Volume-3, Issue-8, August 2025 International Journal of Modern Science and Research Technology

ISSN No- 2584-2706

Environmental Assessment of Heavy Metals and

Hydrocarbon Pollution in Surface Waters of Oil-
Bearing Communities in Andoni, Rivers State,
Nigeria
Okpoji, Awajiiroijana U.; Chinyere Umeocho E.;
Nwokoye Joy N.; Ezekwuemen Obianuju I.;
Alaekwe Ikenna O.; Odidika Collins Chibuzor;
Onwughara, Chinonyerem Nora; Enyi Chimele M.

Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Nigeria
National Biotechnology research and development agency
Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria
Department of Chemistry, Michael Opara University, Umudike, Nigeria,
Department of Chemistry, Federal University, Gusau, Zamfara State, Nigeria.
Department of Biochemistry, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Nigeria

Abstract
This study investigated the concentrations and the highest contamination levels, largely due to
seasonal variation of selected heavy metals and their proximity to oil spill sites and illegal
total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) in refining activities. Strong correlations between
surface waters of five oil-dependent TPHs and both Pb and Ni suggested common
communities—Ngo, Ikuru Town, Oyorokoto, pollution sources. These findings raise serious
Okoroboile, and Asarama in Andoni Local ecological and public health concerns,
Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria. Water highlighting the urgent need for remediation,
samples were collected during the dry and wet environmental monitoring, and the provision of
seasons and analyzed using Atomic Absorption safe drinking water alternatives in the region.
Spectrophotometry (AAS) and Gas Keywords: Heavy metals, Total petroleum
Chromatography-Flame Ionisation Detection hydrocarbons, Seasonal variation, Surface
(GC-FID), following APHA and USEPA water pollution,
guidelines. Mean concentrations of lead (Pb),
cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni), and TPHs exceeded 1.0 Introduction
both World Health Organisation (WHO) and The Niger Delta region of Nigeria exemplifies
National Environmental Standards and a paradox of economic wealth and
Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) environmental vulnerability. As the hub of the
limits. TPH concentrations ranged from country’s petroleum industry, it makes a major
3.11 ± 0.28 mg/L to 5.12 ± 0.45 mg/L, contribution to national revenue through crude
significantly surpassing the NESREA threshold oil and natural gas exports. At the same time,
of 0.05 mg/L. One-way ANOVA indicated the region remains one of the most polluted and
statistically significant seasonal differences ecologically damaged areas in sub-Saharan
(p < 0.05), with higher pollutant levels Africa. An intricate network of rivers, creeks,
observed during the wet season. Spatial estuaries, and mangrove swamps forms the
analysis showed that Okoroboile and Ngo had ecological core of the Niger Delta, supporting
both biodiversity and the socio-economic
activities of its indigenous peoples. These
communities, which rely heavily on surface
water for drinking, aquaculture, agriculture,

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ISSN No- 2584-2706
and transport, are increasingly exposed to rainfall amplifies surface runoff, erosion, and
contamination from human sources (Ola et al., sediment resuspension, which can cause a rise
2024). in pollutant concentrations. Conversely, the dry
Over many decades, oil exploration and season tends to reduce the dilution capacity of
extraction have introduced various pollutants water bodies, permitting pollutants to
into the aquatic environment through pipeline accumulate. A thorough understanding of these
leaks, flare emissions, sabotage, illegal temporal dynamics is essential for devising
refining, and poorly managed effluents. The effective mitigation measures and predicting
effects of such contamination are both environmental and public health hazards (Udo
immediate and enduring. Among the most et al., 2018).
worrying pollutants are heavy metals, including The current research responds to this gap in
lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), knowledge through an environmental
nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn), assessment focused on surface waters in five
which are non-biodegradable and can oil-bearing communities in Andoni.
bioaccumulate in aquatic life and humans. Concentrations of selected heavy metals and
These elements, even at low levels, are linked TPHs were analysed using validated analytical
to toxic effects such as neurological and kidney techniques to provide reliable and reproducible
problems, carcinogenesis, and cardiovascular data. Emphasis was placed on assessing spatial
issues (Garcia-Rico et al., 2007; FAO/WHO, and seasonal variations in contaminant levels,
2001). Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs), while statistical tools such as ANOVA, Pearson
originating from crude oil, also add correlation, and principal component analysis
significantly to ecological stress. These (PCA) were employed to explore pollutant
compounds can hinder oxygen exchange in interactions and potential sources. This study
water, block fish gill function, and cause long- aims to strengthen the empirical foundation
term disturbances in aquatic food chains necessary for informed environmental
(Onwueme, 2024). regulation, public health intervention, and
Within the Niger Delta, the Andoni Local ecological restoration in a critically impacted
Government Area in Rivers State stands as a section of the Niger Delta.
compelling example of environmental
vulnerability that has received little 2.0 Materials and Methods
investigation. Communities such as Ngo, Ikuru 2.1 Study Area
Town, Oyorokoto, Okoroboile, and Asarama The investigation was conducted in Andoni
are surrounded by oil infrastructure and Local Government Area (LGA), located in the
informal refining operations, making them southeastern part of Rivers State within the
highly vulnerable to pollutant discharge. Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The area is
Despite ongoing oil spills and reports of geographically situated between latitudes
declining water quality, Andoni communities 4°28'N and 4°33'N, and longitudes 7°20'E and
have not been sufficiently considered in 7°27'E. Andoni LGA is bounded by the
environmental assessments. More prominent Atlantic Ocean to the south and characterised
regions such as Ogoniland and Bonny have by a low-lying coastal terrain interspersed with
been extensively examined, leaving less- mangrove swamps, tidal creeks, and estuarine
documented but equally affected areas like systems. The region experiences a humid
Andoni marginalised in policy development tropical climate with distinct wet (April to
and environmental advocacy (Ubong et al., October) and dry (November to March)
2023; Anarado et al., 2023). seasons, governed by the interaction between
Scientific studies into pollution impacts often the northeast trade winds and southwest
neglect the influence of seasonal variation, monsoon winds. Five communities—Ngo,
even though hydrological patterns greatly Ikuru Town, Oyorokoto, Okoroboile, and
affect the mobility and bioavailability of Asarama—were purposively selected due to
contaminants. During the wet season, increased their proximity to major oil installations,

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ISSN No- 2584-2706
artisanal refining camps, and known spill-prone agricultural activities, rendering them
locations. These communities are ecologically particularly vulnerable to waterborne pollution
sensitive and socio-economically dependent on from petroleum activities.
surface water for domestic, fishing, and

samples were transported to the laboratory and

Figure 1: Map showing the study Areas analysed within 48 hours of collection.

2.2 Sample Collection and Preservation 2.3 Sample Preparation and Analytical
Surface water samples were obtained from each Procedures
community during two distinct climatic The determination of heavy metal
periods: the dry season (February 2024) and the concentrations (Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Fe, Mn) was
wet season (July 2024), to account for seasonal performed using Atomic Absorption
variability in contaminant distribution. Three Spectrophotometry (AAS), specifically the
sampling points were established in each Buck Scientific Model 210 VGP, following
community (upstream, midstream, and standard procedures as outlined in the
downstream) based on water flow direction and American Public Health Association (APHA,
human activity concentration, resulting in a 2017). Before analysis, water samples were
total of thirty (30) composite samples (5 digested using a mixture of nitric acid (HNO₃)
communities × 3 points × 2 seasons). Pre- and perchloric acid (HClO₄) under controlled
cleaned 1-litre high-density polyethene heating conditions to ensure complete
(HDPE) bottles were used for sample collection oxidation of organic matter and release of metal
to prevent contamination. Water samples ions. Filtered digests were aspirated directly
intended for heavy metal analysis were filtered into the AAS for quantification. Calibration
through Whatman No. 42 filter paper on-site was carried out using certified standard
and acidified to pH < 2 using ultrapure nitric solutions, and instrument accuracy was verified
acid (HNO₃), thereby stabilising the metal ions using blanks and spiked samples. Total
and preventing adsorption onto the container petroleum hydrocarbons were analysed using
walls. For total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) Gas Chromatography coupled with Flame
analysis, samples were preserved with Ionisation Detection (GC-FID), following the
analytical-grade hydrochloric acid (HCl) and United States Environmental Protection
immediately stored in ice-packed coolers at Agency (USEPA) Method 8015. A liquid-
4 °C to limit volatilisation and degradation. All liquid extraction technique was applied using
n-hexane as the organic solvent. The extracted
organic phase was concentrated using a gentle

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stream of nitrogen gas, and a 1 µL aliquot was direction of relationships among heavy metals
injected into the GC system equipped with a and TPHs, thereby providing insight into
non-polar capillary column. TPHs were shared sources or co-occurrence. Principal
quantified based on retention time and peak Component Analysis (PCA) was also
area comparison with a certified hydrocarbon performed to identify latent pollution sources
standard mixture (C₈–C₄₀ range). Quality and to reduce dimensionality in the dataset,
control measures included the use of procedural enhancing the interpretation of spatial patterns
blanks, analytical replicates, and standard and potential anthropogenic contributions.
reference materials to ensure data reliability Instrument detection limits (LOD) and
and reproducibility. All reagents and solvents quantification limits (LOQ) for each analyte
were of analytical grade, and deionised water were determined based on standard calibration
was used for all dilutions and cleaning methods, and all observed concentrations
procedures. exceeded the respective LODs, ensuring
analytical confidence.
2.4 Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics, including mean and 3.0 Results
standard deviation, were computed for each The results presented in this section include the
parameter across all sampling locations and concentrations of selected heavy metals and
seasons using IBM SPSS Statistics version 25. total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) detected
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was in surface water samples from five oil-bearing
applied to evaluate spatial and seasonal communities within the Andoni Local
differences in contaminant concentrations, Government Area. Emphasis is placed on
using a significance threshold of p < 0.05. seasonal variation, spatial distribution, and
Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) statistical significance. All concentrations are
post hoc test was subsequently employed to expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/L), and
determine specific pairwise differences among comparisons are made against WHO and
sampling sites. Pearson correlation analysis NESREA permissible limits.
was conducted to assess the strength and
3.1 Heavy Metal Concentrations
Table 1: Mean (± SD) Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Surface Water Samples during Dry
Season (mg/L)
Community Pb Cd Cr Ni Fe Mn
Ngo 0.103 ± 0.011 0.021 ± 0.004 0.034 ± 0.003 0.057 ± 0.005 0.654 ± 0.038 0.123 ± 0.007
Ikuru Town 0.087 ± 0.008 0.019 ± 0.003 0.029 ± 0.002 0.042 ± 0.004 0.593 ± 0.032 0.111 ± 0.006
Oyorokoto 0.091 ± 0.009 0.017 ± 0.003 0.031 ± 0.003 0.048 ± 0.004 0.601 ± 0.036 0.119 ± 0.008
Okoroboile 0.109 ± 0.012 0.025 ± 0.004 0.038 ± 0.004 0.062 ± 0.006 0.721 ± 0.041 0.132 ± 0.009
Asarama 0.097 ± 0.010 0.020 ± 0.003 0.033 ± 0.003 0.055 ± 0.005 0.682 ± 0.035 0.128 ± 0.008

Note. WHO limits (mg/L): Pb = 0.01, Cd = Cadmium levels ranged from 0.017 ± 0.003
0.003, Cr = 0.05, Ni = 0.02, Fe = 0.30, Mn = mg/L in Oyorokoto to 0.025 ± 0.004 mg/L in
0.10. NESREA limits: Pb = 0.05, Cd = 0.01, Cr Okoroboile, surpassing both the WHO (0.003
= 0.05, Ni = 0.05, Fe = 1.00, Mn = 0.20. mg/L) and NESREA (0.01 mg/L) limits. Nickel
Table 1 displays the mean concentrations (± concentrations were also elevated, with a
standard deviation) of Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Fe, and maximum value of 0.062 ± 0.006 mg/L
Mn recorded during the dry season. The highest observed in Okoroboile. Iron concentrations
concentration of lead (0.109 ± 0.012 mg/L) was remained below NESREA’s limit of 1.00 mg/L
observed in Okoroboile, significantly but exceeded the WHO recommended limit of
exceeding the WHO guideline of 0.01 mg/L 0.3 mg/L in all locations. Manganese
and NESREA’s threshold of 0.05 mg/L. concentrations ranged from 0.111 ± 0.006

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mg/L to 0.132 ± 0.009 mg/L, exceeding the Okoroboile and Ngo emerged as the most
WHO threshold (0.1 mg/L) but remaining polluted sites during the dry season, likely due
within NESREA standards. Statistical analysis to proximity to refining activities and historic
revealed significant spatial differences in the spill zones.
concentrations of Pb (F = 8.33, p = .002), Cd (F
= 6.21, p = .006), and Ni (F = 7.18, p = .004).
Table 2: Mean (± SD) Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Surface Water Samples during Wet
Season (mg/L)
Community Pb Cd Cr Ni Fe Mn
Ngo 0.129 ± 0.014 0.031 ± 0.005 0.046 ± 0.004 0.072 ± 0.006 0.834 ± 0.042 0.152 ± 0.010
Ikuru Town 0.112 ± 0.010 0.027 ± 0.004 0.039 ± 0.004 0.066 ± 0.005 0.771 ± 0.039 0.141 ± 0.009
Oyorokoto 0.118 ± 0.011 0.029 ± 0.004 0.042 ± 0.004 0.068 ± 0.006 0.790 ± 0.040 0.148 ± 0.009
Okoroboile 0.134 ± 0.015 0.033 ± 0.005 0.049 ± 0.005 0.077 ± 0.007 0.892 ± 0.045 0.164 ± 0.011
Asarama 0.121 ± 0.013 0.028 ± 0.004 0.041 ± 0.004 0.070 ± 0.006 0.810 ± 0.041 0.157 ± 0.010

As shown in Table 2, pollutant concentrations remained within NESREA thresholds, they

increased across most sites during the wet exceeded WHO aesthetic and health-based
season. The highest Pb concentration (0.134 ± limits for drinking water. Seasonal comparison
0.015 mg/L) was again detected in Okoroboile, using ANOVA confirmed statistically
while Ngo followed closely at 0.129 ± 0.014 significant differences in the concentrations of
mg/L. Cadmium peaked at 0.033 ± 0.005 mg/L Pb (F = 11.42, p = .001), Cd (F = 7.54, p =
in Okoroboile. Chromium concentrations .003), and Ni (F = 9.27, p = .002) between the
approached the WHO and NESREA limit (0.05 dry and wet seasons. Post hoc analysis using
mg/L) in multiple locations, with Okoroboile Tukey’s HSD test indicated that wet season
recording the highest value of 0.049 ± 0.005 values in Okoroboile and Ngo were
mg/L. Nickel showed marked elevation, significantly higher than those in other
reaching 0.077 ± 0.007 mg/L in Okoroboile. communities (p < .05), suggesting increased
Iron and manganese levels also increased hydrological transport and mobilisation of
during the wet season, with Fe reaching 0.892 pollutants during the rainy period.
± 0.045 mg/L in Okoroboile and Mn peaking at
0.164 ± 0.011 mg/L. Although these levels

3.2 Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) Concentration

Table 3: Mean (± SD) of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) in Surface Water Samples (mg/L)
Community Dry Season TPH (± SD) Wet Season TPH (± SD)
Ngo 3.42 ± 0.33 4.96 ± 0.41
Ikuru Town 3.11 ± 0.28 4.33 ± 0.38
Oyorokoto 3.25 ± 0.30 4.65 ± 0.40
Okoroboile 3.69 ± 0.35 5.12 ± 0.45
Asarama 3.38 ± 0.31 4.81 ± 0.42

Table 3 presents the TPH concentrations in Okoroboile. In the wet season,

detected across communities during both concentrations increased significantly, with
seasons. All measured values greatly exceeded Okoroboile again recording the highest value at
the NESREA permissible limit of 0.05 mg/L. 5.12 ± 0.45 mg/L. Other communities,
During the dry season, TPH ranged from 3.11 including Ngo and Asarama, recorded wet
± 0.28 mg/L in Ikuru Town to 3.69 ± 0.35 mg/L season TPH values above 4.80 mg/L. The

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observed seasonal elevation of TPH demonstrated strong positive relationships
concentrations was statistically confirmed (F = between TPH and Pb (r = .821, p = .003), and
18.65, p < .001), along with significant spatial between TPH and Ni (r = .762, p = .005),
variation among the communities (F = 13.29, p indicating a possible common origin—most
< .001). Elevated TPH levels during the wet likely oil exploration activities and illegal
season are attributed to runoff from oil- refining operations. These findings suggest
contaminated surfaces, increased leaching from concurrent deposition of hydrocarbons and
artisanal refining residues, and sediment heavy metals from the same pollution sources.
disturbance. Pearson correlation analysis
3.3 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
Table 4: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Loadings and Explained Variance for Heavy
Metals and TPHs
Component1 Component2
Parameter
(Petroleum-Related Source) (Mixed Gynogenic/Industrial Source)
Lead (Pb) 0.886 0.213
Cadmium (Cd) 0.412 0.738
Chromium (Cr) 0.376 0.641
Nickel (Ni) 0.863 0.291
Iron (Fe) 0.432 0.772
Manganese (Mn) 0.298 0.631
TPH 0.901 0.203
Eigenvalue 3.81 1.82
% Variance Explained 54.4% 26.0%
Cumulative % Variance 54.4% 80.4%

Principal Component Analysis was conducted concentrations that significantly exceeded

to identify the underlying factors contributing permissible limits set by both the World Health
to pollutant variability. The first two principal Organisation (WHO) and the National
components accounted for over 78% of the Environmental Standards and Regulations
total variance. Component 1 was heavily Enforcement Agency (NESREA). Similarly,
loaded with Pb, Ni, and TPH, indicating a total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) were
shared petroleum-related source, while found at levels several orders of magnitude
Component 2 showed moderate loadings for Cd higher than regulatory thresholds across all
and Fe, possibly linked to industrial effluents sampled locations and seasons, particularly
and natural mineral dissolution. This during the wet season.
multivariate approach supports earlier findings Lead concentrations were consistently elevated
and reinforces the hypothesis of anthropogenic across all communities, with Okoroboile
dominance in pollutant input, particularly in exhibiting the highest levels in both dry and wet
Okoroboile and Ngo. seasons. These values substantially surpassed
the WHO guideline of 0.01 mg/L and
4.0 Discussion NESREA’s threshold of 0.05 mg/L. The
The findings from this study provide elevated concentrations reflect the likely
compelling evidence of widespread and influence of corroded oil pipelines, vehicular
seasonally aggravated pollution in the surface combustion, waste incineration, and emissions
waters of oil-bearing communities in Andoni from illegal crude oil refining activities. The
Local Government Area, Rivers State. Most significantly higher levels during the wet
heavy metals analysed—specifically lead (Pb), season suggest that surface runoff and
cadmium (Cd), and nickel (Ni)—recorded floodwaters facilitate the mobilisation of lead

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from terrestrial sources into adjacent water Iron and manganese concentrations remained
bodies. Similar observations have been within NESREA's acceptable limits but
reported in studies conducted in Iko Creek and exceeded WHO recommendations for aesthetic
Bodo Creek, where seasonal flooding increased quality in drinking water. High iron content can
metal transport (Ubong et al., 2023; Onwueme, lead to unpleasant taste, discolouration, and
2024). Chronic exposure to lead is known to sediment formation in water, while excessive
impair cognitive development in children, manganese exposure has been linked to
induce hypertension in adults, and damage the neurodevelopmental disorders in children. The
renal and nervous systems. higher concentrations observed during the wet
Cadmium levels also exceeded both WHO and season likely result from the mobilisation of
NESREA limits in all samples, with the highest naturally occurring iron and manganese from
values recorded during the wet season in sediments, facilitated by redox reactions under
Okoroboile. The presence of cadmium is often low-oxygen conditions.
linked to leaching from waste dumpsites, The extremely high concentrations of TPHs
batteries, combustion of fossil fuels, and observed in all samples represent the most
industrial effluents. Its persistence in the critical ecological and public health concern
aquatic environment poses serious long-term highlighted in this study. TPH levels exceeded
risks due to its tendency to bioaccumulate in the NESREA’s maximum permissible limit of
liver, kidneys, and bones. Health effects 0.05 mg/L by more than 60–100 times across
associated with cadmium exposure include both seasons. Okoroboile recorded the highest
skeletal deformities, nephrotoxicity, and concentration during the wet season (5.12 ±
carcinogenesis. The pattern observed in this 0.45 mg/L), closely followed by Ngo and
study mirrors trends documented in the Ibeno Asarama. This trend reflects the cumulative
axis of Akwa Ibom State, where seasonal impact of multiple pollution sources, including
variation led to heightened cadmium exposure oil spills, leaking pipelines, refining residues,
during high rainfall months (Udo et al., 2018). and surface runoff from contaminated zones.
Chromium, though generally below regulatory Elevated TPH levels compromise water quality
thresholds, approached the permissible limits in through the formation of oil films, reduction of
several wet season samples. This trend raises dissolved oxygen, and inhibition of aquatic
concern, particularly given the toxic nature of photosynthesis. In addition, hydrocarbons
hexavalent chromium, which can cause severe contain carcinogenic compounds such as
liver and skin disorders, even at relatively low polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
exposure levels. The primary sources of which pose further health risks to exposed
chromium in the region may include petroleum populations.
combustion, chemical corrosion inhibitors, and The significant positive correlations between
leaching from industrial materials. TPH and both Pb and Ni (r = 0.821 and r =
Nickel concentrations were uniformly above 0.762, respectively) suggest a shared origin,
WHO standards and exceeded NESREA limits most likely linked to petroleum operations and
in several locations, especially during the wet illegal refining activities. These relationships,
season. This metal is frequently associated with coupled with the outcomes of the principal
petroleum refining activities and corrosion of component analysis, underscore the role of oil-
alloyed infrastructure used in oil transport. The related anthropogenic inputs as the dominant
increased levels during the wet season suggest contributors to surface water pollution in the
enhanced solubilisation and mobility, region.
potentially due to changes in pH and increased Seasonal differences observed in this study
erosion. Continuous exposure to elevated provide further insight into the hydrological
nickel levels has been implicated in respiratory dynamics affecting contaminant distribution.
distress, allergic reactions, and kidney damage Wet season rainfall enhances surface runoff,
(Anarado et al., 2023). sediment resuspension, and dilution, which
contribute to the redistribution and

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concentration of pollutants. Conversely, during compromises ecological stability but also

the dry season, lower water volumes and endangers the health, livelihoods, and water
limited flow allow for contaminant security of residents. Long-term exposure to
accumulation in stagnant sections of the water the detected contaminants may result in chronic
bodies. The combination of spatial and diseases, developmental impairments, and
seasonal patterns confirms the need for disruptions in aquatic biodiversity. The
continuous, multi-season monitoring to assess seasonal amplification of pollutant levels
the exposure risk and design effective further compounds the environmental burden,
mitigation strategies accurately. The pointing to the need for timely interventions.
identification of Okoroboile and Ngo as Addressing this crisis requires a coordinated
persistent pollution hotspots supports earlier and sustained effort from government agencies,
findings of high environmental vulnerability in environmental regulators, civil society
areas proximal to oil facilities and unregulated organisations, and oil operators. Strengthened
refining sites. These communities are at the enforcement of environmental protection laws
frontline of pollution exposure and should be is necessary to curb illegal refining and enforce
prioritised for urgent remediation and health best practices in spill management. Provision
risk assessment. of safe and sustainable alternatives to polluted
surface waters—such as boreholes, community
5.0 Conclusion filtration systems, or mobile water treatment
The assessment of surface waters in oil-bearing units—must be prioritized to reduce direct
communities of Andoni Local Government human exposure.
Area has revealed significant levels of
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16780234