1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a major food and industrial crop in tropical and

sub-tropical Africa, Asia and Latin America. It is also a major staple food in Nigeria.

Cassava serves various functions as it is eaten raw or in processed forms. Cassava is a

poor source of protein, as it contains only 1 to 3 percentage on dry matter bases

(Montagnac, Davis, & Tanumihardjos. 2012) cassava is low in amino percentage, with

acid such as methionine, lysine tryptophan, phenylalanine and tyrosine (Falade &

Akingbala, 2010). Cassava grows in most soils that are well drained and not excessively

fertile. High fertility favours top growth at the expense of tuber developer. Light to

medium loams are most suitable and facilitate tuber development and harvesting.

Cassava is propagated by means of cutting which is usually 20-45 cm in length,

though little attention is sometimes given to it after the first few months of planting.

Therefore, weeding is done 3 months in the case of early maturing varieties, but after 4

months in the case of long-term varieties. Cassava leaves may be consumed as a

vegetable, or cooked as a soup ingredient or dried and fed to livestock. The stem is used

for plant propagation and grafting while the roots are typically processed for human and

industrial consumption and a good source of carbohydrates when consumed. Cassava is a

major staple crop as cassava itself and its products are found in the daily meals of the

people. Nyerhovwo (2015) stated that 80 percent of Nigerian residing in the rural areas,
 2

eats cassava meals at least once a day and when compared with rice and maize, cassava

has a carbohydrate content which is about 40% higher than rice and 25% than maize.

The author explained further that it is a cheap source of calories for both human and

animal consumption.

Cassava cultivation serve as a source of employment as a large labour force is

required, cassava cultivation does not only open a vast arena of direct employment

opportunities but also indirect as cassava tubers need to be transported from one place to

another and cassava need to be processed also and marketed hence creating employment

for graduates of Agricultural Education making them have a sustainable life.

Cassava is a perishable commodity with a self-life of less than 3 days after

harvest. Processing provides a means of producing shelf stable products, thereby

reducing losses, adding value at a local level and reducing the bulk to be marketed

(Phillips, Taylor & Akaroda, 2016). Some cassava foods such as garri, flour and tapioca

are highly priced by urban populations and thus have managed to retain their markets.

Cassava is currently utilized for two main purposes; human food and industrial usage.

Cassava can be used in different ways by farmers, in Ikono Local Government

Area of Akwa Ibom state, cassava is widely used to make Garri, tapioca, cassava flour

and fufu. The marketing of the end product of cassava serves as source of employment

and income generation to the farmers in Ikono Local Government area. (Umanah, 2015)
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Ben (2018) defines skill as a well-established fact of doing something which

involves the acquisition of performance capability. Skill according to Osinem (2018) is

the expertness, practiced ability or proficiency displayed in the performance of a task.

The author explained that it is the ability to perform a task acquired through repetition of

the operation. In the opinion of Okorie (2010), to possess a skill is the demonstration of

acting, thinking or behaving in a specific activity in such a way that the process becomes

natural to the individual through repetition or practice. Skill in the context of this study is

the ability of graduates of Agricultural Education to perform the various operations in

cassava cultivation with maximum proficiency to ensure sustainable employment. The

acquisition of skills by individuals prepares them for success in the world of work.

According to Udemezue, Chinaka and Okoye (2019), cassava is an instrument for

economic growth and food security in Nigeria. While Coulibaly, Arinloye, Faye and

Abdoulaye (2014) observed that for efficient cassava cultivation, the graduates must

understand and perform the various field practice skills in the cultivation of cassava for

sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local Government area.

The specific skills in the cultivation of cassava according to Coulibaly, Arinloye, Faye

and Abdoulaye (2014) include; Pre-planting, planting, post planting and harvesting

skills.

Pre-planting operations in cassava cultivation are the farming activities carried out

before planting is done. These activities are carried out to prepare and make the soil

conducive for the crop to be planted. Pre-planting operations in sequence are: the
 4

selection of the site, surveying of the soil and land measurement, clearing, stumping,

field plotting or farm layout, tilling or ridging, ploughing, harrowing, nursery and

nursery practices, cutting of stems, spacing.

Planting operations in cassava cultivation are the farming activities carried out when

inserting the planting materials (cassava cutting or stem) into the soil. Planting operation

involves sowing.

Post-planting operations in cassava cultivation are the operations carried out after

planting. It creates a good condition and proper maintenance for plants growth. Post

planting operations include; thinning, supplying, irrigation/ watering, use of manure and

fertilizer, mulching and weeding.

Harvesting operations in cassava cultivation are those operations carried out when

removing ripe and matured tubers from the soil. Harvesting operations are done with the

aid of harvesting tools like cutlass, hoes, wheelbarrow, spade e.t.c. Harvesting operations

include; storage, processing.

Therefore, this study is conducted to identify the cassava cultivation skills required by

graduates of Agricultural Education for sustainable employment in cassava production in

Ikono Local Government area.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Cassava is widely grown, processed, marketed and eaten in Ikono Local

Government Area. Majority of the people in Ikono depend solely on the production and
 5

marketing of cassava. This practice is common among the rural farmers, school

graduates seem to stay away from cassava cultivation for sustainable production,

employment and self-reliance.

The study intends to identify the skills in cultivation of cassava needed to be acquired by

graduates of Agricultural Education for sustainable employment and self-reliance in

Ikono Local Government area.

1.3 Purpose of the study

In this study, the general purpose is to identify the skills in cassava cultivation required

by graduates of Agricultural for sustainable employment in Ikono local Government

area. Specifically, the study sought to identify the:

1. Pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural

education for sustainable employment in Ikono local Government area.

2. Planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural

education for sustainable employment in Ikono local Government area.

3. Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural

education for sustainable employment in Ikono local Government area.

4. Harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural

education for sustainable employment in Ikono local Government area.

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1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were raised to direct the study:

1) What are the pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

local Government area?

2) What are the planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

local Government area?

3) What are the post-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

local Government area?

4) What are the harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

local Government area?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following research hypotheses were formulated to direct the study.

1. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the response of

Agricultural extension agents and cassava farmers in the pre-planting skills in

cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for

sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono local Government

area.
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2. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the response of

Agricultural extension agents and cassava farmers in the planting skills in

cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for

sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono local Government

area.

3. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the response of

Agricultural extension agents and cassava farmers in the post-planting skills

in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for

sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono local Government

area.

4. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the response of

Agricultural extension agents and cassava farmers in the harvesting skills in

cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for

sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono local Government

area.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study would be beneficial to agricultural education graduates,

students, Government and general public.

The findings of the study would help agricultural education graduates to develop

interest in cassava farming, thereby enabling them see cassava production as a lucrative

business to engage in.

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It would be of immense benefit to ministry of education in curriculum planning

and policy making that would promote skill acquisition in agricultural education

programmes in the school.

The findings of this study would be of great benefit to the government because

graduates of agricultural education would not be exposed to the problem of

unemployment. The graduates would be self-employed and also create job opportunity

for others.

The findings will increase maximum yield of cassava thereby provide food,

minimize poverty and poor economic development in Ikono local government area of

Akwa Ibom state

1.7 Limitation of the study

The study is limited to Agricultural Education skill acquisition in cassava pre-planting

skill, planting skill, post-planting skill and harvesting skill. It is also limited to graduates

in Ikono local government area of Akwa Ibom State.

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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The related literature for this study was reviewed under the following subheadings:
Theoretical framework, Conceptual framework, Review of related empirical studies and

Summary of literature review.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 Theoretical framework of skills and sustainable employment

The theoretical framework of this study was based on skill acquisition theory and

theory of employment.

The scientific roots of Skill acquisition Theory can be found in different branches of

psychology, which ranges from behaviorism to cognitivism and connectionism

(Dekeyser & Criado, 2013). This theory draws on Anderson's Adaptive Control of

Thought (ACT) model which itself is a kind of cognitive stimulus-response theory (Ellis

& Shintani, 2013).

As mentioned by Parziale & Fischer (2019), it is a neo-Piagetian theory that

amalgamates elements of both cognitive and behavioristic theories. According to

Chapelle (2019), this theory falls under the category of general human learning.
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The basic claim of Skill acquisition Theory, according to Dekeyser (2012b), "is that the

learning of a wide variety of skills shows a remarkable similarity in development from

initial representation of knowledge through initial changes in behavior to eventual fluent,

spontaneous, largely effortless, and highly skilled behavior, and that this set of

phenomena can be accounted for by a set of basic principles common to acquisition of all

skills". In sum, as mentioned by Speelman (2015), skill acquisition can be considered as

a specific form of learning, where learning has been defined as "the representation of

information in memory concerning some environmental or cognitive event". Therefore,

according to him, skill acquisition is a form of learning where "skilled behaviors can

become routinized and even automatic under some conditions".

Skills can be said as the ability to do something that comes from practice, training

or experience. According to Datol, (2012) this is an aspect which acquire physical

involvement as well as the mind. It involves the individual sense coordination that is, the

eye, ear, the mind as well as the entire body of the learner. Skills emphasize performance

and should be on the individual as habit; skills represent a particular way of using

capacities in relation to environmental demand with human being and external situation

together to form a functional system.

Udofia, (2015) added that skills is a manual dexterity through the respective

performance of an operation. Skills is base on physical and mental manipulation, once

the two are combine together properly students can perform better on cassava cultivation

operation or any other Agricultural enterprise.

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Skills can be classified into three main types and description.

1. Transferable or functional skills: An action to perform a task, transferrable to

different work function and industries and is base on an ability and attitude.

2. Personnel trait and attitude: This is a personality characteristic that contributes to

work; it is developed in childhood and through life experience.

3. Knowledge base skills: Having the knowledge of specific subject procedure and

information necessary to perform particular task. This can be acquired through

education, training and on-the-jobs experience.

Employment also known as occupation in the view of Robert (2018) is a cluster of

related jobs which have core skills knowledge to provide a means of livelihood. Many

theories have been formulated about employment (occupation). Olaitan (2011) in

Akiwaji (2015) identified some of the theories of employment which included; theory of

employment of values and theory of employment of body of knowledge.

According to Olaitan (2011), theory of employment is relevant as skills process for

the purpose of practice and mastering. More so, employment must have level of

proficiency in training without which a professional certificate or recognition cannot be

guaranteed. This theory relates to this study in that agricultural education graduates must

be educated or trained to the level where they will acquire a body of knowledge that

makes for success in any cassava cultivation enterprise.

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In the case of this study, cassava cultivation is of great value to the people of Ikono

local government area of Akwa Ibom State because many farmers depend on it and

spend time on it to create value in order to generate income to meet their basic needs.
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2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Cassava - An Overview

Cassava, Manihot esculenta, is a perennial shrub in the family Euphorbiaceae

grown primarily for its storage roots. The cassava plant is a woody plant with erect stems

and spirally arranged simple lobed leaves with petioles (leaf stems) up to 30 cm in

length. The plant produces petal-less flowers on a raceme. The edible roots of the plant

are usually cylindrical and tapered and are white, brown or reddish in color. Cassava

plants can reach 4 m in height and is usually harvested 9-12 months after planting.

The plant is not known to occur wild but may have first been cultivated in Brazil.

Cassava is the third-largest source of food carbohydrates in the tropics, after rice and

maize. It is a major staple food in the developing world, providing a basic diet for over

half a billion people. It is one of the most drought-tolerant crops, capable of growing on

marginal soils.

The origin of cassava can be traced to South America, in present-day Brazil.

Cassava was first domesticated in West-Central Brazil around 10,000 years ago.

(Asogwa I.S., Okoye J.I, Oni K., 2017). Today it is cultivated in tropical regions

worldwide and is the sixth most important crop plant worldwide. Cassava is a drought-

tolerant crop that can survive hot climates with little rainfall. The plant can be grown

throughout the year under severe climates of marginal soils of low nutrients. Today,

cassava is used as a staple food in Ikono local government area and different parts of the
 14

world. Millions of farmers around the world make a living from cultivating this crop.

Today, Cassava supports the livelihood of the people in Ikono local government area.

2.2.2 Varieties of Cassava

There are more than 10 varieties of cassava available to farmers for cultivation. The

following are the approved cassava varieties by the Nigerian government:

 TME 419/ TNE 419: it is a household name in Nigeria and the most popular

among other varieties. TNE 419 is one of the most prolific cassava varieties in

Nigeria. It has a high starch content and suitable for the production of cassava

flour, starch, glucose and ethanol. TME 419 cassava variety can yield over 45

tons per hectare if good agronomic practices are implemented. TME 419 is one of

the most planted varieties used for Nigeria. It is an erect and straight plant type

excellent for intercropping and mechanization, it produces more garri and fufu

than other varieties with better quality. Fufu prepared from this variety is always

very white and rises and swells up. The petiole color is green. It has high yielding

capability hence it being the favourite among farmers.

 Dixon: formally known as 0581 (TMS-9800581), it produces a good yield, it produces

high dry matter content. It is a stay-green cassava variety that is, even in the dry season it

retains its leaves and keeps growing. It does not drop its leaves even at the peak of the

dry season. It is good for garri and fufu. The petiole color is red. It has better branching

habit and has bigger root size than TME 419, its yield potential is higher than that of

TME 419.
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 Farmer’s Pride: formally known as 1632 (TMS-981632), it produces high-yielding

cassava tubers of up to 35 tons/ha. It gives high and stable dry matter, good for starch

and flour production (39%). It is resistant to cassava mosaic disease, it is an erect plant

type with excellent mechanization. It does not grow as big as Dixon and TME419 but

has a very good root yield.

 Fine Face: formally known as 0505 (TMS-980505), It may look feeble, but the yield is

impressive with good quality. The petiole color is green and purple, the nature of the

stem makes it perfect for mechanical harvesting. It is an attractive umbrella-shaped plant

type good for weed control.

 Sunshine: formally known as 0593 (TMS-070593), it is the best current bio-

fortified with high pro-vitamin A with yellow roots. It is excellent for yellow

garri and other bio-fortified food products. Sunshine cassava variety can yield

above 30 tons of c fresh cassava tubers per hectare.

 Ayaya: formerly CR36-5 OR 365 (CR36-5), High and stable dry matter. The petiole’s

color is purple. It is excellent for flour and starch production.

Newly developed varieties.

On 17 December 2020, Nigeria’s National Release Committee approved five new cassava varieties.

They are the result of a close collaboration between the National Root Crops Research Institute

(NRCRI) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), using advanced prediction-

based techniques like genomics-assisted breeding. This is an important research outcome, showing

that the implementation of genomic selection and genotyping of breeding lines, accelerated the

breeding cycle, and resulted in the release of improved varieties. They include;
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 Game-Changer: it is a cassava variety developed by the International Institute of

Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the National Root Crops Research Institute

(NRCRI). It is a prolific variety as it can yield over 35 tons per hectare if well

managed. It has high and stable starch content, which is desired by industrial

processors for flour, starch, and ethanol production on a large scale.

 Hope: it is also a cassava variety developed by the International Institute of

Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the National Root Crops Research Institute

(NRCRI). It has a high yield. It can yield over 30 tons per hectare with good

agricultural practices. It has excellent garri (or gari) and fufu quality to address

the processed food market in Nigeria.

 Obasanjo-2: it is also a cassava variety developed by the International Institute

of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the National Root Crops Research Institute

(NRCRI). It can yield up to 40 tons and more if irrigation is used. It also exhibits

similar produce to the Hope variety Obasanjo-2 can be used for the production of

garri and fufu.

 Baba-70: Baba-70 is also a cassava variety developed by the International

Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the National Root Crops Research

Institute (NRCRI). It has a high starch content and suitable for the production of

cassava flour, starch, glucose and ethanol. Baba 70 cassava variety can yield over

30 tons per hectare if good agronomic practices are implemented. It also exhibits
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similar attribute like Game-changer in providing excellent garri and fufu quality

to address the processed food market.

 Poundable: it is the first fresh market variety released, Poundable is known for

its high content of starch. It is widely cultivated by a lot of farmers in Nigeria. It

can be used for the production of cassava flour, starch, glucose and ethanol. It can

also be used to produce fufu and garri. Poundable cassava variety can yield over

30 tons per hectare if good agronomic practices are implemented.

2.2.3 Pre-Planting Skills in Cassava Cultivation Required by Graduates of

Agricultural Education for Sustainable Employment

According to Coulibaly, Arinloye, Faye and Abdoulaye (2014), one of the

specific skills required in the cultivation of cassava include; Pre-planting skills.

Pre-planting operations in cassava cultivation are the farming activities carried out before

planting is done. These activities are carried out to prepare and make the soil conducive

for the crop to be planted. Pre-planting operation skills in sequence are: the selection of

the site, cassava stem selection, clearing, stumping, field plotting or farm layout, land

preparation.

Land selection/site selection:

The choice of site according to Ebohon (2014) is very vital and is based on land

characteristics, soil properties, vegetation as indicated by the following:

i. The land must be level and gently sloping

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ii. The land must be well drained and fertile, water logged or stagnant water area

must be avoided.

iii. There should be good soil structure texture qualities and good water holding

capacity.

iv. The site should be accessible to vehicles and man to facilitate the supervision

and evacuation of produce.

Land/site selection is the process of choosing a suitable site or land with well drained soil

for the purpose of cultivating cassava. Farmers do not get the right yield because they do

not select the right choice of land to cultivate their crops. Just because cassava can thrive

in almost any soil doesn’t mean it should be planted just on any available land. Cassava

requires a sandy loam soil rich in organic matter.

Cassava stem selection

Cassava is propagated in different ways, in recent times, farmers have started to

use seeds to propagate the plant but the most common way to plant cassava is the use of

cassava stem. The seeds can also be used but this is not common because it takes a

longer period for it to germinate as compare to the use of the stems that make cassava

ready for harvesting at about 9-10 months

Land clearing

This is the removal of pre-existing vegetation on the farm land. It is carried out

by cutting the vegetation and grasses with cutlass or hoes; and trees fell with axes. It can

also be done mechanically with the aid of bulldozers and tree pullers.
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Field plotting/Farm layout

Farm layout is a judicious way of using the farmland where the plots are divided

into sections and each section is used to give maximum yield.

Stumping

This is the removal of stumps by digging them out manually using cutlasses and

axes. It can also be done mechanically by using bulldozer. Stumps are the left over cut

trees on the farm left on the soil surface.

Land preparation

Land preparation is a highly required skilled in the pre-planting process

(Ugwuoke & Ejiofor 2010). This is ensuring the soil is put in the best condition and state

suited to the crop needs. The process of preparing the soil involves carrying out tillage,

making beds, making heaps, making ridges, leveling soil after stumping etc. Tillage is

the breaking or turning of the soil with a simple tool or farm machine after the land has

been cleared in preparation for planting crops. It loosens the soil and allows air and water

to reach the roots of plants. It allows easy penetration of roots into the soil. Tillage helps

to destroy pest by exposing them to the sun, it also ensures proper mixture of manure and

fertilizer with the soil. It can be done manually with a hoe or mechanically with a tractor

– driven plough.
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Ploughing is cutting through the soil and making it into lumps or clods of soil. It

is called primary tillage. While secondary tillage (harrowing) is the use of harrow to

break down the large clods of soil into fine particles and making it ready for ridging.

Other implements used in carrying out tillage are spring tine cultivator, mould board

plough etc.

Ridging involves the making of ridges on the farm, sometimes heaps are also made to

serve the purpose of ridges on slopes ridges are made across, with the ridges made at

intervals to check erosion, ridges also help to provide water for plant use and aids root

penetration and establishment of crops.

It is known that pre-planting operations demand so much human energy and a

large labour force is required to carry out the activities of which graduates of agricultural

education who are agile and full of energy are able to do with ease, hence creating and

providing opportunities for a sustainable employment for them.

2.2.4 Planting Skills in Cassava Cultivation Required by Graduates of

Agricultural Education for Sustainable Employment

Planting according to Dunkett (2010) is normally carried out when the rainfall is

steady. Planting is normally in the morning and evening. This is probably the most

critical phase in the establishment of a new farm. Mistakes at this point may lead to a

poor survival rate of offshoots or tissue culture-derived plants, regardless of the efforts

put in during the preparation phases. The aim is to assist the farmer to execute the

planting operation in a way that will ensure a high transplanting survival rate in the
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newly established farm. Planting operations in cassava cultivation are the farming

activities carried out when inserting the planting materials (cassava cutting or stem) into

the soil. The planting operation skills involves;

Stem cutting

Cultivation of cassava always starts with stem cuttings. These cuttings are

planting materials obtained from the stem of cassava plants harvested and at least 10

months old. Once the cassava tubers are harvested, the stems are cut off from the tubers,

and the leaves are removed. Then the stems are stored in a dry and cool place for the next

planting season. It has been observed that stem cuttings below the base of the plants give

good starch yields. Cuttings material from the upper stems produced fewer yields. It is

thus recommended that farmers make use of cuttings from the lower part of the stem. A

good stem cutting for planting cassava should be 20-30 cm long and about 1.5-4.0 cm

thick and also have 2 to 3 viable buds.

Sowing

This is the process of cultivating the planting materials (cassava cuttings or

stem).This requires a lot of skills and can be done manually by hand or using specialized

seeding equipment, this is done by deeping the cuttings into the soil. This is done by

trained personnels in order to avoid mistakes.

Methods of Planting Cassava

There are three methods of planting cassava, the quantity recommended for 1 ha is 60

bundles of cassava stem

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1. Horizontal planting: Plant cassava cuttings are buried 5-10cm below the soil surface

in dry climates. Cuttings planted horizontally produce multiple stems and more tuberous

roots but they are relatively smaller in size. However, in loamy and rich soils the

multiple stems and roots are at an advantage resulting in high yields.

2. Vertical planting: This is done during rainy days so that cuttings will not rot if

constantly wet. In contrast, under low rainfall conditions, vertical planting may result in

dehydration of the cuttings.

3. Inclined planting: Cuttings are inclined at 45o in semi-rainy areas, leaving 2-3 nodes

above ground level. The inclination of the stem and roots provide a leverage which

makes harvesting easier than in the other orientations.

It is advisable to plant early in the morning or late afternoons when the sun is cool to

prevent excess heat from heating the crop. Replace all cuttings which did not bud after

two weeks of planting

Plant Spacing and Planting Density

The spacing of cassava is also essential in ensuring optimal yield production. The

plant density and spacing depend largely on the cassava variety. For instance, cassava

that exhibits branching requires 1m x 1m for the best tuber yield. Non-branching cassava

plants require 0.75 m x 0.75 m per square metre. Overall, this gives 10,000 plants per

hectare. The panting density that is required for the multiplication of stems and not for

the production of roots, 0.5m x 0.5m, can be used.

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The skills in the planting operations in cassava cultivation is highly required by

graduates of agricultural education in order to be sustainably employed, considering the

fact that the rate of unemployment is alarming in Ikono local government area and Akwa

Ibom State at large, graduates of agricultural education must be skilled in the planting

operations of cassava cultivation in order to be sustainably employed and self reliant.

2.2.5 Post-Planting Skills in Cassava Cultivation Required by Graduates of

Agricultural Education for Sustainable Employment

According to Coulibaly, Arinloye, Faye and Abdoulaye (2014), post-planting

operations in cassava cultivation are the operations carried out after planting. It creates a

good condition and proper maintenance for plants growth. Post-planting operations

involves all processes involved with necessary work skills after planting have been

carried out. Some of the processes include; irrigation/watering, use of manure and

fertilizer, mulching, weed control, Field Scouting for Plant and pest development,

Disease and pest control management.

Thinning

This is the removal of excess, weak or not well positioned cuttings from a

ridge/heap after the viable cuttings have germinated. It helps to avoid overcrowding, it

also ensures proper aeration leading to high yield.

Supplying
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This is the replanting of propagative materials where they fail to germinate.

Supplying should be done as soon as possible. It ensures correct plant population can be

maintained. It enables the farmer can achieve uniform maturity.

Irrigation

Irrigation(watering)is the artificial watering of farmland especially during dry

season. It makes the soil temperature moderate for plant growth, it also enables a good

nutrient supply to plant. Cassava can withstand periods of drought but it still requires

water during the early growth stage. The Cassava crop grows well if annual rainfall is

1000 mm or more. At least 50 mm of rainfall per month is needed for cassava plants’

growth and development for a minimum of 6 months. (Sanni, Onadipe, Ilona, Mussagy,

M.D, Abass & Dixon, 2019).

To give a good start to the stems, it is important to maintain a good level of soil

moisture during the establishment period. Higher yields can be obtained with higher

levels of water supply. If the cassava plant loses many leaves, likely, it’s not getting

enough water. (Sanni, Onadipe, Ilona, Mussagy, M.D, Abass & Dixon, 2019).

Cassava grows poorly on sandy, clay, stony, or salt-affected soil. Soils with high

water holding capacity are adequate for root absorption for optimum production.

However, waterlogged conditions must be avoided. This is because waterlogging for

more than 24 hours can cause young cassava plants (1-3 months old) to have stunted

growth, and mature cassava plants will start getting rotten roots in the case of
 25

waterlogging fields. Cassava responds well to irrigation because irrigated farmland has

doubled the root yield compared to farmland not irrigated. (Olsen, K.M & Schaal, 2019)

The distribution of rainfall occurs on a seasonal basis. On average, dry seasons

are from 5 to 6 months of duration per year of cultivating the crop. Within this period, an

irrigation system can supplement for water supply of cassava crops.

The best irrigation system used in cassava cultivation is the drip irrigation, drip

irrigation occurs at the ground level and solves the inefficiencies associated with other

irrigation systems. This kind of irrigation system reduces evaporation loss and eliminates

water runoff with up to 90% water use efficiency compared to others irrigation systems.

(Sanni, Onadipe, Ilona, Mussagy, M.D, Abass & Dixon, 2019).

Weed Control

Successful weed management is vital to the production of quality cassava. Weeds

compete with the crop for light, space, nutrients and, particularly, water. Weed growth

promotes disease problems and can harbor deleterious insects and diseases. Weeds also

impair the ability to harvest effectively, reducing the quantity of marketable fruit and

increasing labor costs (Olaitan & Omomia, 2016). Cassava, as with most crops, require

early season weed control to ensure a quality crop.

According to Ajibefun & Daramola (2012), one of the most important factors to

consider when growing cassava is site or land selection. Sites heavy in difficult-to-

control species should be avoided. In addition, perennial weeds such as elephant grass or

Bermuda grass will cause problems and can be extremely hard to control. With perennial
 26

weeds such as these, frequent disking or mechanical disturbance prior to planting may

reduce the severity of infestation. Nonselective herbicides may also be used to reduce

perennial weeds (Ajibefun & Daramola, 2012).

Weed identification, especially seedling weeds, is also an important skill required

by graduates of agricultural education and anyone who want enter into the cassava

cultivation enterprise. Seedling weeds are generally easier to control and, in many cases,

control can occur only at the seedling stage (Ugwuoke & Ejiofor 2010)

Chemical weed control is limited to herbicides, several herbicides are available to

control germinating broadleaf weeds and grasses (Ayinde, Akerele & Ojeniyi, 2011).

Other herbicides are available to control emerged weeds, and these products are

especially useful for the control of weeds in the grass family (Kim, 2018).

Hand weeding is a skill which provides very effective weed control and is safe to

the crop. Weeding are performed when the crop and weeds are small to reduce crop

damage and to allow hoeing. Removal of large weeds with extensive root systems may

damage crop roots or tubers. (Adeleke, Matanmi & Ogunniyi, 2018).

Field Scouting for Plant disease and Pest Development

Another role that can be considered for graduate of agricultural education is field

scouting. This role required skill on how to carry out field scouting in order to identify

weeds, pests and diseases on the farm (Wehner, 2011).

 27

Fields should be scouted at minimum of once per week after planting by walking

across the entire field in a V-shape or X-shape pattern and recording plant development,

and weed and insect occurrence and numbers. Results of surveys will be needed to make

decisions regarding projection of harvest date and pest control (Yusuf, 2015).

The process involves, scouting for diseases in areas of a field where diseases typically

appear first.

Pest and Disease control management

Weekly or bi-weekly surveying of the collection is essential, to be aware of any

problems that arise and need to be corrected. Select healthy planting material. Do not

take cuttings from plants that had leaf chlorosis, shoot tip die-back, cankers, fungus

patches or streaks on the stems. Treat cuttings with pesticides and fungicides before

planting, and the plants during the growth stage when necessary.

Use natural enemies against cassava pests as much as possible. Complement by

applying appropriate pesticides as necessary. Weed the field regularly, in the worst

situation, cuttings can be replaced with the backup stems. After harvest, destroy

discarded stems and roots that have disease symptoms or pest contamination.

Manuring/fertilizer application

This is the addition of organic manure such as poultry droppings, cow dung and

green manure or inorganic manure (made from chemicals) to the soil to maintain soil

fertility. Manure can be in form of animal and plant refuse (organic manure) which are

made up of animal dungs and also residues from plants, or inorganic manure which are
 28

chemical substances which are usually prepared in the farm, they are made in form of

liquid, powder, granules, pellets or crystals Fertilizers should be added to the soil only

when the soil shows that some important minerals are lacking commercial fertilizers

usually contain macro nutrients or elements which are removed in large amount by

crops. Fertilizers therefore usually contain nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium

(K).

Mulching

This is the covering of the surface of the soil with a layer of clean dry vegetative

part of plant such as grasses or leaves. It conserves soil moisture, adds humus to the soil,

regulates the soil temperature, reduces weed and prevent erosion.

2.2.6 Harvesting Skills in Cassava Cultivation Required by Graduates of

Agricultural Education for Sustainable Employment

Harvesting operations involves all processes carried out with necessary skills

when the tuber is mature and ready for harvest. This process which require some specific

skill include; harvesting, storage, processing. (Coulibaly, Arinloye, Faye and Abdoulaye,

2014). Harvesting operations in cassava cultivation are those operations carried out when

removing ripe and matured tubers from the soil. Harvesting operations are done with the

aid of harvesting tools like cutlass, hoes, wheelbarrow, spade etc.

Harvesting
 29

Cassava roots can be harvested at any time of the year. Some farmers harvest as

early as six months after planting while others may leave the crop for 18 to 24 months.

The food quality of roots, particularly the starch content, increases with time up to an

optimal period of 12 to 15 months after planting, after which there is a loss of quality,

mainly due to increased lignification. During the dry season, cassava usually drops its

leaves. At the onset of rains, a dramatic shift in root quality takes place, probably due to

a remobilization of starch towards new leaf formation.

Harvesting cassava roots is usually done by hand; it is easy if the soil are sandy

or during the rainy season. In heavier soils or during the dry season, harvesting usually

requires digging around the roots to free them and lifting the plant. To facilitate lifting,

the plant is usually cut down about 30 to 50 cm above ground. The protruding stem is

used to lift the roots out of the ground. While lifting, care should be taken not to break

the roots, as this will lead to losses.

Handling and Processing

After the harvesting process it is ideal to process the tubers to avoid deterioration

and spoilage. The processing technique involves peeling, washing, grinding, sieving,

fermentation, dehydration. Cassava tubers can be processed into different products such

as garri, fufu, tapioca, flour, ethanol etc.

Storage
 30

After crops have been processed to usage forms, storage which is the keeping of

farm products for future use is done. Methods of storage are: usage of barns, cribs, silos,

refrigerators, baskets, sacks etc. In the case of processed cassava, it is stored in sacks.

It has been established that the harvesting operations of cassava requires more labour

than most other staple crops (IITA, 2010). Employment opportunities are available

during harvesting operations of cassava as it requires a large number of labour to harvest,

handle and process and storing of the end produce. With the skills, graduates of

agricultural education will be gainfully employed and be self-reliant.

2.3 Review of Related Empirical Studies

In a study carried out by Akwaji (2016) on work skill required by secondary

school graduates for success in cassava processing enterprise in Cross River State, four

research questions were developed in conformity with the purpose of the study. Four sets

of questionnaires were developed and used for collection of data from One hundred and

ninety-five (195) respondents. The findings from the study indicated that seventy-one

(71) work skill items were needed for the processing of cassava into garri, seventy-seven

(77) work- skill items were needed for processing cassava into starch. He recommended

that the work skill item identified by the study be packaged and integrated into skill

acquisition centre for preparing secondary school graduates and other youths for success

in any of the cassava processing enterprise.

Egbo (2016) conducted a study to identify work skills required by secondary

school graduate for entry into yam production enterprise in Enugu for purpose of his
 31

study, three research questions were developed in consonance with the purpose of the

study. Three sets of structured questionnaires were generated from the literature

reviewed and developed for the study. The questionnaires were used for collecting data

from one hundred and forty (140) respondents. He found out that fifty-four (54) work-

skills were required in yam field operations, forty-two (42) work-skills in yam harvesting

and storage and twenty-nine (29) work- skills in yam marketing. It was recommended

that the work-skill modules with their corresponding skills identified by the study could

be packaged into training programmed and integrated into states skill acquisition centre

by Enugu state government for training unemployed secondary school graduates and

other interested youths in yam production enterprises.

David & Okeke (2015) carried out a research to assess the work skills required by

secondary school graduates for entry into cocoyam production enterprise in Cross River

State, Nigeria. Four research questions and hypotheses guided the study. The study made

use of survey research design. The population for the study was 1,062 respondents

comprising 730 Agricultural science teachers in public secondary schools in the state and

332 registered cocoyam farmers with the Cross River Agricultural Development

Projects. A 38-item questionnaire tagged Work Skills Requirements in Cocoyam

Production Enterprise Questionnaire (WSRCPEQ) was the instrument for data

collection. Weighted mean scores were used to answer the research questions while

Independent t-test statistic was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of

significance. It was found out that secondary school graduates required work skills
 32

training in planning, pre-planting and planting, post planting and post harvesting and

marketing operations to successfully enter into cocoyam production enterprise. It was

recommended that the work skills areas be used to guide the training of youths and adults

on cocoyam production enterprise as well as integrating the skill areas into the skill

training programme of the state. The identification of work skills in planning, pre-

planting and planting, post planting and post harvesting and marketing operations in

cocoyam in this study would be beneficial to youths in general and secondary school

graduates in particular to become successful in cocoyam production enterprise.

2.4 Summary of Literature Reviewed

The view of related literature on skills in cassava cultivation by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono local government area was

carried out in this chapter. The review covered the following area: Theoretical

framework of skills and sustainable employment, overview of cassava, pre-planning

skills, planting skills, post-planting skill and harvesting skills in cassava cultivation

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment various

empirical studies relating to Skills in Agricultural Production.

The agricultural education graduates were only exposed to some rudimentary knowledge

about cassava cultivation in schools. This knowledge was grossly inadequate and cannot

bridge the gap between the word of knowledge and world of work for any job in the

cassava production industry, because the graduates were unskilled. Therefore, this study

would fill the gap between the knowledge the graduates acquired while in the school and
 33

the skills required in the various enterprises for employment in cassava production

industry. The literature reviewed with its positive and negative revelation about the work

skill required by graduates of Agricultural cassava cultivation.

The study would undoubtly increase the readers’ knowledge and draw attention of

stakeholders, governments, teachers, employers as well as farmer to the skills required in

order for agricultural education graduates to perform excellently on entry into the

cassava production industry. Hence, with the help of the respondents and literature

reviewed the researcher aim to assessing the skills required by graduates of Agricultural

education in cassava cultivation for sustainable employment in Ikono local government

area, Akwa Ibom State.

34
 35

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter deals with the method that was used in the conduct of this research.

It shall be done under the following headings; Research design, Area of the study,

Population of the study, Sample and sampling techniques, Instrumentation, Validity of

instrument, Reliability of instrument, Method for data collection and Methods of data

analysis.

3.1 Research Design

The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. In the views of Olaitan,

Ali, Eyo and Sowande (2010), a survey research design is the plan, structure and strategy

that the investigator adopts to obtain solution to research problems and test the

hypotheses formulated for the study. The authors further stated that research design

guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting

observations. The research design therefore was considered appropriate for the study

since it will obtain data from agricultural extension agents and cassava farmers through

the use of a structured questionnaire on skills need in cassava cultivation required by

graduates of Agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in

Ikono local government area of Akwa Ibom State.

3.2 Area of the study

This research study was conducted in Ikono Local Government Area of Akwa-

Ibom state. Ikono is a Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, located in the South
 36

South of Nigeria. It is bounded at the North by Ini Local Government Area, South by

Abak and Uyo Local Government Areas, East by Ibiono Ibom Local Government Area

and West by Ikot Ekpene Essien Udim and Obot Akara Local Government Areas. It was

created a stand-alone local government in september 1996. It has a landmass of 407.16

square kilometres (157.21 sq mi). It is no doubt one of the four largest LGA in Akwa

Ibom and also known as the cradle of the Ibibio people [Ntippe Ibibio]. It occupies the

northern fringe of Akwa-Ibom State next to Ini local Government which occupies the

northern most fringe of the state. It is predominantly inhabited by the Ibibios, the largest

ethnic groups in the state. Some popular sub-groups within Ikono include Ukpom, Nung

Ukim and Ediene.

The people of Ikono are great farmers, who cultivate both cash and food crops,

palm tree, kolanut trees, cassava, maize, melon. Most people in Ikono developed interest

in cassava production because of its economic value. Therefore, the study is directed

towards Ikono local government area, toward determining the needed skills in cassava

cultivation required by agricultural education graduates for sustainable employment.

3.3 Population of the study

The total population of residents in Ikono according to population census (2006)

is 168,000. The population of this study is 705 respondents comprising of 600 cassava

farmers and one hundred and five (105) extension agents of the Agricultural

Development Project (ADP) in Ikono local government area.

 37

3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique.

The sample for the study was 100 respondents made up of 70 cassava famers and

30 Agricultural extension agents. Proportionate simple random sampling technique was

used to select the number of cassava farmers and Agricultural extension agents for the

study.

3.5 Instrumentation

The instrument that was used in collecting data for this research is questionnaire.

The questionnaire titled skills need in cassava cultivation requires by graduates of

Agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono local Government area of

Akwa Ibom State will be constructed (SNCCRGAESE). The instrument consisted of two

(2) sections. Section A contains demographic information of the respondents while

section B deal with research variables in the study. The items were based on the 4-points

Likert scale of Highly Required (HR), Required(R), Not Required (NR) and Highly Not

Required (HNR).

3.6 Validation of the Research Instrument

The questionnaire was face validated by three lecturers in the Department of

Agricultural education, Faculty of Vocational Education, Library and Information

Science, University of Uyo. Their comments and suggestions in line with the

supervisor’s recommendations were used to improve the contents of the questionnaire.

38
 39

3.7 Reliability of the Instrument

To determine the reliability of the SNCCRGAESE, a test – retest method of

establishing reliability was employed in establishing the reliability of the instrument.

Consequently, the instrument was administered to a sample of 20 respondents within the

study area within the interval of two weeks. The first copy was issued out on the first day

of visit to these cassava farmers and extension agents. After an interval of two weeks, the

second copy was issued to the same selected respondents. The two sets of scores

obtained were paired. The paired scores generated were tested for reliability using

Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient or Pearson (r) coefficient statistic.

The computed Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient of 0.79wasobtained.

This is an indication of significant coefficient of reliability at 0.05 level of significance.

3.8 Method for Data Collection

The letter of introduction to research was collected from the Department of

Agricultural Education, University of Uyo. The researcher with the help of three (3)

research assistant administered the questionnaire to the respondents on face-to-face basis.

On spot collection of the questionnaire was made to achieve high retrieval rate.

3.9 Methods of Data Analysis

The data analysis method deals with how the necessary data collected, through

primary source was properly processed and presented for meaningful analysis. The data

collected from the field was analyzed using the frequencies, percentages, mean and

standard deviation statistics to answer the research questions and the t-test statistics for
 40

testing the hypotheses at probability of 0.05 level of significance and the relevant degree

of freedom. The Mean score from 2.50-4.00 and above is considered significant and

indicate moderately Required and Highly required, while mean score below 2.50 is

considered Not required and Highly Not Required. The null hypotheses of no significant

difference was tested using t-test statistics of probability equal to or less than 0.05 level

of significance and relevant degree of freedom.

 41

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
In this chapter, data analysis are presented and discussed. It is organized under

the following sub-headings: answering of research questions, hypotheses testing,

findings and discussion of findings.

4.1 Result
In this sub-section, data analyzed are presented in tables based on the research

questions and hypotheses raised to guide the study.

4.1.1 Research Question 1

What are the pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono
Local Government Area?
Table 4.1: Result of Mean showing the pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation required

by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in

cassava production in Ikono LGA

Pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation Mean SD Remarks

S/N

1. Skills in farm site selection 2.58 .37 Highly Required

2. Skills in land clearing 3.15 .26 Highly Required

3. Skills in tilling the land to specification 2.58 .43 Highly Required

 42

4 Skills infield plotting/farm layout 2.68 .55 Highly Required

5 Skills in making of ridges 2.81 .65 Highly Required

Grand Mean 2.76 .83 Highly Required

N=100

Table 4.1 shows the pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local

Government Area. It indicates that the mean score for all the items on the pre-planting

skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for

sustainable employment are between 2.50 and 4.00 are remarked highly required. The

table also shows that grand mean is 2.76 thus, it could be deduced that the pre-planting

skills in cassava cultivation is highly required by graduates of agricultural education for

sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local Government Area of

Akwa Ibom State.

4.1.2 Research Question 2

What are the planting skills required by graduates of agricultural

education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

Local Government Area?

Table 4.2: Result of mean showing the planting skills in cassava cultivation required by

graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production in Ikono LGA

 43

S/N Planting skills in cassava cultivation Mean SD Remarks

1. Skills in stem selection 2.50 .41 Highly Required

2. Skills in stem cutting 3.29 .93 Highly Required

3. Skills in marking out required spacing for sowing 2.96 .65 Highly Required

4 Skills in planting cassava cuttings 2.90 .58 Highly Required

5 Skills in determining the appropriate method of 2.62 .38 Highly Required

planting

Grand Mean 2.74 .68 Highly Required

N=100

Table 4.2 shows the planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local

Government Area. It indicates that the mean score for all the items on the planting skills

in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable

employment in cassava production are between 2.50 and 4.00 and are remarked highly

required. The table also shows that grand mean is 2.74 thus, it could be deduced that the

planting skills in cassava cultivation are highly required by graduates of agricultural

 44

education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local Government

Area of Akwa Ibom State.

4.1.3 Research Question 3

What are the post-planting skills required by graduates of agricultural

education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

Local Government Area?

Table 4.3: Result of Mean showing the Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable

employment in cassava production in Ikono LGA.

S/N Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation Mean SD Remarks

1. Skills in field scouting for pest and disease 2.92 .68 Highly Required

development

2. Skills in practice of appropriate irrigation techniques 2.65 .39 Highly Require

3. Skills in weeding and weed identification 2.58 .37 Highly Required

4 Skills in fertilizer and manure application 2.64 .45 Highly Required

5 Skills in practice of appropriate method of pests, 2.90 .73 Highly Required

insects and diseases control

Grand Mean 2.79 .62 Highly Required

N=100
 45

Table 4.3 shows the Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by

graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in

Ikono Local Government Area. It indicates that the mean score for all the items on the

Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education

for sustainable employment in cassava production are between 2.50 and 4.00 and are

remarked highly required. The table also shows that grand mean is 2.79 thus, it could be

deduced that the Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation are highly required by

graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in

Ikono Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

4.1.4 Research Question 4

What are the harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local

Government Area?

Table 4.4: Result of Mean showing the harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required

by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in

cassava production in Ikono LGA

S/N Harvesting skills in cassava cultivation Mean SD Remarks

1. Skills in harvesting matured cassava with the right 3.02 2.7 Highly Required

farm tools 7

2. Skills in handling the cassava tubers to avoid damage 2.94 .64 Highly Required
 46

3. Skills in selecting good quality tubers for processing 3.19 .30 Highly Required

4 Skills in processing cassava tubers 3.18 .84 Highly Required

5 Skills in storing processed cassava tubers 2.97 1.9 Highly Required

Grand Mean 3.06 .68 Highly Required

N=100

Table 4.4 shows the harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates

of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

Local Government Area. It indicates that the mean score for all the items on the

harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for

sustainable employment in cassava production are between 2.50 and 4.00 and are

remarked highly required. The table also shows that grand mean is 3.06 thus, it could be

deduced that harvesting skills in cassava cultivation are required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local

Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

4.2 Testing of Research Hypotheses

4.2.1 Hypothesis One

 47

There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the response of cassava

farmers and extension agents on the pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by

graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono Local

Government Area.

Table 4.5: Independent t-test analysis showing difference in the mean ratings of the

response of cassava farmers and extension agents in the pre-planting skills

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable

employment in Ikono Local Government Area

Category N Mean SD Df t-cal p-value Decision

P<.05

Cassava Farmers 70 3.44 .29

98 .185 .680 NS

Extension Agents 30 3.08 .35

NS = Not Significant at .05 alpha level

Table 4.5 indicates that the calculated t-value is .185 and the p-value on the SPSS

sheet is .680. Comparison of the p-value on the SPSS sheet to the significance value

of .05 shows that the p-value on the SPSS sheet is greater than .05 thus, the null

hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the mean response of

cassava farmers and extension agents on the pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation
 48

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono

Local Government Area was accepted. This implies that, there is no significant

difference in the mean response of cassava farmers and extension agents on the pre-

planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for

sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local Government Area.

4.2.2 Hypothesis Two

There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the response of cassava

farmers and extension agents on the planting skills in cassava cultivation required by

graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono Local

Government Area.

Table 4.6: Independent t-test analysis showing difference in the mean ratings of the

response of cassava farmers and extension agents in the planting skills

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable

employment in Ikono Local Government Area

Category N Mean SD df t-cal p-value Decision

P<.05

Cassava Farmers 70 2.90 .35

98 .258 .660 NS
 49

Extension Agents 30 2.52 .49

NS = Not Significant at .05 alpha level

Table 4.6 indicates that the calculated t-value is .258 and the p-value on the SPSS

sheet is .660. Comparison of the p-value on the SPSS sheet to the significance value

of .05 shows that the p-value on the SPSS sheet is greater than .05 thus, the null

hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the mean response of

cassava farmers and extension agents on the planting skills in cassava cultivation

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production in Ikono Local Government Area is accepted. This implies that, there is no

significant difference in the mean response of cassava farmers and extension agents on

the planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education

for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local Government Area.

4.2.3 Hypothesis Three

There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the response of cassava

farmers and extension agents on the post-planting skills in cassava cultivation required

by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono Local

Government Area.

Table 4.7: Independent t-test analysis showing difference in the mean ratings of the

response of cassava farmers and extension agents in the post-planting

 50

skills required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable

employment in Ikono Local Government Area

Category N Mean SD df t-cal p-value Decision

P<.05

Cassava Farmers 70 2.89 .29

98 .173 .851 NS

Extension Agents 30 2.65 .25

NS = Not Significant at .05 alpha level

Table 4.7 indicates that the calculated t-value is .173 and the p-value on the SPSS

sheet is .851. Comparison of the p-value on the SPSS sheet to the significance value

of .05 shows that the p-value on the SPSS sheet is greater than .05 thus, the null

hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the mean response of

cassava farmers and extension agents on the post-planting skills in cassava cultivation

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production in Ikono Local Government Area is accepted. This implies that, there is no

significant difference in the mean response of cassava farmers and extension agents on

the post-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural

education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local Government

Area.

4.2.4 Hypothesis Four

 51

There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the response of cassava

farmers and extension agents on the harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required by

graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono Local

Government Area.

Table 4.8: Independent t-test analysis showing difference in the mean ratings of the

response of cassava farmers and extension agents in the harvesting skills

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable

employment in Ikono Local Government Area

Category N Mean SD Df t-cal p-value Decision

P<.05

Cassava Farmers 70 2.59 .32

98 .359 .648 NS

Extension Agents 30 2.83 .40

NS = Not Significant at .05 alpha level

Table 4.8 indicates that the calculated t-value is .359 and the p-value on the SPSS

sheet is .648. Comparison of the p-value on the SPSS sheet to the significance value

of .05 shows that the p-value on the SPSS sheet is greater than .05 thus, the null

hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the mean response of

cassava farmers and extension agents on the skills in cassava cultivation required by
 52

graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in

Ikono Local Government Area is accepted. This implies that, there is no significant

difference in the mean response of cassava farmers and extension agents on the skills in

cassava cultivation required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable

employment in cassava production in Ikono Local Government Area.

4.3 Findings of the study

After the research questions were analyzed, the following summaries were

drawn:

1. Pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation is highly required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

Local Government Area

2. Planting skills in cassava cultivation is highly required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

Local Government Area

3. Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation is highly required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

Local Government Area

 53

4. Harvesting skills in cassava cultivation is highly required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono

Local Government Area

4.3.1 Discussion of Findings

The data already presented and analyzed revealed the Skills in cassava cultivation

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production in Ikono Local Government Area. The study sampled 100 respondents who

were cassava farm and agricultural extension agents. Five (4) hypotheses were generated

in the course of the study and findings were made based on the information gathered..

4.3.2 Pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

cultivation

The result of the study revealed that, Pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation are

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production in Ikono Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. This finding is in line

with Osinem, (2010) Who asserted in his research that; Pre-planting skills in cassava

cultivation is highly required for sustainable employment in cassava production on his

 54

similar work skills required by secondary school graduates in pre-planting for entry into

cassava production enterprise.

4.3.3 Planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production

The result of the study revealed that, planting skills in cassava cultivation are

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production in Ikono Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. Supporting this study,

Inam (2018) asserted in his research where he also stated that that planting skills is

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production on similar work skills required by tertiary institution graduates in planting for

entry into cassava production enterprise.

4.3.4 Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production
 55

The finding of this study revealed that; Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation is

required by graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production in Ikono Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. Supporting this,

David (2015) who found out that Post-planting skills are required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava production in his research

on occupational skills items required by graduates of agricultural education in post-

planting operations for entry into cassava production enterprise.

4.3.5 Harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment in cassava

production

The results of the study revealed that; harvesting skills in cassava cultivation is

required for sustainable employment in cassava production in Ikono Local Government

Area of Akwa Ibom State. This study is inline with a study conducted by Okorie (2010)

who made similar findings when he studied the skills required in harvesting operations

for self-reliance in cassava production.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 56

5.1 Summary of the Findings

This study assessed the skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of Agricultural

education for sustainable employment in Ikono local Government Area of Akwa Ibom

State. Five (5) research questions with corresponding research hypotheses were

postulated for this study. The target population of this study includes both Agricultural

extension agents and farmers in Ikono local government area.

Related literatures were reviewed to support the study through the following heading in

the second chapter:

 Theoretical framework of skills and sustainable employment.

 Cassava – an overview.

 Varieties of cassava.

 Pre-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of Agricultural

education for sustainable employment.

 Planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of Agricultural

education for sustainable employment.

 Post-planting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of Agricultural

education for sustainable employment.

 Harvesting skills in cassava cultivation required by graduates of Agricultural

education for sustainable employment.

 Review of empirical studies.

 57

A descriptive research design of the survey type was adopted for this study. The

completed copies of the questionnaire in form of job analysis inventory were collected

from the respondents by the researcher, collated and coded manually. Data gathered were

analyzed using frequencies percentage, means, standard deviation, and the t-test. The

hypotheses sated were tested using t-test.

5.2 Conclusion

The question of rising number of graduates of Agricultural education in Ikono

local government area of Akwa Ibom State who are unemployed and idle after

graduation cannot be left unattended. This has obliged studies to determine the

requirements of skills needed by graduates of Agricultural education in cassava

cultivation for sustainable employment. Acquiring skills in cassava cultivation could

help them contribute to the issue of food security in Ikono local government area, Akwa

Ibom State and Nigeria at large and also allow them to be independent and self reliant. It

will also act as a livelihood for them and reduce poverty levels in Ikono Local

Government. Therefore, the study identified skills needed by graduates of Agricultural

education for effective cassava cultivation and production in the areas of planting, pre-

planting, post planting and harvesting operation.

 58

5.3 Recommendations

Having discussed extensively on the skills in cassava cultivation required by

graduates of Agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono Local

government area, it became imperative to make the following recommendation which in

any case the researcher has not claim absolute.

1. The agricultural extension officers in the Ministry of Agriculture should use the

identified skills areas by the study to guide graduates and students for successful

entry or practice of cassava production.

2. The Government of Akwa Ibom State and the Ikono Local government

representative through the assistance of curriculum planners should integrate the

skills identified by this study into the state skill acquisition training programme

for youths and adults in cassava production.

3. The School administrative and department heads should package the required

skills identified by this study into a training program for empowering interested

students or graduates with skills in cassava production enterprises.

5.4 Suggestion for further research studies

The following are recommended for further studies.

1. It is suggested that, a study on the employability skills required by graduates of

Agricultural Education in the university in cassava production and processing be

carried out to compare the findings with that of the present study.
 59

2. Identification of training needs of the management of skill acquisition centers that

are expected to implement the job task modules on the various cassava

production and processing in Ikono Local Government Area.

 60

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APPENDIX 1

Department of Agricultural Education

University of Uyo, Uyo,
Akwa Ibom State.

Dear Respondent,

Request to Respond to a Questionnaire

I am an under graduate student in the above department of the University of Uyo,

currently undertaking a research project titled; Skills in cassava cultivation required by

graduates of agricultural education for sustainable employment in Ikono Local

Government Area.

You are please requested to respond to the items as objectively as possible. Every

information supplied will be treated as confidential and will be used strictly for this

research.

Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.

Yours Faithfully,

Solomon, Comfort Idongesit

18/ED/VE/1518
 65

QUESTIONNAIRE ON: SKILLS NEED IN CASSAVA CULTIVATION

REQUIRED BY GRADUATES OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION FOR
SUSTAINABLE EMPLOYMENT IN IKONO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Instruction: kindly tick (✓) the option item as applicable to you.

Occupation: (a). Extension agent ( ). (b). Farmer ( )

SECTION B

Below are some statements, kindly tick (✓) the option that is most applicable tobyou,

using the keys below.

Highly Required (HR), Required (R), Not Require (NR) and Highly Not Require (HNR).

What are the pre-planting skills need in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment?

S/N Pre-planting skills required by graduates in cassava cultivation HR R NR HNR

1 Skills in farm site selection

2 Skills in land clearing

3 Skills in tilling the land to specifications

4 Skills in field plotting/farm layout

5 Skills in making ridges

 66

What are the planting skills need in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment?

S/N Planting skills required by graduates in cassava cultivation HR R NR HNR

1 Skills in field scouting for pest and disease development

2 Skills in practice of appropriate irrigation techniques

3 Skills in weeding and weed identification

4 Skills in fertilizer and manure applications

5 Skills in practice of appropriate methods of pests, insects and

diseases control

What are the post-planting skills need in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment?

S/N Pre-planting skills required by graduates in cassava cultivation HR R NR HNR

1 Skills in harvesting matured cassava with the right farm tools

2 Skills in handling the cassava tubers to avoid damage

3 Skills in selecting good quality tubers for processing

4 Skills in processing cassava tubers

5 Skills in storing processed cassava tubers

 67

What are the harvesting skills need in cassava cultivation required by graduates of

agricultural education for sustainable employment?

S/N Pre-planting skills required by graduates in cassava cultivation HR R NR HNR

1 Skills in farm site selection

2 Skills in land clearing

3 Skills in tilling the land to specifications

4 Skills in field plotting/farm layout

5 Skills in making ridges