Trematode Infections and Histopathological Effects in Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus from the

Polluted Andoni River, Niger Delta, Nigeria

1
Warder Amaminor B., 2Okpoji, Awajiiroijana U. & 3Ekwere Ifiok O.

1
Department of Biology, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
2
Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria
3
Department of Chemistry, Akwa Ibom State University,Ikot Akpaden
Corresponding email: [email protected]
Abstract
Trematode infections are increasingly recognised as indicators of ecological degradation in
freshwater ecosystems. This study assessed the prevalence, histopathological effects, and
environmental drivers of trematode metacercariae in Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus from the
Andoni River, a heavily impacted estuarine system in Nigeria’s Niger Delta. A total of 100
specimens were examined for parasitic cysts and tissue pathology, while water samples from
landing sites were analysed for physicochemical parameters. Infection prevalence was 74%, with
metacercariae predominantly located in the gills, intestines, and muscle tissues. Infected fish
exhibited significant histopathological alterations, including lamellar fusion, mucosal necrosis,
goblet cell hyperplasia, myofibre degeneration, and fibrotic encapsulation. Condition factor was
significantly lower in infected individuals, indicating impaired physiological status. Water
quality analysis revealed elevated levels of nitrates, phosphates, BOD₅, and turbidity, all
positively correlated with parasite prevalence. These findings highlight the role of environmental
stressors in promoting parasitic infections and underscore the value of fish health indicators in
monitoring aquatic ecosystem integrity and potential zoonotic risk in fish-consuming
communities.
Keywords: Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus; trematode infection; histopathology; fish health; Andoni
River; freshwater pollution; parasite prevalence; condition factor; zoonotic risk; Niger Delta.
1.0 Introduction
Freshwater and estuarine ecosystems across sub-Saharan Africa are increasingly threatened by
anthropogenic pressures such as industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, deforestation, and
unregulated urban expansion. In the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, these stressors have led to
pronounced ecological degradation, with detrimental consequences for aquatic biodiversity,
fisheries productivity, and public health (Okoye et al., 2022; Mmom & Fred-Ahmadu, 2021).
One of the key indicators of such environmental disturbance is the prevalence of parasitic
infections in fish, which reflect both ecological imbalance and compromised host resilience
(Mladineo & Poljak, 2021).
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus, commonly referred to as the Bagrid catfish, is an ecologically and
commercially significant species distributed across West African riverine and estuarine systems.
Its benthopelagic nature and detritus-based feeding habits expose it to high parasite loads and
pollutants concentrated in sediments (Adewumi et al., 2013). Among the most pathogenic
parasites affecting freshwater fish are digenetic trematodes, which infect fish through complex
life cycles involving molluscan and sometimes crustacean intermediate hosts. These parasites are
known to elicit significant tissue damage, particularly when encysted as metacercariae in vital
organs such as the gills, intestine, liver, and musculature (Ahmed et al., 2019; Tavares-Dias &
Martins, 2017).
Trematode infections can compromise fish health by inducing epithelial necrosis, granuloma
formation, mucosal hyperplasia, and systemic inflammation, ultimately affecting respiration,
digestion, and immune responses. In commercial species, these pathologies can result in growth
retardation, reduced market value, and increased mortality rates (Fazio et al., 2020; Khosravi-
Katuli & Jazini, 2019). Additionally, encysted metacercariae in edible tissues raise public health
concerns, especially in communities that rely on traditionally processed fish products, such as
smoked or dried fish, which may not eliminate infective stages (Pozio & Morales, 2005;
Audicana et al., 2022).
Furthermore, the distribution and severity of trematode infections have been linked to
environmental parameters such as nutrient enrichment, organic pollution, and reduced dissolved
oxygen—conditions that favour the proliferation of intermediate hosts and enhance transmission
(Jezierska & Witeska, 2006). In this context, parasites serve not only as biological stressors but
also as effective bioindicators of aquatic ecosystem health (Mladineo & Poljak, 2021; Woo,
2006).
Despite the ecological and public health relevance of fish-parasite-environment interactions, data
on trematode infections in C. nigrodigitatus from the Niger Delta remain scarce, particularly for
the Andoni River—a dynamic estuarine system exposed to tidal flows, artisanal fisheries, and
pollution from oil exploration and domestic waste. This study addresses this gap by investigating
the prevalence and tissue-level effects of trematode infections in C. nigrodigitatus from the
Andoni River and exploring the relationships between infection patterns and physicochemical
water quality parameters. The findings aim to contribute to sustainable fishery management,
environmental monitoring, and risk assessment in vulnerable coastal communities.
2.0 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
The study was carried out in the Andoni River system, located in Andoni Local Government
Area of Rivers State, Nigeria (Latitude: 4.455°N; Longitude: 7.512°E). This estuarine water
body, part of the greater Niger Delta ecosystem, is influenced by tidal flows from the Atlantic
Ocean and freshwater inflow from inland tributaries. The area experiences a tropical humid
climate, with annual rainfall exceeding 2,500 mm and temperatures ranging between 25 °C and
32 °C. Local activities such as artisanal fishing, sand mining, boat building, and petroleum-
related operations contribute significantly to ecological stress and water quality deterioration.

Figure 1: Map of the study area showing the Andoni River.

2.2 Fish Sampling and Identification

A total of 100 live specimens of Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus were collected during the early
rainy season (April–May 2025) from three artisanal fish landing sites along the river. Fishers
used gill nets, cast nets, and longlines—gear types commonly deployed in the region.
Immediately after capture, fish were transported in ice-packed containers to the parasitology
laboratory at the University of Port Harcourt to preserve tissue integrity. Species identification
was conducted using standard taxonomic guides, including FAO field manuals and West African
freshwater fish references.
2.3 Morphometric Analysis and Condition Factor Determination
Each fish was measured for total length (cm) using a graduated measuring board and weighed (g)
using a digital electronic balance. The condition factor (K), a measure of health and nutritional
status, was calculated using the formula:
K = (W / L³) × 100
Where W is body weight in grams and L is total length in centimetres. Condition factor values
were statistically compared between infected and uninfected groups to assess the impact of
parasitism on physiological condition.
2.4 Parasitological Examination
All specimens were dissected under sterile conditions to examine the gills, liver, intestines, and
muscle tissues for the presence of metacercarial cysts. Parasites were extracted using fine-tipped
forceps and preserved in 70% ethanol. Microscopic examination was performed at ×40 and ×100
magnifications using a compound light microscope. Identification of metacercariae was based on
morphological features such as body shape, sucker arrangement, and tegumental characteristics,
following standard diagnostic keys and atlases (Yamaguti, 1958; Niewiadomska, 2002). Species-
level identification was limited by the absence of molecular confirmation.
2.5 Histopathological Examination
Tissue samples from infected and uninfected fish were fixed in 10% neutral-buffered formalin
for 24–48 hours. After dehydration and paraffin embedding, sections of 5–7 µm thickness were
cut using a rotary microtome. Slides were stained with haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and
examined under a light microscope for pathological lesions including epithelial necrosis, lamellar
distortion, inflammatory cell infiltration, fibrotic encapsulation, and myofibre degeneration.
Representative photomicrographs were captured using a digital photomicroscopy system.
2.6 Water Quality Assessment
Surface water samples were collected from each of the three sampling sites at a depth of 30 cm
using pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles. Triplicate samples were collected at each site and stored
in ice-filled containers during transport. Analysis was conducted within 24 hours. The following
parameters were measured:
 Temperature and pH – recorded in situ using a multiparameter probe (Hanna Instruments
HI9829)
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD₅) – determined by the
Winkler titration method
 Nitrate (NO₃⁻) and Phosphate (PO₄³⁻) – analysed using UV-visible spectrophotometry
according to APHA Methods 4500-NO₃ and 4500-PO₄
 Turbidity – measured with a Hach 2100Q Turbidimeter
 Electrical Conductivity (EC) – determined using a handheld EC meter (Hanna HI99300)
All analytical procedures followed the protocols outlined in the American Public Health
Association (APHA, 2017).
2.7 Statistical Analysis
Parasitological indices such as prevalence, mean intensity, and mean abundance were calculated
using standard epidemiological formulas. Descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) were
computed for morphometric and environmental data. Independent-samples t-tests were applied to
compare the condition factor (K) between infected and uninfected fish. Pearson’s correlation
analysis was used to explore relationships between parasite prevalence and water quality
parameters. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 25, with
significance set at p < 0.05.
3.0 Results
3.1 Prevalence and Intensity of Infection
A total of 100 specimens of Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus were examined for trematode infections,
of which 74 were found to harbour encysted metacercariae. This represents an overall infection
prevalence of 74.0%. The mean intensity of infection was calculated as 6.2 parasites per infected
fish, with observed parasite loads ranging from 2 to 15 cysts per host. The intestinal tract and gill
tissues were the most frequently infected sites, while the liver and muscle tissues showed lower
parasite burdens. Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference in infection prevalence
between male and female fish (χ² = 1.27, p > 0.05), indicating that sex was not a determining
factor in susceptibility to trematode infection.
3.2 Morphological Characterisation of Trematodes
Microscopic evaluation of the extracted metacercariae revealed morphological characteristics
consistent with digenetic trematodes belonging to the families Heterophyidae and
Diplostomidae. The cysts contained parasites with pyriform bodies, prominent ventral suckers,
tegumental spines, and centrally located excretory vesicles. These features were indicative of
genera such as Clinostomum and Haplorchis, both of which are commonly associated with
freshwater teleost hosts in tropical regions. However, due to the lack of molecular analysis,
definitive species identification was not achieved.
3.3 Condition Factor in Infected and Uninfected Fish
The mean condition factor (K) of infected individuals was significantly lower than that of their
uninfected counterparts. Infected fish recorded a mean K value of 0.79 ± 0.04, while uninfected
fish had a higher mean value of 0.92 ± 0.03. This difference was statistically significant (t = 5.21,
df = 98, p < 0.001). Additionally, a strong negative correlation was observed between parasite
intensity and condition factor (r = –0.62, p < 0.01), suggesting that heavier parasitic burdens
were associated with diminished physiological condition and reduced overall health of the host
fish.
3.4 Histopathological Changes in Infected Tissues
Tissue analysis revealed distinct histopathological lesions in organs from infected fish. In the
gills, notable alterations included epithelial hyperplasia, lamellar fusion, and inflammatory
infiltration, which may impair respiratory efficiency. The intestinal tissues displayed goblet cell
proliferation, mucosal epithelial sloughing, and focal necrosis around encysted parasites,
indicating localised inflammation and disrupted digestive function. Liver sections exhibited mild
vacuolar degeneration and lymphocytic infiltration in perivascular areas, reflecting systemic
stress responses. In the musculature, metacercariae were observed within fibrous cysts,
accompanied by degeneration of adjacent myofibres and infiltration of chronic inflammatory
cells. Uninfected tissues maintained normal histological architecture with no evident lesions,
confirming the pathological influence of the parasitic infections.
3.5 Physicochemical Parameters of the Aquatic Environment
Analysis of water samples from the three sampling sites along the Andoni River revealed
conditions indicative of moderate to severe pollution. The mean water temperature was 28.6 °C
(±1.2), and the pH ranged from 6.8 to 7.4, with a mean of 7.1 (±0.3), falling within the
acceptable range for freshwater ecosystems. However, dissolved oxygen concentrations averaged
4.1 mg/L (±0.8), which is below the World Health Organization’s recommended threshold of 5.0
mg/L for aquatic life. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₅) values ranged from 4.3 to 6.7 mg/L,
with a mean of 5.4 mg/L (±1.1), exceeding permissible limits and indicating organic pollution.
Nutrient levels were also elevated, with nitrate and phosphate concentrations recorded at 3.6
increasing infection risk in the studied fish population.
mg/L (±0.5) and 1.2 mg/L (±0.3), respectively. Turbidity levels averaged 42.7 NTU (±6.1), far
above recommended limits, while electrical conductivity ranged from 266 to 391 µS/cm,
averaging 341 µS/cm (±45.2).
Correlation analysis demonstrated significant positive associations between parasite prevalence
and key environmental parameters, including turbidity (r = 0.51), BOD₅ (r = 0.57), nitrate (r =
0.54), and phosphate (r = 0.56), all statistically significant at p < 0.05. These findings suggest
that declining water quality may play a critical role in promoting parasite transmission and
Table 1. Prevalence and Mean Intensity of Trematode Infection in
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus from the Andoni River (n = 100)
Parameter Value

Number of fish examined 100

Number of fish infected 74

Prevalence (%) 74.0

Mean intensity of infection 6.2 parasites/fish

Range of parasite burden 2 – 15

Note: Prevalence = (Number of infected fish / Total number examined) × 100.

Table 2. Comparison of Mean Condition Factor (K) Between Infected and

Uninfected Fish
Infection Status Mean K ± SD Sample Size (n) t-value p-value

Infected 0.79 ± 0.04 74

Uninfected 0.92 ± 0.03 26 5.21 < 0.001

Note: Condition factor (K) = (Weight / Length³) × 100. Statistical analysis performed using
independent-samples t-test.

Table 3. Histopathological Changes Observed in Infected Tissues of C.

nigrodigitatus
Tissue Examined Histopathological Lesions

Gills Epithelial hyperplasia, lamellar fusion, inflammatory cell infiltration

Intestine Goblet cell proliferation, epithelial sloughing, focal necrosis

Liver Mild vacuolar degeneration, perivascular lymphocytic infiltration

Muscle Fibrotic cysts, myofibre degeneration, chronic inflammatory infiltration

Note: No lesions were observed in the tissues of uninfected specimens.

Table 4. Mean Physicochemical Parameters of the Andoni River at Fish
Sampling Sites
Parameter Mean ± SD WHO Recommended Limit

Temperature (°C) 28.6 ± 1.2 —

pH 7.1 ± 0.3 6.5 – 8.5

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 4.1 ± 0.8 ≥ 5.0

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) 5.4 ± 1.1 < 4.0

Nitrate (mg/L) 3.6 ± 0.5 < 2.0

Phosphate (mg/L) 1.2 ± 0.3 < 0.5

Turbidity (NTU) 42.7 ± 6.1 < 5.0

Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm) 341 ± 45.2 < 250

Note: Values represent average measurements across three sampling locations. WHO limits
based on aquatic ecosystem protection guidelines.
4.0 Discussion
The results of this study demonstrate that Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus inhabiting the Andoni
River system are heavily burdened by trematode infections, with a prevalence rate of 74%. This
high infection rate is consistent with observations from other freshwater systems in sub-Saharan
Africa, particularly those experiencing ecological degradation. The presence of encysted
metacercariae predominantly in the intestines, gills, and muscle tissues aligns with the
established tropism of digenetic trematodes for metabolically active and immunologically
susceptible organs. These findings reflect the vulnerability of benthopelagic fish like C.
nigrodigitatus, whose bottom-feeding behaviour and sediment association increase exposure to
infective stages of parasites released by gastropod intermediate hosts.
The histopathological alterations observed in infected tissues substantiate the pathogenicity of
the trematodes encountered. In the gills, lesions such as epithelial hyperplasia, lamellar fusion,
and inflammatory infiltration likely compromise gas exchange, predisposing fish to hypoxic
stress. Intestinal sections displayed mucosal necrosis and goblet cell hyperplasia, impairing
nutrient absorption and digestion, while liver tissue showed signs of systemic inflammation.
Muscle fibres surrounding encysted parasites were structurally degraded, suggesting chronic
tissue injury and reduced motility. These observations are consistent with previous studies
documenting the cellular and physiological impacts of helminth infections in freshwater fish
(Ahmed et al., 2019; Tavares-Dias & Martins, 2017).
The significant reduction in condition factor among infected individuals further underscores the
physiological burden imposed by parasitism. Lower K-values in infected fish suggest that
chronic infection affects growth performance, nutritional status, and possibly reproductive
fitness. This relationship between parasite intensity and host condition has been widely reported
in tropical fisheries and indicates not only individual-level pathology but also population-level
health risks. In a commercially valuable species such as C. nigrodigitatus, diminished condition
factor has implications for fisheries sustainability, food security, and economic returns to local
communities (Khosravi-Katuli & Jazini, 2019; Oden, 2012).
Environmental data from the Andoni River revealed suboptimal water quality, with elevated
levels of nitrate, phosphate, biochemical oxygen demand, and turbidity. These physicochemical
anomalies are indicative of organic pollution, nutrient enrichment, and reduced oxygen
availability, all of which have been linked to the proliferation of parasite intermediate hosts such
as snails. The significant positive correlations observed between parasite prevalence and these
water quality parameters suggest a strong environmental component to infection dynamics.
Similar findings have been reported in polluted or eutrophic systems where degraded conditions
promote host–parasite transmission cycles (Fazio et al., 2020; Jezierska & Witeska, 2006).
The identification of trematode metacercariae morphologically resembling Clinostomum and
Haplorchis genera raises important concerns about food safety and zoonotic transmission.
Infections in muscle tissue, which is commonly consumed, pose potential risks to public health,
especially in communities that rely on traditional fish processing methods such as smoking or
drying. These methods may be insufficient to eliminate viable metacercariae, thereby creating a
route for human infection through oral ingestion. Such zoonotic risks, although under-reported in
West Africa, have been well documented in Asia and other regions where freshwater fish are
consumed semi-cooked (Pozio & Morales, 2005; Audicana et al., 2022).
Beyond their clinical effects on fish hosts, trematode parasites serve as useful bioindicators of
ecosystem integrity. Unlike chemical tests, which provide snapshot measurements,
parasitological data reflect cumulative exposure to environmental stressors over time. The heavy
parasite burdens and associated lesions observed in this study, together with concurrent evidence
of water quality decline, reinforce the role of fish-parasite interactions as sentinel tools in aquatic
environmental monitoring. This integrative approach is particularly relevant in complex systems
like the Niger Delta, where conventional surveillance may overlook chronic but biologically
significant impacts of pollution and habitat disturbance.
Although this study contributes novel insights into parasite–host–environment relationships in
the Andoni River, some limitations should be acknowledged. The absence of molecular
confirmation restricted parasite identification to the genus level, while the temporal scope did not
account for seasonal variations in infection dynamics. Future research should incorporate
molecular diagnostics, broader temporal sampling, and assessments of intermediate host
populations to provide a more comprehensive understanding of trematode transmission ecology
in this region.
5.0 Conclusion
This study has demonstrated that trematode infections are both highly prevalent and
pathologically significant in Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus populations inhabiting the Andoni River
system of southern Nigeria. The observed prevalence of 74%, coupled with substantial
histopathological damage in key tissues such as the gills, intestine, liver, and musculature,
underscores the biological toll that parasitism imposes on this ecologically and economically
important species. The significant reduction in condition factor among infected individuals
indicates that chronic infection not only compromises physiological health but may also reduce
growth potential, market value, and overall population resilience. These impacts are compounded
by poor water quality conditions, including elevated levels of nutrients, biochemical oxygen
demand, and turbidity, which were positively correlated with infection intensity and prevalence.
The findings highlight the complex interplay between environmental degradation and parasitic
transmission in aquatic systems. In particular, the detection of encysted metacercariae in muscle
tissue raises serious concerns about public health risks, especially in communities where fish is
consumed regularly and processed using traditional methods that may not eliminate viable
parasites. The presence of zoonotic trematodes within edible tissues reinforces the need for
improved awareness, food safety practices, and parasitological surveillance in artisanal fisheries.
To address these challenges, it is essential that parasitological monitoring be incorporated into
routine aquatic ecosystem assessments as a cost-effective and ecologically meaningful tool for
evaluating environmental health. Enhancing public education on the risks associated with
consuming improperly processed fish can also play a vital role in mitigating zoonotic
transmission. In parallel, efforts must be made to improve environmental management practices
through the enforcement of pollution control regulations, restoration of degraded habitats, and
sustainable fishery management policies. Future research should build on the current findings by
employing molecular diagnostics for accurate parasite identification, expanding the temporal
scope to capture seasonal trends, and investigating the ecology of intermediate hosts that
facilitate parasite transmission. Collectively, these strategies will contribute to safeguarding fish
health, ensuring food safety, and promoting the ecological sustainability of the Andoni River
system and similar vulnerable aquatic environments.
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