Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

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Review article

Sustainable biorefinery approaches in the valorization of agro-food

industrial residues for biofuel production: Economic and
future perspectives
Y.P. Ragini a , S. Karishma a , R. Kamalesh a , A. Saravanan a,*, B. TajSabreen b,
D. Koushik Eswaar b
a
Department of Biotechnology, Saveetha School of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai 602105, India
b
Department of Biotechnology, St. Peter’s College of Engineering and Technology, Avadi, Chennai 600054, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fossil fuel depletion causes severe energy demand throughout the world, due to industrialization, transportation
Agro-waste and human activities posing significant challenges to global sustainability. Biofuel emerged as a potential syn­
Food residue thetic fuel generated from various renewable feedstocks addressing the waste management and reducing the
Biofuel
reliance on fossil fuels. Among different feedstocks, agricultural and food waste biomass serve as a valuable
Bioconversion
Techno-economic
source for biofuel production due to its high lignocellulosic content, accessibility, and abundance. Agricultural
waste biomass have remarkably emerged as potential feedstock for the production of biofuel due to its high
lignocellulose content, abundance and cost effectiveness. Similarly, food wastes composed of lipid, carbohydrate
and nutrients also offer a significant potential to be served as a feedstock for biofuel production. This review
highlights recent development in the pretreatment and biorefinery processes for biofuel production. The study
explores the sustainable conversion approaches focusing on advanced treatment, conversion technologies, life
cycle analysis, and economic feasibility of the biofuel production. The techno-economic analysis and environ­
mental perspectives are discussed to assess the feedstock selectivity, ecosystem viability, conversion process and
production cost.

Introduction of renewable energy and is widely assessable due to its abundance. Agro-
food losses range from 20 to 30 % in developed industrialized countries
By 2050, global population is expected to raise by 2 billion, raising [6]. These losses are typically in the agro-food industrial sectors is
the need for energy demand and resource consumption. The rapid typically due to excessive processing, the creation of byproducts, losses
growth coupled with industrialization increased the use of sustainable during transportation, and insufficient planning. Since the food industry
resources by 7 times higher than the usual energy demands [1,2]. 85 % generates between 30 and 35 % of annual food waste, food leftovers
of total universal energy is derived from fossil fuels, rendering them a remains better environmentally friendly sources of energy. Around 60 to
significant source of energy. The rising accessibility of fossil fuels has 65 % of the losses in this come from wastes of the vegetable and fruit
made a detrimental effect on the economy, sustainability, and envi­ variety. The food sector annually produces notable wastes like oil cake,
ronment. Harnessing renewable energy sources can dramatically alle­ pomace, skins, and stalks. Failures in the harvesting, handling, storage,
viate reliance on fossil fuels and the pressure it imposes on the grading, and distribution processes account for about 10 to 20 % of all
environment. Many countries have redirected their emphasis towards agricultural waste streams [7].
the generation of biofuels [3,4]. The side streams from this agro-food sector contain important sub­
As two main categories of biofuels, biohydrogen, biodiesel and bio­ stances that can be used in the biorefining procedure. Cellulose, lignin,
ethanol can be utilized as an alternate to conventional transport fuel. and hemicellulose make up a significant portion of agro-food residues
Biofuels probably contain 10 to 40 % less sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen that are classified as lignocellulosic biomass. Wastes from the agricul­
over petroleum-based fuels [5]. Biomass has been a significant resource tural sector can be divided into two categories: agriculture and agro-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A. Saravanan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2025.104239
Received 11 October 2024; Received in revised form 28 January 2025; Accepted 11 February 2025
Available online 19 February 2025
2213-1388/© 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

industrial residues. Agro-industrial residues, on the other hand, are all 35 % by 2030 [12,13]. In general, it is anticipated that the energy
the byproducts of handling and processing agricultural crops. Agricul­ content and consumption of OECD countries will grow at a rate of 0.6 %
tural residues are those leftovers from the harvesting process. The crop each year, compared to non-OECD countries, where an average increase
variety, yield, and dry residue ratio all affect how much residue is pro­ in rate of 1.9 % per year is predicted. Natural gas usage in the European
duced. Agro-industrial wastes generated during crop processing make Union is expected to reach 42.5 % by 2021.
up a modest fraction of the entire agricultural processing unit. Agri­ The alternative use of energy systems has, however, resulted in a 4.5
cultural and agro-industrial wastes include bagasse, crop brans, stalks, % drop in total energy consumption from 2021 to the present. According
leaves, cobs, and straws [132], [8]. to IEA (International Energy Agency), around more than 700 million
The basic concept behind a biorefinery is the transformation of agro- people would have been demanding electricity by the year 2023 [14].
food waste biomass into products with additional value. The use of During the years from 2000 to the present, certain energy-related in­
hybrid technologies proved to be an effective approach for the biomass stances in the Latin American region have increased, but in the past,
conversion into valuable products with minimal residue generation. energy intensity has decreased by 17 %. Energy consumption in Latin
Since biomass are recalcitrant by nature, several pretreatment treat­ American nations has increased by three times in the last few years, from
ments are required for better conversion. By changing structural and 240 MToe to almost 850 MToe. Fossil fuels now account for 80 % of this
particular chemical qualities, the accessibility of biomass components increase in primary energy demand, having doubled since 1990. From
can be increased. Hence, pretreatment is a pertinent step in ensuring the 1971 to 2013, according to a few data reports, total final energy demand
financial viability of biorefinery processes. Physical, chemical, and and consumption increased by almost 221 %, from 190 MToe to 610
biological pretreatment methods are typically used in biorefining [9], MToe [15]. Transport has a substantial role among all the sectors
[126]. The two processes in the modern biorefining of agro-food resi­ because it accounts for about 34.5 % of energy consumption, compared
dues are fractionation and an integrated biorefining process. Thermo­ to just about 32–33 % for industry. As a result, the world’s industriali­
chemical, biological, and chemical conversion processes are the three sation, population growth, and rapid development in developed nations
main methods used to create biofuels from byproducts of the agro-food like Japan, China, the United States, and India have recently pushed the
business. The thermochemical process, which comprises pyrolysis, need for energy to an all-time high. But, by transitioning to renewable
gasification, hydrothermal liquefaction, and combustion, is used to energy sources, these demands are being met. To fulfil the current de­
create the bulk of biofuels. To generate biodiesel from wastes, chemical mands for energy need and consumption, all nations are concentrating
process is commonly employed [10]. The numerous biofuels produced on large-scale biofuel synthesis and development.
via biochemical and thermochemical techniques have been an impor­
tant aspect for the wastes from the agro-food industrial sector. Valorization of biomass
The review distinguishes from previous existing literatures by
providing a comprehensive analysis of biorefinery strategies for biofuel The impact of humanity on the environment has been at an elevation
production specifically from agro-food industrial residues which has not since the past decade with the enlarging population. Finding new
been explored in previous literatures. An overview of the world’s energy techniques and strategies toward a sustainable way of living has become
needs has been added to this review. For a better comprehension of the our priority, which ultimately relates to waste management. The waste
subject, a brief explanation of biomass—agro waste and food industrial generated from different sectors such as agriculture and food industries
residues—has been given. The topic was expanded further by the use of significantly impact its disposable management. Waste valorization is
several pretreatment methods for overcoming the recalcitrant nature of the concept of conversion of wastes into useful industrial products such
residues. The review provides a comprehensive section on the methods as fuels and high-value chemicals. Despite the existence of such concepts
used to convert agro-food industrial wastes into biofuel. It also covers a for a long time, the profligate depletion of natural resources has led to
brief remark on the techno-economic difficulties, life cycle analysis, and researchers’ interest in finding renewed approaches for waste manage­
environmental implications of valorizing agro-food industrial residues. ment [16,17]. The greater availability and the composition of agro-
waste biomass and food industrial residues make it an increasing in­
Global energy demand terest in terms of recycling and valorization.

Global energy usage has had a disastrous impact on the future of Agro waste biomass
environmental health across different scenarios. Energy, which powers
the majority of natural processes, exerts significant effects on the envi­ Agricultural wastes are of significant concern worldwide because of
ronmental system. Energy manifests in two primary ways: as a metabolic their adverse effects on the economy and the environment. In industri­
engine and as an energy converter for human use. Energy usage has alized nations, agro-waste is typically generated at the last stage of the
increased dramatically during the past few decades, doubling between supply chain. However, in the case of developing nations, the majority of
1995 and 2022. Its performance supports sustainable and economic the agro-waste is accumulated at the early stage due to the lack of re­
global expansion as a major tenet of energy strategy. As energy sources and technical capabilities during harvesting and storage [18].
requirement has increased globally, its importance has garnered atten­ The residues are the leftovers that are generated after harvesting the
tion in recent years. Moreover, energy is essential for social, environ­ agricultural products. These residues generally take solids, liquids, or
mental, and economic sustainability [11], [128]. slurry forms. These forms are from wastes such as manure, crop wastes
The worldwide energy consumption was approximately 8795 MToe (corn stalks, bagasse, husks), culling wastes from fruits and vegetables,
in 1990, and by 2017 it had dramatically expanded to 14,080 MToe. By toxic wastes (pesticides), and processing wastes gathered during culti­
2040, most non-OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and vation [19]. The solid form is generally dumped in landfills, the liquids
Development) countries would need a disproportionately high amount are collected into sewers. The improper treatment of these wastes results
of energy. Asia is the main source of energy consumption among all non- in the liberation of methane and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere
OECD countries. Due to industrialization, the need for energy has contributing to climatic change [20].
significantly increased in Asian nations. Over the past 15 years, South Different types of products can be produced from the residues due to
East Asian nations have seen an increase in energy demand by almost 60 their varying substrates. Thus, agricultural wastes can be named as raw
%. Energy usage has been identified as a widespread issue with alarming materials for the production of various by-products rather than being
resource depletion. Some countries have established goals for lowering labelled as waste. These materials being rich in nutrients also aid in the
energy intensity. For instance, the Philippines and Singapore have set growth of microbes which in turn utilizes these residues. The derivation
their respective goals for reducing energy intensity to about 40 % and of renewable energy from living organisms, primarily from agricultural

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Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

wastes, is known as biobased energy [21], [132]. The biofuels derived fats, resins, and tannins. For instance, pectin in apples, lycopene in to­
from this biomass not only focus on the production of green energy but matoes, limonene in oranges, and chlorogenic acid in potatoes. The
also contribute to net zero coalition. The valorization of these wastes availability of the nutrient source and the existence of a high microbial
through the concept of biorefinery has been accepted by scientists as a load in the food waste aids in pathogenic growth resulting in the
sustainable alternative for energy production [22]. occurrence of infectious diseases, obscene smells, and health problems.
Biotechnological approaches such as composting, anaerobic diges­ Food waste with high fatty acid contents is prone to rapid oxidation. The
tion, and fermentation can convert the waste biomass into biorefinery storage and treatment of food waste are made more challenging by the
products such as biofuels and other industrial chemicals. These tech­ release of the obscene smell of fatty acids [30].
niques can also convert these residues into bio-adsorbent for the effec­ The valorization of food wastes rich in starch attained from fruits,
tive removal of pollutant [23,24]. Biochemical and thermochemical vegetables, and other residues results in providing products of sugar
methods play a significant role in the conversion of agricultural biomass derivatives. The process starts with acid hydrolysis of carbohydrates
into valuable products. The decomposition of biomass in anaerobic followed by upgradation to chemicals. The end products are determined
conditions at high temperatures is termed pyrolysis and it is one of the based on the reaction time, temperature, and the catalyst provided in the
most known thermochemical methods among other available tech­ reaction. The processing wastes of crab, prawn, shrimp, lobster, and krill
niques. The resulting biochar can be utilized as a source of fuel, carbon, shells, poultry wastes, and bean meal wastes are rich in terms of protein.
adsorbents, or feedstock for chemical production. According to a study, The valorization of waste protein into amino acids has led to the re­
the biochar attained from rice husk could be employed for soil searcher’s interest in terms of finding alternate proteins [31,32]. Among
improvement and wastewater treatment [25,26]. The screening and all the other constituents, waste cooking oil has diverse applications
analysis of agro-industrial residues can enable the extension of their ranging from the production of fuels to the manufacturing of soaps [33].
application in biofuel production such as biomethane, biohydrogen, The transesterification of waste cooking oils and lipids to produce bio­
biodiesel, bioethanol, etc. Conversion Strategies for Agro-waste biomass diesel is a well-established process. Recent studies are much more
to biofuels has been shown in Fig. 1. focused on the quantitative yield of the fuel by adopting synergistic
methods and also investigating the effect of other factors on the process
Food industrial residues of esterification. In this regard, the process of hydrodeoxygenation of
waste cooking oils for jet fuels and gasoline appears as an appealing
Food waste remains foremost in terms of the global agenda of waste catalytic strategy [34]. The high organic content in food industrial res­
management. An estimated amount of 30–40 % of food is lost worldwide idues makes it an ideal resource in terms of the production of biofuels.
between the stages of production and consumption in the food system. The valorization of these residues for bioenergy production would play
The food wastes are depicted on the basis of diverse and variable an important role in solving the environmental hazard which results
characteristics such as high proportions of moisture, carbohydrate, and from the combustion of waste treatmentoi. The investigation of food
other organic constituents [27]. Food waste consists of five major con­ waste via biotechnological approaches would be a sustainable alterna­
stituents: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, lignin, and other extractives. tive to biofuel production [35]. Different Valorization techniques for
The presence of certain compounds such as proteins, lipids, and essential conversion of food waste to biofuel is shown in Fig. 2.
oils in food waste makes it totally distinguished from lignocellulose
contents [28]. The relative proportions of each component can differ Pretreatment strategies
greatly among the feedstocks. For instance, the carbohydrate content in The first and most important stage in producing biofuel from bio-
banana and potato peels, the protein content in milk and meat, and the residues is pretreatment. A significant obstacle of recalcitrance needs
presence of lipids in oil composition [29]. A significant portion of food to be overcome by appropriate procedures in order to commercialise the
waste consists of extractives which are non-structural compounds – oils, generation of biofuel from agro-food industry wastes. Industrial residues

Fig. 1. Conversion Strategies for Agro-waste biomass to biofuels.

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Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

Fig. 2. Different Valorization techniques for conversion of food waste to biofuel.

from the food and agriculture industries have a relatively high ligno­ scale procedure to delignify cellulose composites. For the pretreatment
cellulose content, which makes them resistant to conversion. Enzymes process, alkalis, acids, ionic liquids, and hot water are frequently
can access the lignocellulose biomass more effectiveness more effec­ employed. High concentrations of acids are used at low temperatures,
tively due to the pretreatment phase. By an enzymatic hydrolysis pro­ and diluted acids are used at high temperatures. For the pretreatment of
cess, polysaccharides are transformed into biofuel; nevertheless, these coffee pulp, Noemi et al. [41] used both heat energy and acetic acid at a
enzymes must access the biomass’s hard structure. As a result, an concentration of 2.5–––10 % for around 1 h. The anaerobic digestion
appropriate pretreatment step is needed for improved enzymatic con­ process’ hydraulic retention time was found to be shorter and the biogas
version. An ideal pretreatment method should boost the complex yield was increased by the thermal treatment, which was shown to be
structures’ lignin cleavage, permeability, porous surface area, and more efficient of the two treatments at a temperature of 90 ◦ C [41].
hydrogen bond cleavage [124], [36]. Physical, chemical, physico- Diluted citric acid pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse was used in
chemical, and biological pretreatment procedures are methods used another investigation by Gomes et al. [42] to encourage compositional
for the pretreatment of biomass. changes in the residue. The retention of cellulose components has been
By minimizing the size of the lignocellulose components in the agro- associated with decreased hemicellulose and lignin levels. As a conse­
food industry leftovers, the physical pretreatment approach attempts to quence, pretreatment conditions of 55 min, 120 ◦ C, and 9.75 % of citric
improve accessibility. Moreover, it enhances pore size and lessens the acid by weight increased the production of biogas, which led to a
crystallinity of the residues. Extrusion, grinding, ultrasonication, and maximum value of 563.59 NmL/g COD [42].
microwave treatment are frequently used processes. Agro-food biomass However, its use is constrained by the acids’ corrosive and thorough
is mixed, heated, and sheared in the extruder as part of the extrusion cleaning properties. Whereas the acid treatment largely focuses on
procedure, which modifies and enhances the biomass. The most used removing hemicellulose, alkali pretreatment using various hydroxides
physical preparation technique, pyrolysis, uses temperatures between also includes the hydroxide addition-mediated destruction of glycosidic
300 and 600 ◦ C. The lignocellulose molecules in the agro-food industry chains and ester groups. For 24 h, Linyi et al. [43] pretreated the food
residues are hydrolyzed at high temperatures to produce various end waste with KOH, CaO, and NaOH, three distinct alkalis. By using alkali,
products such gases, oil, and charcoal. Another pretreatment method for lipids and greases in the food waste were saponified, which led to their
the thermal degradation of biomass that removes hydroxyl groups at removal. Due to this, food waste was inadvertently made more soluble
temperatures between 200 and 300 ◦ C is torrefaction [37,38]. for anaerobic digestion [43]. The additional treatment methods for the
Sawdust was pyrolyzed to produce liquid biofuel using a dry torre­ lignocellulose residues are organo-solvent and oxidative pretreatment.
faction pretreatment procedure, according to Potnuri et al. [39]. Due to Unfortunately, the process’s high energy and money requirements pre­
increased degradation, it has been noted that raising the torrefaction vent its widespread use. The biological pretreatment approach using
temperature had a detrimental impact on the yield of bio-oil. Yet, with microorganisms is another type. Cellulase enzymes are typically pro­
such temperatures, a superior biogas output was achieved [39]. By using duced by microorganisms, and they aid in the breakdown of complex
tiny cavitation bubbles, the ultrasound technique of therapy results in hemicellulose molecules into simpler sugars that can be turned to green
the destruction of lignocellulose components. By changing the structure biofuels. It is important to take into account several aspects, such as
of the cellulose, the microwave-based pretreatment approach increases microbial growth and its associated characteristics, because biological
the susceptibility of residues to the hydrolysis process. As a result, the pretreatment involves both the production and multiplication of en­
physical pretreatment process is frequently used to produce liquid bio­ zymes [44,45]. Due of easier growth conditions and greater solubiliza­
fuel from agro-food industrial leftovers [40]. tion, biological pretreatment based on bacteria is frequently used. The
Chemical pretreatment is most regularly utilized in the commercial corn straw residues were biologically processed using biogas slurry by

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Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

Guo et al. [46]. The biogas slurry was used in this instance as a micro­ choline chloride – lactic acid solvent, corn straw has been treated for 20
biological agent. Up to seven days of treatment were administered at min at 110 ◦ C improving the enzymatic hydrolysis approximately from
various intervals. With this process, increased porosity and considerable 26 to 84 % resulting in a cumulative hydrogen production of 96.4 mL/g
delignification have been noted [46]. Techniques, Conditions, and Sig­ of total solids [50]. The studies provide the valuable insights in bio­
nificance of agro-food industrial residue pretreatment in biofuel pro­ hydrogen production from agro-food waste. In some biofuel class like
duction has been listed in Table 1. biodiesel production, nano-catalysts served as a pretreatment agent due
The need for advanced pretreatment techniques arises from inherent to high surface area and reactivity. It enhances the biofuel production by
complexity of more recalcitrant nature of biomass. Limitations such as promoting the depolymerization of lignin in the biomass structures.
inhibitory product formation, incomplete delignification, and high Having the ability to operate under mild environment conditions, nano-
chemical with energy necessity faced by conventional pretreatment catalysts enable the enhanced production of biofuel [51]. Thus the use of
strategies can be overcome by advanced pretreatment techniques. Some nano-catalysts for biofuel production enhance the sustainability of the
of the advanced pretreatment methods include steam explosion, ionic process. In a recent research, nano-catalyst from date seed waste has
liquid pretreatment, hydrothermal treatment, and microwave pretreat­ been used for the hydrogen production through dark fermentation
ment. Steam explosion or auto-hydrolysis is one of the advanced pre­ yielding a maximum cumulative hydrogen of 1788 ml/L [52]. These
treatment process where the biomass recalcitrant structure is disrupted advanced pretreatment approaches reduce energy requirements pro­
by high temperature of around 170 to 230 ◦ C for a time period of 2 to 30 moting the efficiency and sustainability of the biofuel production.
min followed by extensive decompression of biomass [47]. In one of the
study by [129], a sequential pretreatment methods has been imparted Conversion
for the ethanol production from green coconut fiber. Initially steam
explosion followed by subsequent alkaline pretreatment was carried out Production of advanced biofuel is a multistep process. The rigid cell
in which resulted in high hydrolysis yield of 54.74 %. The sequential wall structure with cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin tightly bound
pretreatment increased the biomass delignification resulting in ethanol inclusions should be dilapidated into a simpler accessible form. This
concentration of approximately 24.88 g/L [129]. Another advanced deconstruction of the plant cell wall plays an indispensable role in the
pretreatment method is the ionic liquid pretreatment which enhances conversion process. The conversion process can be achieved through
the degradability through excellent stability and polarity values. Two two different ways, one which involves high-temperature deconstruc­
categories of ionic liquid – aprotonic and protonic ionic liquids can be tion and the other is low-temperature deconstruction. The process of
used for the breakdown of lignin structure lending them more accessible conversion can also be categorized by the source of raw material used
for biofuel production [48]. One of the study by Zhu et al. [49] used like primary, secondary and tertiary groups. The first two groups involve
ionic liquid pretreatment for the bioethanol production from corn stalk. the usage of byproducts, whereas the tertiary group involves the utili­
Bis(2-hydroyethyl) methylamine mesy-ethylene glycol co-solvent has zation of biological residues, which can also be termed as biomass-
been used as treatment where around 93 % removal of lignin has been derived product which has been consumed by human or animals. These
attained with the overall ethanol yield of 73 % [49]. Deep eutectic wastes are generally sourced from municipal landfills, contributing to
solvents, another class of solvents is composed of both hydrogen donor environmental sustainability [53]. Though a wide spectrum of research
and hydrogen acceptor which allows the dissolution of complex ligno­ has been carried out in this area, the industrial demands remains un­
cellulosic structure in the agro-food industrial wastes. By enhancing the fulfilled. In order to satisfy the legislative pressure and growing energy
cellulose accessibility through elimination of lignin content. A research demand, leading countries extensively source these products and pro­
study utilized microwave assisted deep eutectic solvent based pretreat­ ceed with the conversion process without adequate pretreatment.
ment for the enhanced carbohydrate valorization from corn straw. Using Pre-hydrolysis treatment and enzyme hydrolysis treatment are

Table 1
Techniques, Conditions, and Significance of agro-food industrial residue pretreatment in biofuel production.
Pretreatment Agro-food industrial Pretreatment Significance Biofuel References
Type Technique/Agent residue conditons

Chemical FeCl3 catalyzed Sugarcane post Concn – 70 % Delignification – 74 % Bioethanol – 0.434 g/ [101]
γ-valerolactone/wate harvest leaves Temp – 121 ◦ C Hemicellulose dissolution – 85.6 % g
Time – 3 h
Physico- Liquid hot water Pineapple leaves Concn – 1:10 Hemicellulose separation – 31–76 % Ethanol – 94.6 % [102]
Chemical Temp – 100–160 ◦ C Lignin – 16.7–90.46 %
Time – 20–60 min
Biological Xylaria sp. Napier grass Time – 2–4 days Lignin and hemicellulose dissolution Biogas − 212.8 ± 2.3 [125]
cm3/gVS
Chemical Acid, alkaline, and Areca catechu Temp – 90 ◦ C Lignocellulose dissolution Biogas – 71–75 % [103]
oxidative Time – 24 h
Physico- Subcritical water hydrolysis Macauba husks Temp – 200 ◦ C Better dissolution Methane – 57 mL/g [104]
chemical Time – 40 min
Flow rate – 10 mL/
min
Chemical Alkaline Cocoa pod husk Concn – 5 % Increased crystallinity index, Ethanol – 98.75 % [105]
Temp – 120 ◦ C Increased cellulose content
Time – 30 min
Chemical Alkaline Hazel nut husks Concn – 6 % Lignin solubilization – 12.58–45.78 % Methane – 278.45 [130]
mL/g
Chemical Ammonium Carbonate Rice husk Concn – 20–25 % Glucan digestibility – 59–67 % Bioethanol – 10.6 g/L [106]
Time – 8 h
Temp – 80 ◦ C
Chemical Steam Corn husk, coffee Time – 10 min Hemicellulose – 20–24 % Bioethanol – 18–20 g/ [131]
cherry husk, Temp – 121 ◦ C L
Chemical Alkaline – NaOH, NH3 Grape pomace Concn – 10 % Decrease in alkalinity Methane – 0.178 [107]
Time – 24 h Nm3/kg

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Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

crucially important for the better optimization of conversion process. Direct combustion
Under specific experimental conditions research has been where Direct combustion is a thermochemical process which converts the
biomass has been subjected to dilute- acid pre-hydrolysis followed by biomass is converted into heat through burning in open air, where the
steam treatment. In the pre-hydrolysis step, the bio-mass was treated stored chemical energy is begins conversion. Despite the emission of
with H2SO4, HNO3, HCl for 180 min at 60 ◦ C initially. This was followed particulates, CO2 and other substances caused by agro-food biomass, the
by steam treatment for 15 min at 121 ◦ C, then the samples were emission caused by the combustion of fossil fuels ranks higher [55]. The
deionized with water and the pH of the filtrate was allowed to remain process of direct combustion of biomass for power generation has been
constant. This method where acid treatment was followed by steam in practice since 1990 s. The components such as the electric generator,
treatment resulted a higher yield, and single substrate produced a higher turbine, and grate boiler are including in the biomass combined plant.
yield of 89 % when compared with multi-substrate. To classify it even The grate boiler is a vibrating mechanized equipment with less capacity
further bio-mass that is specially cultivated for energy purpose can be and simple structure. Through alternating inertial force, the surface of
classified in to primary, secondary and tertiary groups. Primary group grate vibrates which in turn prompts the biomass into mechanized
includes straw, leaves, cornstalk etc., whereas in secondary group the combustion. The heat energy generated converts the water into steam
processed rice husk, coffee husk, and wood chips. [56]. The generated steam is condensed and converted into water
following the reduction in pressure. The steam Rankine cycle has been
reported to be the most critical cycle in thermodynamics for electricity
Biochemical conversion
generation [57]. An average estimate states that this method is implied
< 10 % in the power plants, but by increased usage can reduce upto
Biochemical method refers to the conversion of biomass through
450million tonnes [58].
physical, chemical and biological pretreatment methodologies. This
In a recent study, the process of direct combustion has been operated
method aims biomass to produce ideal conversion effects. By using this
at a temperature range of 1000–2000 ℃ with generating main products
pre-treatment method, bio-mass can be converted into different prod­
such as heat, steam, and electricity. This technique is followed due to its
ucts like biogas, ethanol, acetone, butanol etc. In comparison with the
cost effectiveness and limitations includes low energy emission and high
other conversion technologies this biochemical conversion is often
level of emission. In this study, the cofiring of biomass with coal has led
considered to be an efficient conversion method. Generally, anaerobic
to the increase in efficieny of 36 to 44 % but has limited the biomass use
digestion is preferred in case of municipal waste, where the organic
as 5 to 10 %. The study concludes by stating that combustion control
fraction may be digested and biogas can be utilized for combined heat
with cofiring technologies can aid in mitigating the environmental
and power (CHP) or as an efficient transport fuel. However, this process
concerns [59]. Recently, a study has been performed on the novel
can also be utilized for the conversion of agro-food industrial residues.
integration of mid-wave and long-wave infrared imaging (MWIR and
This process involves the process of decomposition where the organic
LWIR) for combustion studies on biofuel production. The study findings
fraction is heated at a temperature of 65 ◦ C and is left to fall conse­
reveal that with increasing airflow, the overall combustion rate has been
quently up to 60 days. This fermentation process continues till gases are
accelerated while the combustion efficiency is reduced. Conversely,
produced which includes CO and H2S. Methane a high heat gas can be
with a low flowrate of 0.5 L/min, the surface temperature increased and
produced efficiently, which can be converted into methanol, here more
the vice versa is attained. The combustion dynamics in this system is
than 90 % of the feedstock is converted into biogas and 70 % can turn
studied by the utilization of spectral radiance ratios of CO/CO2, CH4/
into methane [127]. This conversion technology harnesses more energy
CO2, and H2O/CO2. The study concludes by stating the inverse rela­
and can be classified into four major categories which includes (a)
tionship between the combustion efficiency and the total combustion
Physical process, where grinding is involved (b) Physciochemical
rate [60]. The recent studies highlight the need for optimized combus­
method, this includes wet operation (c) Chemical method, where
tion control systems for attaining potential improvement in efficiency.
organic solvents are used, and lastly (d) biological method.
Biological method includes simultaneous saacharification and
Torrefaction
fermentation scenario where cellulose hydrolysis and hexose fermen­
Torrefaction is a moderate state of pyrolysis process, that enhances
tation occur simultaneously, this is because during the process of
the grindability of the agro-food waste biomass through effectively
fermentation the reactor overcomes hexose inhibition due to the instant
reducing the moisture content and hygroscopicity of the biomass [61].
sugar consumption by microorganisms during the process of fermenta­
The energy density as well as the quality of the biofuel produced had
tion. Certain researchers have used the process of co-fermentation,
been enhanced through this process. The operating condition for treat­
where reaction takes place in the same reactor where xylose and
ing the biomass through the process of torrefaction is through a rela­
glucose co-ferment in the same reactor. Here different types of
tively low temperature of 200–300 ◦ C for 30 mins in an environment
fermentation process can be visualized like Photo-fermentation, alco­
free from O2 and under atmospheric pressure. An external heat sources is
holic fermentation and elector-fermentation. In this process, the chosen
used in a typical torrefaction system for biomass conversion [62]. Based
microorganism can be induced with electricity. This can lead to the
upon the biomass type and desired end product the type of torrefaction
following reactions like elongation or breakdown of carbon chain,
has been optimized which includes dry and wet torrefaction. Dry tor­
increased synthesis of adenosine and triphosphate, directed fermenta­
refaction also known to be conventional torrefaction is a process per­
tion which focuses on single-efficient product production [54].
formed at inert atmosphere without the use of any reactive agents such
as air or steam [63]. This system is typically suitable for biopower and
Thermochemical conversion solid biofuel generation. The wet torrefaction also known as hydro­
thermal carbonization technique is performed in a pressurized, water
This method is a widely used method which involves the direct saturated condition at an operating temperature of 180–250 ◦ C [64].
combustion, torrefaction, pyrolysis and gasification to obtain biofuel This technique is much suitable for feedstocks such as aquatic biomass,
from liquid mass. The method is broadly classified in to 2 major di­ wet agricultural residues, and biomass with high moisture content. The
visions based on the operating temperature. When the temperature is < steam torrefaction is another technique which involves the use of a
300 ◦ C, torrefaction and hydrothermal carbonization takes place. When reactive medium and operates are a temperature range of 200–300 ◦ C.
the operating temperature is > 300 ◦ C, the biomass conversion methods This system enhances the biomass properties by influencing the chem­
like gasification (800–1300 ◦ C operating range), combustion ical composition and properties of the final product [65].
(1000–2000 ◦ C operating range) and pyrolysis (<500 ◦ C operating During torrefaction the feedstock undergoes transformation re­
range) method can be implied. actions which includes polymerization, decomposition and

6
Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

carbonization. These reactions in turn have resulted in improved heating biofuel production from agro-food industrial residues through the pro­
value, homogeneity, hydrophobicity and enhanced energy density of the cess of pyrolysis is depicted in the Fig. 3. The biomass in the process of
bio-coal produced. The characteristics of the bio-coal is similar to that of pyrolysis undergoes the following steps (a) initially the reaction is
coal with its applications in electricity generation, syngas production initiated by heat transfer from the source to the biomass, (b) at elevated
through gasification, along with heat and power generation [66]. temperatures primary vapors contribute to volatile and char formation,
Studies have reported that the properties of the bio-coal are improved (c) influx of hot vapors into the biomass, (d) condensation of volatiles
through torrefaction. This process has been performed in rice husk and leads to the formation of tar, and (e) occurrence of autocatalytic sec­
the study reveals that the removal of oxygen from rice husk aids in ondary pyrolysis [71,72].
improved fuel characteristics [67]. During torrefaction, the oxygen in Based upon the residence time and temperature, the pyrolysis is
rice husk is shifted to gaseous and liquid products such as H2O, CO2 and classifying into three categories namely slow, fast and flash pyrolysis
CO and also as other organic molecules. Most of the energy is retained by [73,74]. The slow pyrolysis is a conventional technique followed to yield
the rice husk while ethe temperatures enhances the energy output and biochar. In this process, the thermal breakdown of biochar occurs at
mass of the liquid and gaseous products [68], [122]. The type of tor­ approximately 400 ℃ with intermittent time provided for repolymeri­
refaction process with its advantages and disadvantages has been given zation towards achieving solid residues. The biochar attained can be
in Table 2. A recent study has been performed on the conversion of wood used as biosorbents, fertilizer and in the wastewater treatment. The fast
cellulose pulp residue into levulinic acid through the process of wet pyrolysis is a technique carried out at a temperature range between
torrefaction and by using H- beta zeolite catalyst. The results indicate 400–800 ℃ at a residence time of 0.5 to 10 s, which in turn favors the
that a higher value of 78.9 % of carbon content has been achieved at a yield of bio-oil. The flash pyrolysis techniques are characterized by its
temperature of 220 ◦ C after 30 min. Also, with an enhancement factor of high temperature range of 800–1000 ℃ with a shorter residence time of
1.5, the hydrochar attained a maximum higher heating value of 30.3 less than 0.5 s [75,76].
MJ/kg of biomass [69]. Recently, researchers have studied the Researchers have investigated the thermal effects during pyrolysis
comparative benefits of gas pressurized torrefaction for conversion of over the conversion of agro-forestry residues into biofuel production.
corn stalk into solid biofuel. The results indicate that the process has led The result indicates that an highest biochar yield of 52 wt% has been
to the biochar yield of about 48.59 to 80.13 %. The carbonization index attained at the optimized pyrolysis condition. The optimal temperature,
value of the gas-pressurized condition was found to be 1.06–1.48. This heating rate, and reaction time for camelina meal was found to
indicates the cost effectiveness and environmental pollution potential of be450 ◦ C, 5 ◦ C/min and 30 min [77]. In another study, the benefit of co-
this technique [133]. Type of torrefaction process with its advantages pyrolysis along with refuse derived fuel (RDF) has been studied for
and disadvantages has been given in Table 2. biofuel production. The study performed at 600 ◦ C revealed that the
addition of refuse derived fuel to the biomass has resulted in the share of
Pyrolysis organic oxygen compounds between the decomposed products released.
Pyrolysis is one of the highly used thermo-chemical method where The experiment in lab scale was conducted in a fixed bed ratio of raw
the cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and the other carbonaceous matter is biomass to RDF of 1:1 and 3:1. This method has proven to be effective
degraded, which results in the production of biofuel in an oxygen free solution for the utilisation of RDF through co-pyrolysis of biomass [78].
atmosphere [70]. Pyrolysis is claimed to be a cost effective, and eco- The process of pyrolysis is capable of producing biofuel with high fuel to
friendly technique for the biomass to bioenergy conversion. The feed ratios. This process also offers more flexibility in terms of the uti­
lizing almost all types of biomasses. These properties make pyrolysis to
address issues with agro-food industrial residues disposal as well as
Table 2
bioenergy production.
Type of torrefaction process with its advantages and disadvantages.
Dry torrefaction Wet torrefaction Steam Gasification
torrefaction
Gasification is a technique where carbonaceous material is converted
Operating 200–300 ◦ C 180–260 ◦ C 200–400 ◦ C into valuable gases, with the production of gas occurring at an operating
condition 10–240 mins 5-240mins 5-120mins
temperature range of 700 ◦ C with addition of O2 and CO2. The primary
Advantages • Easy to operate • Operated at a • Suitable for
• It is a continuous lower reaction both dry and
gases produced during this process includes CO, H2, CO2, CH4. The
process temperature wet biomass, process of gasification occurs through four steps which includes
• Cost efficient • Initial drying is but most decrease in the moisture content with initial application of heat, the
not required suitable for wet second step involves the decomposition of cellulose and hemicellulose
• By-products can biomass
through pyrolysis, third steps include the partial combustion with
be obtained in • No pre-drying is
liquid form- required oxidation of char residues into CO, CO2, H2O, gasification occurs at the
easy access • Higher fourth step [79]. In this step of gasification, carbon dioxide (CO2) is
pelletability typically used as a gasifying agent to produce syngas. This process in­
solid products volves both exothermic and endothermic reactions, typically occurring
Disadvantages • Requirement of • Requirement of • High energy
pre-drying post-drying consumption
at temperatures above 800 ◦ C. The reactions are highly dependent on
process process when compared various operational parameters, including the feedstock composition,
• Biochar will • High chances of to the other two moisture and ash content, particle size (granulometry), pressure, tem­
contain reactor process perature, type of gasifier, and the choice of gasifying agent [80]. The
increased corrosion due to • Requires high
biofuel production from biomass through gasification process is depic­
amount of ash the presence of pressure to
inorganic salts operate. ted in Fig. 4.
• Not feasible for Microwave gasification is an advanced technology for biomass
Continuous transformation that offers significant advantages over traditional
operation methods. This technique ensures uniform temperature distribution
Applications • Removing • Preferable for • Upgrading
minimal amount high moisture biomass and
throughout the process, resulting in higher efficacy and efficiency in
of moisture containing agro- provide solid- biomass conversion. They key advantages of this technique includes
content in industrial biofuel efficient energy transfer, high quality syngas production, feedstock
preprocessing wastes versatility, low emissions and operational flexibility [81,82]. Re­
steps
searchers have studied the utilisation of microwave gasification for

7
Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

Fig. 3. Biogas production from agro-food industrial residues using pyrolysis process.

Fig. 4. Biofuel production from biomass through gasification process.

production of syngas from oil pam shell biomass. The two key param­ Biofuel production
eters investigated includes absorber loading ratio and microwave
power. A highest gas yield of 63.3 wt% has been attained with 40 % Energy, being indispensable is vital globally which necessitates the
microwave power and 10 wt% absorber. The results show a process need for W conserving natural resources and sustainably producing
efficiency of 19.7 % and a biomass conversion efficiency of 55.6 % [83]. biofuel. This was initiated by United Nations, US enacted the Energy
In another research, the implication of microwave assisted chemical Independence and Security Act 2007. The production of biofuels is
looping gasification towards the conversion of sugarcane bagasse categorized into two types, primary and secondary. The primary fuels
biomass into syngas production has been studied. In this study, an are the products produced from burning wood, plant or animal waste
optimal syngas yield of 88.23 wt% has been attained at 880 W and 5:1 and the secondary biofuels are obtained from animal fats. During biofuel
ration in air reactor. A maximum range of H2 + CO of 64.96 vol% has production, maintenance of live cells and analysis of growth patterns
been obtained at 680 W and fuel reactor ratio of 3:3. The addition of the remains essential in ensuring the optimal yield. One of the most tradi­
oxygen carrier Fe3O4 has seen to increase the syngas yield while reduced tional biofuel products is bio alcohol, which is a derivative of plant
the efficiency [84]. In a study by Cormos [85], decarbonized green products. Generally, lignin contains high amount of syringyl propane,
hydrogen production from biomass has been facilitated through gasifi­ the leaf blade sclerenchyma which degrades poorly is rich in lignin, and
cation process. The process utilized a calcium based sorbent for the these tissues partially degrade and are more susceptible to chemical
enhanced carbon capture efficiency to produce around 300 MWth of treatments.
hydrogen. The study highlights the scalability of the process by identi­ Warm-season grasses possess non-lignified cells, they do not show
fying further research areas such as reactor design optimization any histochemical reaction with lignin and it resists the process of
providing insights for advanced renewable energy techniques [85]. biodegradation, these warm-season grasses have possess high level of
ester-linked p-coumaric and ferulic within the cell wall. Nowadays
Miscanthus is used for the production of bio alcohol as it is not an edible
product it can be used without compromise [86]. Algae and microalgae

8
Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

are commonly used as biomass for energy conversions, the cells with the Life cycle and techno-economic perspective of biofuel production
ability to perform photosynthesis can be used to produce biofuels with
higher efficiency than normal cells, but the use of plant cells is not Life cycle analysis of biofuel production
practically feasible. The alternative to plant cells is algae, they can
perform the same process under limited time and be manipulated easier. Life cycle analysis (LCA), a renowned method for assessing biofuel
Eukaryotic microalgae and cyanobacteria are also used for biofuel pro­ production is a standardized tool for the determination and computation
duction because of their unique metabolic properties [87]. The sector of of potential environmental impacts caused during the production pro­
biofuel production will always have room for refinement and the need cess. LCA aids in the selection of better process for biofuel production by
for improvement. The success of biofuel production can be determined assessing which process has the low energy impact. As the life cycle
when the production cost and environmental impact are limited, and the analysis assesses entire life cycle from raw material extraction to final
yield and efficiency are greater. Table 3 lists the conversion strategy and biofuel product, it serves as a key parameter offering insights into sus­
conditions for biofuel production from agro-food wastes. Recently, re­ tainable biorefinery approaches. Typically, LCA consists of four stages
searchers have studied the utilisation of urban plastic waste and agro- which include goal and scope, life cycle inventory analysis, life cycle
industrial by-products for the production of hybrid biofuel pellets. The impact assessment analysis, and final interpretation [92].
study has indicated the super-binding capacity of polypropylene with The first stage in the LCA of biofuel production from agro-food in­
beet pulp. The plastic waste is optimised by doping it with the pellet dustrial wastes is the assessment of feedstock availability and accessi­
mixture. The highest calorific value of 22.6 MJ/kg was achieved for the bility. Agro-food industrial wastes are usually abundant and pose
blend with durability, fines content, and combustion gas generation of environmental issues. However, the feedstock logistics that include
99 %, 0.23 % and 5.1 %. The production cost of the pellet is estimated to collection, transportation, and storage can have energy demand and
be a 6.25 % increase when compared to wood-based biofuels [88]. emission impacts. In the production phase where the biochemical and
Another research has been conducted an experimental analysis of the thermochemical processes are being employed for the agro-industrial
production of biofuel from agro-industrial residues for CO2 mitigation. waste conversion, LCA studies reveal the sustainability of the process
The biochar optimised from pequi seeds resulted in an energy yield and for better conversion [93]. Generally biofuels derived from agro-
high heating value of 23.83 MJ kg− 1 and 82.11 %. The biofuel produced industrial wastes exhibit low greenhouse gas emissions compared to
has aided in CO2 reduction by 188.65 kg CO2 eq, by replacing diesel. conventional fossil fuels.
This study has resulted in the development of a stoichiometry diagram A crucial aspect of LCA is the functional unit determination which
for a better understanding of the biofuels derived from selected biomass can be assessed through input and output parameters. In the LCA of algal
[89]. Biodiesels are biofuels that are commonly as fatty acid methyl biodiesel, three functional unit classes are present which include energy-
ester (FAME). In the latest study, researchers have utilised agro- oriented, material-oriented, and service-oriented. Service oriented class
industrial residues of Pouteria sapota peels as catalysts for the produc­ includes transportation cost of the biofuel; energy-oriented class in­
tion of biodiesels from soybean and sunflower oils. The heterogeneous cludes the chemical energy of the fuel combusted per 1 MJ of fuel.
catalyst was prepared at an operating condition of 500 ◦ C for 2 h. The Material-oriented class of LCA relates to the quantity of fuel produced in
results indicate a maximum conversion yield of 92 % achieved from both the overall process. In the LCA analysis of biofuel production, three
oils at optimised conditions [90]. A prominent example of using predominant sections – processing units, by-product handling, and
renewable energy harvesting is the recent study which focused on the project management occurs [94]. Some of the recent studies have
two-stage anaerobic digestion process for the efficient energy recovery explored the life cycle analysis of agro-food industrial wastes based
of hydrogen and methane using filter cake. In the initial stage, hydrogen biofuel production. In one of the recent research study based on the
production rate of 193.6 mL H2/L.d with retention time of 3 days has biofuel production from apple pomace, LCA analysis has been carried
been achieved. With a total energy output of 5.17 kJ/g VS generated out. The process has been performed in three scenarios where scenario 1
around 194,655 MWh of electricity reducing annual greenhouse gas deals with biogas production, scenario 2 with bio-butanol production
emissions [91]. The Table 4. lists the key technologies or comparison and scenario 3 where both biogas and bio-butanol is being produced.
metrics for different conversion processes considering the efficiency, LCA analysis of scenario 1 performed better than other two scenarios by
costs, environmental impact. approximately 85 % and 74 % in terms of ecosystem and far better in
resources. Also, mid-point analysis in scenario 1 exhibited 85.15 %,
83.10 %, and 99.26 % in the case of terrestrial acidification, global

Table 3
Conversion strategy and conditions for biofuel production from agro-food wastes.
Agro-food wastes Pretreatment Bioconversion Conditions Biofuel Yield References

Olive pomace − Slow Pyrolysis 600 ◦ C Biogas 37 % [108]

15 ◦ C/min Bio-oil 33 %
Olive pomace Ultrasound Anaerobic digestion 40 ◦ C Biogas 72 % [109]
43 days
Wheat straw Biological Acidogenic fermentation 37 ◦ C Bio-acids 47 % [110]
48 h
Corn straw Eutectic solvent Fermentation 30 ◦ C Bioethanol 54.86 % [111]
72 h
Wheat straw KOH Anaerobic digestion 25–30 ◦ C Biogas 718.32 mL [112]
Pearl millet straw Fungal Anaerobic digestion 25 days Biogas 57 % [113]
Corn husk, cherry husk, and peanut husk Steam Saccharification and fermentation 35 ◦ C Bioethanol 18–20 g/L [131]
7h
Banana leaves − Anaerobic digestion 35 ◦ C Biogas 65.28 % [114]
Cotton stalks − Anaerobic digestion 37.5 ◦ C Biogas 26 % [115]
48 days
Sorghum bicolor stalk Acidic Anaerobic monodigestion 37 ◦ C Methane 54 % [123]
5 days
Bread acidic Fed-batch Fermentation 30 ◦ C Bioethanol 106–114 g/L [116]
2 % inoculum

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Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

Table 4
Comparison metrics for different conversion process – Conversion efficiency, Cost, and Environmental impact.
Conversion Conversion Conversion Cost Environmental impact Remarks References
type process efficiency (%)

Thermochemical Gasification 35–65 1.5 – 3 $/L Reduced air input and low CO2 High initial investment [117]
emissions
​ Pyrolysis 40–50 0.2 – 0.8 $/L Low sulfur emission Biochar and bio-oil production [118]
​ Torrefaction − 5 – 10 $/L Enhanced fuel properties Carbon sequestration [133]
Minimal emissions
​ Combustion 20–35 517.91–533.47 Relatively high sulphur and Requirement of emission control [119]
$/ton carbon emissions methods
Biochemical Anaerobic 40–60 1.22–2.33 $/kg Low carbon emissions Dual benefit of energy production and [120]
digestion waste management
​ Fermentation 30–55 1–––100 $/L Low sulphur and carbon Limited to high sugar content [121]
emissions feedstock

warming, and lowering of fossil fuel scarcity. This LCA analysis showed ∑n ∑n
i=1 Ci − i=1 Ri
the better production of biogas from apple pomace than bio-butanol of BFESP = (3)
Q
combined production [95]. The LCA studies infers the potential of agro-
food industrial wastes for the efficient biofuel production. By empha­ Bio-hydrogen production from agro-food industrial residues plays a
sizing the importance of conversion process in terms of environmental crucial role by aligning with the techno-economic perspective of bio-
aspects, LCA remains a vital tool for sustainable biofuel production. refinery approach. Co-production of hydrogen with other biofuels
Transitioning to agro-food residues based biofuel production replace the from agro-food waste has the ability to enhance the overall economic
conventional fossil fuel usage reducing carbon emissions. Also, use of viability and process efficiency. From the techno-economic aspect,
appropriate low emission conversion methods raises the probability of integration of hydrogen production into biorefineries reduce the
achieving circular economy goals as observed from LCA analysis of disposal cost of waste and raises the profitability through revenue from
certain studies. Through the use of agro-food industrial residues for the multiple revenue field. One of the recent study, hydrogen production
bioconversion process, LCA analysis serve as a crucial tool for biofuel from coffee manufacturing wastewater has been facilitated through in­
production. Thus, this transition besides supporting resource efficiency tegrated thermophilic-mesophilic dark fermentation and anaerobic
also supports net-zero ambition shifting towards sustainable energy digestion process. Cost effectiveness demonstrated the hydrogen pro­
systems. duction cost of 3.84 USD/kg for thermophilic and 3.86 for mesophilic
fermentation coupled with anaerobic digestion process. From an envi­
Techno-economic perspectives ronmental aspect, process resulted in a low global warming potential of
0.79 kg CO2 eq/kg of hydrogen mitigating greenhouse gas emissions
In today’s climate Techno-economic analysis (TEA) is vital in the [97]. This hydrogen production can be integrated with other biofuel
production process of Biofuel. The integration of TEA in production production that might enhance the economic returns positioning
results in a better assessment of fuel efficiency. One of the most hydrogen as a factor in low-carbon transition.
commonly used Biofuel production techniques from Micro-algae is hy­
drothermal liquefaction (HTL). The difficulties faced by the researchers Environmental perspectives
are the high cost of HTL conversion compared to conventional fuels
(Chen and Quinn, 2021), and obtaining a purified product that has a The world we live in needs an enormous amount of energy to strive
high conversion rate and efficiency is challenging. and survive its day-to-day activities. Most of our energy requirements
The search for alternate fuel is inevitable for example ethanol from are met by depleting nonrenewable fossil fuels, most commonly used
corn, wheat, and sugar beets, using bio-syngas bio methanol is produced method of energy generation is burning fossil fuels produces thermal
with the help of biomass [96]. In spite of maintaining the required energy. Naturally available resources are facing the danger of exhaus­
conditions for biomass to grow by using a bioreactor and the recovery tion due to prolonged use. The Industrial Revolution paved the path
process is a tenacious task, the cost of biofuels is determined by the invention of new machines and their mass production of them, both the
downstream process. Availability and cost of fuels are unavoidable production and working of machines require energy. When the fossil
factors in the economy of a country, A study conducted in Taiwan stated fuel levels were analyzed, the results found were alarming, as an
that the country is a “high-energy” importing nation, and more than 98 initiative to avoid overuse of energy resources the concept of sustainable
% of its energy needs were met by imported fuels. Countries with development was adopted.
geographic disadvantages tend to struggle to meet their energy needs, The notion passed proposed that the natural resources should be
they have to depend on other countries for their energy requirements. accounted for future use, thereby ensuring the availability of resources
Alternative fuel from organic materials can be developed in vitro for future generations. Renewable natural sources have their limitations,
regardless of region. The techno-economic analysis is performed by it is expensive to generate energy and the yield is very low compared to
accounting for all capital and operational costs, the equipment cost was non-renewable sources. A solar power plant requires a vast land filled
assumed constant worldwide. The calculation is done with respect to US with solar panels to power a small city. Power plants, in general, pro­
dollars. The cost of production was calculated by scaling equation. duce toxic waste that is harmful to living beings, nuclear power plants
( )0.6 are infamous for their radioactive wastes, which are very hazardous to
Newcapacity
Newcost = Originialcost (1) animals. Improper disposal of wastes will result in land, water, and air
Originalcapacity
pollution and if not monitored properly a power plant can easily pollute
all three of them.
The breakeven prices for energy consumption were determined using
Transportation is one of the major causes of air pollution, vehicular
the following equations.
emission is the key cause of emission of Green House Gases (GHG),
∑n ∑n
Ci − i=1 Ri Three-quarters of the 24 % of CO2 emission by fuel combustion is due to
BESP = i=1 (2)
Q vehicular emission. The aviation industry uses many tonnes of fuel every

10
Y.P. Ragini et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 75 (2025) 104239

year, alternate fuels used for aviation include fuels produced from methods such as steam explosion, hydrothermal, and ionic liquid pre­
biomass (bio jet fuel) and synthetic jet fuels produced from natural gas treatment enhance the degradation of lignin, improving the overall
or coal [98]. Worldwide Governments promote the usage of fuels biofuel yield. Of the different conversion processes, both biochemical
derived from soybeans, ethanol, wood or grass rather than the usage of and thermochemical process proved to be a better methods for biofuel
oil. Reducing the dependency on oils will alter the conventional system synthesis. The life cycle analysis emphasizing the importance of sus­
and will improve sustainability. The emission of CO2, CFCs, CH4, and tainability of biofuel production process provides better environmental
N2O deflects heat towards the earth and in turn causes global warming, aspect. From the techno-economic and environmental perspectives,
When Sea levels increase it endangers the land we live in. Already our process optimization contributes to reduced waste and greenhouse
average surface temperature has increased by 1 ◦ C competitively to the emissions. The future research focusing on cost effective, integrated
pre-industrial era [99]. Another endangerment of nature by GHG is biorefinery system and process optimization might reduce the overall
climate change, The changes in climate patterns are clear and lately, cost and enhance the scalability of the biofuel production from agro-
they are easily noticeable, Climate change affects every industry in food industrial wastes.
unimaginable ways, superficially it may seem climate does not play a
major part in the economy but the reality is the exact opposite, when CRediT authorship contribution statement
trade and production of a country are affected or halted by climatic
conditions it will gradually reduce the wealth of the country, the future Y.P. Ragini: Formal analysis, Data curation. S. Karishma: Valida­
will be questionable. So to maintain sustainability and to prevent drastic tion, Investigation. R. Kamalesh: Validation, Resources, Methodology.
climate changes it is an essential to promote and implement the dis­ A. Saravanan: Validation. B. TajSabreen: Visualization, Validation,
covery and usage of alternate energy sources by performing life cycle Methodology. D. Koushik Eswaar: Visualization, Formal analysis, Data
assessment (LCA). curation.

Future perspectives
Declaration of competing interest

The research of biofuel production from agro-food industrial wastes

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
have increased significantly due to its sustainability aspect. However,
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the lack of large scale studies limit its application in industrial sector. To
the work reported in this paper.
align the compatibility of the biofuel production process with sustain­
Funding Declaration:
able development goals, efforts on profit concentration along with waste
This research is not financially funded by any funding agencies.
minimization and reduction in environmental pollution has been
focused. Application of advanced bioconversion techniques enhance the
Data availability
probability of biofuel production from agro-food industrial wastes. In
the pretreatment process, commercial enzymes can be used that en­
Data will be made available on request.
hances the kinetics of biochemical reactions further enhancing the ef­
ficiency of bioconversion process. For the attainment of sustainable bio
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