
questioning.
• Uses ideas from different fields like Practical examples :
philosophy and sociology to analyze social 1.Control of Media - Newspapers, radio
issues deeply. stations, and TV networks critical of Marcos
were shut down. Only pro-government news
Criticisms of Critical Theory: was allowed.
• Can seem too negative, focusing more on 2. Rewriting History in Education
problems than solutions. During and even after Martial Law, history
• Uses complex language, making it hard to books were altered or influenced to present
understand and apply in real life. Marcos in a positive light, downplaying
• Lacks clear steps on how to create real human rights abuses.
change.
• Based on European ideas, which may not Are there real- world policies,programs,
fully apply to non-Western societies. or movements influenced by this theory?
Critical Theory by Max Horkheimer and
How It Has Changed Over Time: Theodor Adorno has influenced many
• Post-structuralism & Postcolonialism: movements and ideas in the real world. It
Highlight how power works differently in helps people see and understand unfair
different societies and focus on diverse power and control in society. This theory
experiences. encourages people to speak out against
• Feminist Theory: Expands Critical injustice and work towards a fairer world.
Theory by studying gender-based power
structures. How does this theory help in solving
• Habermas’ Communicative Action: social problems today?
Focuses on open discussion and agreement This theory helps solve social problems by
as a way to create change. encouraging critical thinking and awareness
about media and political influence.
6. Case study Horkheimer and Adorno argued that mass
Case Study in the Philippines: Martial media can be used to control public
Law Under Ferdinand Marcos perception, just like Marcos used
(1972-1981) propaganda during Martial Law. By
During this period, Marcos controlled the understanding how power and information
media, silenced critics, and used propaganda are manipulated, people can fight against
to justify his rule. The government presented historical non-conformism, censorship, and
itself as a force for peace and order, but in authoritarianism. This awareness helps
reality, many people were imprisoned, protect democracy, empower marginalized
tortured, or killed for opposing the regime. groups, and ensure a more just and informed
society that actively resists oppression.
How Critical Theory Applies:
1. Manipulation through Media and Culture
2. False Sense of Stability and Order
How does this theory address gender and reason, progress, and the liberation of
social inequalities? humanity, paradoxically led to new forms of
Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, two domination. They posited that rationality
of the leading figures in the Frankfurt had become "instrumental," meaning that it
School of Critical Theory, focused on was used to organize and control society in
critiquing capitalist society, ideology, and ways that restricted human freedom rather
the role of culture in maintaining social than promoting it. This kind of instrumental
power structures. While they did not directly rationality, according to Horkheimer and
address gender as a primary concern, their Adorno, often justified forms of oppression
work provides essential tools for and exploitation.
understanding and critiquing various forms 3. Instrumental Reason and the
of social inequality, including gender Subordination of Women
inequality. Horkheimer and Adorno’s concept of
"instrumental reason" also provides insights
1. Culture Industry and Ideology into how social inequalities, including
In their seminal work Dialectic of gender oppression, are perpetuated.
Enlightenment (1944), Horkheimer and Instrumental reason refers to the use of
Adorno introduced the concept of the reason to achieve practical, often narrow,
"culture industry" to describe the mass ends without consideration of human
production of culture under capitalism. The freedom or ethical values. In a patriarchal
culture industry refers to the way in which society, this kind of rationality can be used
cultural products—such as films, television to justify the exploitation and subordination
shows, music, and advertising—are of women, reducing them to objects of
produced in large quantities and utility—whether in the household, as
standardized to serve capitalist interests. caregivers, or in the labor market. Women’s
While they did not specifically focus on roles have often been defined in terms of
gender, their critique of the culture industry their utility to men, and instrumental reason
reveals how media and entertainment often can be seen in the way these roles are
perpetuate dominant ideologies that serve to rationalized as natural or necessary for
reinforce existing power structures, social order.
including patriarchy. 4. The Role of Ideology in Gender
Inequality
2. Critique of Enlightenment Rationality A central concern of Horkheimer and
and Gender Adorno’s critical theory is the way in which
Horkheimer and Adorno's critique of ideologies are used to perpetuate social
Enlightenment rationality is another inequalities. They argue that ideology
important aspect of their theory that can be functions to maintain the status quo by
applied to the analysis of gender inequality. disguising the underlying power relations
In Dialectic of Enlightenment, they argued that sustain oppression. In the case of
that Enlightenment thought, which promoted gender, ideology plays a critical role in
reinforcing patriarchy by promoting ideas 1. Critical Theory vs. Classical Marxism
about what is "natural" or "normal" for men Classical Marxism, as articulated by Karl
and women. These ideologies are embedded Marx, sees development primarily in terms
in culture, religion, law, and education, of economic processes, particularly the
making gender inequality seem not only dialectical progression of history driven by
inevitable but justified. class struggle. Marxist theory holds that
5. Emancipation and Gender Equality societies develop through stages, moving
Though Horkheimer and Adorno did not from feudalism to capitalism and eventually
explicitly focus on gender in their work, to socialism and communism. Economic
their overarching goal of emancipation from factors—such as the mode of production, the
domination offers a foundation for feminist relations of production, and the forces of
theory and practice. Critical theory production—are central to understanding
emphasizes the need to challenge all forms societal development.
of domination, whether they are based on
class, race, or gender. The tools they provide 2. Critical Theory vs. Modernization
for analyzing culture, ideology, and Theory
rationality can be applied to the analysis of Modernization theory, which emerged in the
gender inequality, allowing feminist mid-20th century, argues that development
theorists to critique the ways in which is a linear process in which societies move
gender oppression is integrated into broader from traditional to modern, often defined in
systems of social and economic control. terms of economic growth, industrialization,
urbanization, and democratization. This
How does it compare or contrast with theory posits that Western-style
other theories in terms of its view on development models are universally
development? applicable and should be adopted by other
Critical theory, particularly as developed by nations, particularly in the Global South, to
Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and achieve modernity.
other scholars of the Frankfurt School,
offers a distinct perspective on development 3. Critical Theory vs. Dependency Theory
that contrasts with many other theories, Dependency theory emerged as a critique of
especially those from traditional economic, modernization theory in the context of
developmental, or Marxist perspectives. In post-colonial studies, particularly in Latin
comparing critical theory’s view on America. It argues that underdeveloped
development with other major theories, countries are not simply in an earlier stage
several key differences emerge. These of development but are systematically
include its emphasis on ideology, culture, exploited by wealthy, industrialized nations
and power relations, as well as its skepticism through economic dependency, colonial
of linear progress and economic growth. histories, and unequal exchange.
4. Critical Theory vs. Postcolonial Theory Does this theory challenge or reinforce
Postcolonial theory, influenced by figures traditional gender roles and power
like Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, and Homi structures?
K. Bhabha, focuses on the legacy of Critical theory fundamentally challenges
colonialism and the ways in which colonial traditional gender roles and power
histories and structures continue to shape structures. Developed by thinkers like Max
contemporary societies. It critiques the Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and other
Eurocentric models of development and the members of the Frankfurt School, critical
dominance of Western narratives of progress theory critiques not only economic systems
that have historically justified imperialism. but also the cultural and ideological
structures that perpetuate social inequalities,
5. Critical Theory vs. Human including gender inequality. Unlike
Development and Capability Approaches traditional approaches that may take gender
Human development theory, particularly as roles for granted or accept them as part of
articulated by Amartya Sen and Martha the natural order, critical theory sees these
Nussbaum in the Capability Approach, roles as socially constructed and reinforced
focuses on the idea that development should through cultural, social, and institutional
be measured by the expansion of human mechanisms.
freedoms and capabilities, such as the ability
to live a healthy life, engage in meaningful 1. Challenge to Gender Roles
work, and participate in political life. This Critical theory critiques traditional gender
approach shifts the focus from mere roles, which are often seen as “natural” or
economic growth to human well-being and biologically determined in mainstream
dignity. society. Horkheimer and Adorno, for
example, viewed capitalist societies as
6. Critical Theory vs. Postmodernism maintaining gendered power structures
Postmodernism, which emerged in the through cultural products, institutions, and
mid-20th century through thinkers like everyday practices. These gender
Michel Foucault and Jean-François Lyotard, roles—such as the association of women
critiques grand narratives of progress and with domestic work and caregiving and men
universal truths. Postmodernists argue that with public and economic power—are not
development is subjective and contingent, innate but are socially imposed and
shaped by local histories, cultures, and perpetuated. The culture industry, a concept
power dynamics rather than a universal central to their work, plays a significant role
trajectory of progress. in reproducing these roles by creating media
and entertainment that portray women in
passive, domestic, or subordinate roles,
while men are typically depicted as strong,
independent, and in control.
2. Challenging Power Structures UNTA MUPASAR TANG TANAN!
In addition to critiquing traditional gender
roles, critical theory also challenges the WAY MU SHIFT HAAAA!
broader power structures that uphold gender
inequality. The theorists of the Frankfurt GOOD LUCK NATO EVERYONE!
School were deeply concerned with how
power operates in society—not just through KISS TAMONG TANAN! MWUAH
overt political control but through cultural MWUAH MWUAH!
and ideological domination. They argued
that systems of power—especially KAYA RA NATO NI TANAN HANGTOD
capitalism—rely on the subordination of GRADUATION!
various groups, including women, racial
minorities, and the working class. By
emphasizing the role of ideology and
cultural reproduction, critical theory exposes
how these systems work to reinforce gender
inequality by making it seem natural,
inevitable, or even desirable.

3. Emancipation and Gender Justice

At its core, critical theory is concerned with
human emancipation, which involves
freeing individuals from systems of
oppression and domination. Gender
inequality is seen as one of the key forms of
social oppression that must be addressed for
true human liberation to occur.

4. Intersectionality in Critical Theory

While not using the term "intersectionality"
explicitly, critical theory aligns with
intersectional approaches to understanding
oppression. Gender inequality is seen as
interwoven with other forms of social
inequality, including class, race, and
sexuality. For example, women of color or
working-class women face different forms
of discrimination than their white,
middle-class counterparts.
____________________________________