Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Pollution
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol

Biomass utilization and production of biofuels from carbon neutral

materials*
Rajesh K. Srivastava a, Nagaraj P. Shetti b, Kakarla Raghava Reddy c, Eilhann E. Kwon d,
Mallikarjuna N. Nadagouda e, Tejraj M. Aminabhavi f, *
a
Department of Biotechnology, GIT, GITAM (Deemed to Be University), Rushikonda, Visakhapatnam, 530045, (A.P.), India
b
Department of Chemistry, K. L. E. Institute of Technology, Gokul, Hubballi, 580027, Karnataka, India
c
School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
d
Department of Environment and Energy, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, Republic of Korea
e
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, 45324, USA
f
Department of Chemistry, Karnatak University, Dharwad, 580 003, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The availability of organic matters in vast quantities from the agricultural/industrial practices has long
Received 9 December 2020 been a significant environmental challenge. These wastes have created global issues in increasing the
Received in revised form levels of BOD or COD in water as well as in soil or air segments. Such wastes can be converted into
1 February 2021
bioenergy using a specific conversion platform in conjunction with the appropriate utilization of the
Accepted 9 February 2021
Available online 11 February 2021
methods such as anaerobic digestion, secondary waste treatment, or efficient hydrolytic breakdown as
these can promote bioenergy production to mitigate the environmental issues. By the proper utilization
of waste organics and by adopting innovative approaches, one can develop bioenergy processes to meet
Keywords:
Bioremediation
the energy needs of the society. Waste organic matters from plant origins or other agro-sources, bio-
Bioenergy polymers, or complex organic matters (cellulose, hemicelluloses, non-consumable starches or proteins)
Starches can be used as cheap raw carbon resources to produce biofuels or biogases to fulfill the ever increasing
Lignocellulose energy demands. Attempts have been made for bioenergy production by biosynthesizing, methanol, n-
Biofuels butanol, ethanol, algal biodiesel, and biohydrogen using different types of organic matters via biotech-
Biogases nological/chemical routes to meet the world’s energy need by producing least amount of toxic gases
(reduction up to 20e70% in concentration) in order to promote sustainable green environmental growth.
This review emphasizes on the nature of available wastes, different strategies for its breakdown or hy-
drolysis, efficient microbial systems. Some representative examples of biomasses source that are used for
bioenergy production by providing critical information are discussed. Furthermore, bioenergy produc-
tion from the plant-based organic matters and environmental issues are also discussed. Advanced bio-
fuels from the organic matters are discussed with efficient microbial and chemical processes for the
promotion of biofuel production from the utilization of plant biomasses.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction residual plant materials (lignocellulosic components), which are

generated as excretion products from the animals (Rehman and
Organic matter is available in simple or complex forms in waste Anal, 2019). For instance, useful organic matters such as cereals
forms generated from plants, animals, or microbial cell commu- grains (corn, rice, or wheat) and tubers products (such as sweet
nities during their growth via the bioprocesses. More useful types potatoes and cassava) have been the source of glucose or starch-
of organic matters are carbohydrates, proteins, or fats and animal based feedstocks. These include D-glucose sugar molecules (as
originated nutrition food (milk) or flesh, non-consumable starches, fermentable sugars) that are freely available after efficient hydro-
lysis to be converted into ethanol as fuels.
The utilization of food grains for the production of bioenergy or
* €rg Rinklebe.
other value-added products has created much serious food security
This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Jo
* Corresponding author. issues (Shiamala et al., 2018). There is now a need to focus on
E-mail address: [email protected] (T.M. Aminabhavi). advanced technologies as well as the alternative devices for

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116731
0269-7491/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

Abbreviation kDa Kilo Dalton

KOH Potassium hydroxide;
DH Enthalpy kHz Kilohertz
DG Gibbs free energy LCA Life-Cycle Analysis
DS Entropy LCB Lignocellulosic biomass
Eopen Open-circuit potential LNPs lignin nanoparticles
1,3-PDO 1,3-propanediol LPAAT Lysophosphatidic acyltransferase
ABE Acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation/product MALDI-MS Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass
Acyl-CoA Acylcoenzyme-A; spectrometry
ADP Adenosine diphosphate MHz Megahertz
ADP-Glc ADP-glucose MPa Megapascal
AgNP Silver nanoparticle NADPH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
AgNPs Silver nanoparticles NPs Nanoparticles
ANOVA :Analysis of variance NPs Natural products
ATCC American cell type collection PBRs Photobioreactors
ATP Adenosine triphosphate PEC Photo-electrochemical
cDNA cyclic DNA PEC Photo-electrochemical cells
CDs Carbon nanodots PEI Polyethyleneimine;
CNC Cellulose nanocrystals PEP Phosphoenolpyruvate
CNs Cellulose nanostructures PHB Poly-b-hydroxybutyrate
DGAT :Diacylglycerol acyltransferase PPW Potato peel waste
DMTA Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis RNAs Ribonucleic acids
DP Degree of polymerization RSM Response surface methodology
DSSF Delayed SSF SCOs Single cell oils
Fe2O3 Hematite; SS Soluble starch
FFA Free fatty acids SSF Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
g/g Gram per gram SuSy sucrose synthase
G3P Glyceraldehyde3-phosphate TAGs Triacylglycerols
GBSSs granule-bound soluble starches UDP Uridine diphosphate
GHGs Greenhouse gases UDPG UDP-glucose
GPAT Glycerol phosphate acyltransferase UDP-Glc UDP-glucose
HCHO Formaldehyde USPase UDP-sugar pyrophosphorylase

efficient and effective utilization of fibrous parts or non- cDNA, which was cloned with its expression for the biosynthesis of
consumable biomolecules from plant or animal sources (e.g., recombinant starch degrading enzyme. This recombinant enzyme
wheat straw or corn stover or plants residues and animal excretory has shown efficient hydrolyzing ability for different concentrations
organic matters). Our strategies for these natural matters utiliza- of raw corn and cassava flours (up to concentration ranging from 50
tion (i.e., sustainable resource nature) can be visualized for the to 150 g.L1) by the addition of a-amylase at 40
C. These enzyme
consumption of these wastes to synthesize advanced biofuels mixtures can be utilized for simultaneous saccharification and
(cellulosic ethanol or other alcoholic biofuels). In this regard, much fermentation of raw flours at high concentrations (150 g.L1) to
research has been undertaken in Europe for wheat starch utiliza- exhibit excellent capability for starch degradation. The resulting
tion towards bioethanol production via efficient bioprocesses fermenting sugars can be utilized for a high quantity of ethanol
(Rehman and Anal, 2019; Shiamala et al., 2018). The carbon neutral production (titer ~ 61.0 g.L1 and yield, 95.1% after 48 h of
materials provide the net carbon zero emissions, which can achieve fermentation time) (Xu et al., 2016; Srivastava et al., 2020a).
the net-zero carbon dioxide emissions by balancing carbon dioxide Biomass utilization is a good source of bio-organic or organic
emissions with their removal (i.e., through carbon offsetting) or compounds to be used to synthesize heat energy, electric power,
eliminating carbon dioxide emissions (i.e., transition to post- and transportation fuels, for developing conventional/non-
carbon economy). Biofuels are the fuel energy substrates contain- conventional technologies to convert biomass resources from
ing the least number of carbon chains in their structures that will different origins (plant or microbial origin) into fermentable forms
help in least or minimum quantity of CO2 emission in the envi- of sugar or other biomolecules (Sharma et al., 2020a). These can be
ronment after combustion in internal engine. Hence, they can be further utilized to achieve solid, liquid, and gaseous forms of bio-
considered as carbon neutral materials. fuels. For the conversion of biomasses, we need to select effective
Intense efforts have been made to produce bioenergy or other hydrolysis processes using physical, chemical, physicochemical, or
value-added products using starch-digesting glucoamylase biological agents. Various types of biomasses differ in their sizes or
PoGA15A (mol.wt.75.4 kDa) enzyme, which can be purified from structures, which can be predicted by the application of accurate
Penicillium oxalicum GXU20 strain using acidic pH of 4.5 at 65
C predictor approaches as seen in Fig. 1 (Dong et al., 2019).
(Pereira et al., 2017). This enzyme has the broad pH stability (pH Carbon-neutral materials may contain fewer carbons or no
2.0e10.5) having the substrate specificity, which can enhance the carbon atoms/chains (methanol, methane, ethanol, etc.) that
degradation of various types of raw starches at 40
C by main- contain one or two carbon chains, but no carbon is present in some
taining a consistent adsorption level for the substrates (Pereira biofuels such as biohydrogen. These are the excellent examples of
et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2016). Another starch degrading enzyme renewable fuel energy generated during anaerobic digestion or
can also be used from the engineered strain of Pichia pastoris, and microbial fermentation. Component profiles in total biomass

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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of organic matters in different origins (plant, animal or microbial cells), are utilized for biofuels synthesis (solid, liquid or gaseous) via application of
physical, chemical, thermal, or biochemical processes. This bioorganic matter exhibited negative impacts (enhanced or BOD or COD value) in water bodies.

distribution would therefore, help to develop effective hydrolysis pretreatment processes (Spinelli et al., 2016; Ramsurrun and
techniques and efficient microbial systems for the utilization of Surroop, 2019).
plant-based biomasses as raw carbon sources for bioenergy pro- Different forms of biomass sources have been supplied to bio-
duction. However, there is the need for reliable biomass prediction refineries, wherein biomasses with various forms and their nature
models for a theoretical harvesting scenario to assess the residual can be utilized with good yield of fermentable sugars or fuels en-
potential for energy production (Dong et al., 2019; Manolis et al., ergy. These biomasses or waste organic matter are obtained from
2016). In this regard, European energy policy has integrated forestry as wood biomasses, agricultural (different crop residues),
renewable sources (i.e., waste or useful forms of carbon stored food processing residues (waste or left food or grains waste mat-
bioproducts) to a greater extent to make the process more suc- ters), municipal wastes (complex organic matter), and dedicated
cessful via application of an efficient smart-grid policy. These ap- crops from terrestrial and aquatic lands. Sophisticated processing
proaches have played a pivotal role in lignocellulosic biomass technologies of biomass hydrolysis have been applied using hy-
exploitation in a rational approach (Srivastava et al., 2020a; Manolis drolysis (Zanetti et al., 2019).
et al., 2016). Natural composite materials, fibers, value-added products, fuels,
Other approaches for lignocellulosic resource utilization (such or energy sources have been biosynthesized from the biowastes
as reed plant biomasses) have been explored for bioenergy devel- (Reddy et al., 2019) and by utilizing plant biomasses such as
opment for its growing capability on the wetland areas with lignocellulosic extractives, fermentable sugar components can be
detrimental effects on other native plants (Manolis et al., 2016). produced. Further, there is the need to upgrade these materials for
These plant biomasses can be the promising and cheap carbon useful modes of fractionization into fermentative sugars for bio-
sources as raw materials via converting them into advanced fuel energy production. However, for biomass conversion, useful hy-
sources. However, output-input energy ratio needs to be main- drolyzing enzymes such as cellulases, hemicellulases, or lignases
tained between 31 and 46 days for the biomass fuel for reed grass were utilized to construct their recombinant forms to help release
source utilization. fermentable sugars with high yields (Zanetti et al., 2019; Reddy
The dominance of reed plants may be necessary to identify the et al., 2019).
severe loss of other plants diversity via altering different natural This review critically emphasize the importance of bioenergy
habitats (Spinelli et al., 2016). However, reed biomasses are sus- development from biowastes by utilizing plant originated biomass
tainable, which can be utilized as energy feedstocks to control its wastes (cellulose, hemicelluloses, or other forms biomolecules) to
further spreading in wetland areas since such biomass provides produce bioenergy via biosynthesis pathways. It may soon be
low-cost carbon substrates for the bio-energy production. Here, realized that this process fulfills the ever-increasing energy de-
invasive reeds biomass can be a useful option as cheap carbon mands of modern society by mitigating the adverse effects of
sources (Ramsurrun and Surroop, 2019). Several approaches have nonrenewable burning strategies (Ramsurrun and Surroop, 2019).
been developed to improve the quality of reed biomass for biofuels The overall goal of this review is, therefore, to discuss energy har-
conversion, but chopped reeds biomass can help to minimize sig- nessing approaches or processes for bioenergy production, while
nificant slagging problems, as reported for rice or wheat straw the other value-added products that are synthesized from the

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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

plant-based organic matters are also covered (Fig. 2). chemicals (biofuels), and these are sustainable alternative fuel
sources to replace conventional (fossil) resources. Valorization of
biowastes from shellfish industry was investigated to produce
2. Innovative approaches for biomass utilization for value-
useful biopolymers such as chitin and its derived byproducts for
added products
bioplastic or biomaterial development for use in biomedical ap-
plications (Chaturvedi et al., 2015). In this context, fishery wastes
In recent years, beyond bioenergy benefits, biomass is used as a
containing high quantity of protein were employed in the pro-
raw material for the production of nanoparticles (NPs) that have
duction of cosmetics or proteins for making foodstuffs or other
distinct shapes, sizes, and bioactive surfaces. These were achieved
products (including alginate) (Reddy et al., 2008). The authors tried
using different bio-reducing agents (leaf extracts of Tulsi plant and
to expand the utility of NPs synthesis from the plant-based mate-
derivative quercetin) during biomass hydrolysis, which promotes
rials utilization that were used in nanobiocatalysis syntheses for
ethanol production (Reddy et al., 2019). This technology utilizes the
the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass leading to a sustainable
immobilized enzymes to develop bio-nanomaterials or bio-
bioethanol production.
nanocatalysts via immobilized techniques. Enzyme immobiliza-
A new process of commercial production of green-synthesized
tion has been chosen to affect the mode of interaction to achieve an
nanoparticles (NPs) was employed in developing nano-enabled
effective hydrolysis of the microcrystalline cellulose or other nat-
devices, personal care, medicinal, food, and agriculture products
ural cellulosics with a good yield of the monomer units. The
(Peralta-Videa et al., 2016). Catalytic conversion (i.e., hydrolysis) of
immobilized enzyme can further retain its enzyme activity (up to
lignocellulosic biomasses into fermentable sugars was used for the
50%) and stability even after completing five or more consecutive
bioethanol synthesis using immobilized enzymes, and this is a cost-
cycles as can be seen from Fig. 3 (Reddy et al., 2020a, Ahmad and
effective and eco-friendly approach (Reddy et al., 2020b; Rai et al.,
Khare, 2017)
2018). However, various processes reported for processes have
Innumerable reports are available on the development of bio-
utilized the plant biomasses before their conversion into bioenergy
based NPs with broad applications (except complex organic mat-
and these include pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, and biomass
ter breakdown processes) in biomedicine, pharmacology, food
cultivation. In these areas, nanotechnology played a decisive role in
science, agriculture, and environmental engineering. Biogenic
optimizing the hydrolysis or consumption of biomasses (lignocel-
synthesis has been used to rely on plants, waste biomass, and many
luloses, microalgae, or wastewater organic matter) that has
types of biopolymers in the fabrication of nanomaterials (Desalegn
enhanced the conversion of bioenergy (Reddy et al., 2020b; Khoo
et al., 2019). In this regard, proteins and peptides have occupied
et al., 2020). Such nanomaterials have played a critical role in
significant positions in pharmaceutics and drug delivery areas
improved biofuels, biodiesel, enzymes, or microbial fuel cell
(Chaturvedi et al., 2011a; Kulkarni et al., 2010; Aftab et al., 2018;
development.
Mundargi et al., 2007).
In this review, we focus our attention on the utilization of plant-
Palladium metal-based nanospheres, nanowires, and nanorods
derived wastes for bioenergy development by the energy-
have also been used to combine with vitamin B2 (as reducing and
generating processes such as capacitors using proteins with tita-
capping agent) and orange peel extract (Lefsih et al., 2016) for the
nium oxide film (Gao et al., 2019; Monga et al., 2020). In this
synthesis of AgNPs, while nanoparticles loaded with enzymes have
approach, open-circuit potential (Eopen) and AC impedance of the
been used for the hydrolysis of plant biomasses via catalyzing the
commercially available pure titanium were utilized to measure
chemical processes (Ahmad and Khare, 2017; Desalegn et al., 2019).
Eopen values applied in a cell-culture medium with and without
Various types of aquatic-derived biowastes have been studied,
culturing murine fibroblasts or without proteins (Impergre et al.,
which are prepared via valorization to produce value-added

Fig. 2. A schematic diagram of bioenergy and others value-added products synthesis from the organic matters. These matters are derived from barley grain, wheat stalks and
microalgal biomasses. These are utilized as carbon substrates for development of different value-added products including biofuels that help in mitigation of CO2 emission.

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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

Fig. 3. Nanofiber development from poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) and cellulose enzymes reaction. These fibers are developed from agricultural waste (lignocelluloses matter) and
cellulases help in degradation of celluloses that main component of plant cell wall. This celluloses used for nanofibers development and it helps in biomaterials as value added
development.

2018; Wang et al., 2019a). This research has led to the development believed that biomass showed the potential for providing a cost-
of a new electrolytic cell that can be useful in electrochemical effective and sustainable energy supply in many countries to
measurements in cultured cells on various specimens as well as for meet their greenhouse gases (GHGs) reduction. In the future (by
non-conventional modes of biofuels development (Gao et al., 2019; around 2050), 90% of the world population will depend on such
Monga et al., 2020; Impergre et al., 2018). biomass-based energy for life needs to live in a healthy environ-
The hydrogen energy generation via water splitting using pho- ment (Reddy et al., 2020c; Xu et al., 2019), where the photo-
toelectrochemical cells (PEC) with artificially mimics photosyn- electrochemical cell can play a critical role to produce clean fuel
thesis has been developed to develop efficient PECs that to achieve synthesis.
water splitting as an economic and competitive alternative form of
clean energy production (Reddy et al., 2020c; Reddy et al., 2020d).
Here, low cost and high performing water oxidizing and oxygen- 2.1. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cell technology
evolving photoanode electrodes were developed in an eco-
friendly manner by developing hematite (Fe2O3) nanomaterials Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells work on an artificial photo-
for the development of PEC photoanode electrode. This approach synthetic approach for water splitting reactions. Though this
has enhanced the quantity of photocurrent density generated by technique is an alternative to natural photosynthetic process where
taking the advantage of photosynthetic proteins (Nandakumar water splitting occurs in a photoelectrochemical cell, yet this
et al., 2020). In this venture, hematite photoanodes were able to approach is not the economically viable for producing solar fuel,
exhibit superior performance using light-harvesting proteins from but it utilizes half-reactions of hydrogen evolution that generates
the microbial strains as low-cost biomaterials (i.e., cyanobacterial valuable and clean energies (Ng et al., 2020). In other words, pho-
phycocyanin). toelectrochemical cell deals with the hydrogen synthesis via water
Enzymatically produced melanin bio-compound has been re- reduction at the cathode side (hydrogen production). In this cell,
ported to perform increased overall performance of low-cost metal water oxidation occurs at the anode side (producing oxygen), but
oxides to develop photoanodes for an effective PEC system oxidation at anode reactions may not be kinetically favorable. Thus,
(Koutavarapu et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2019). Similarly, bio-organic researchers have investigated solar energy utilization for the
materials have offered outstanding performances of the photo- biomass conversion. For instance, this type of biomass conversion
anode assembly in the presence of alkaline electrolytes solution can be performing via oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF)
(concentrated KOH) (Nandakumar et al., 2020; Koutavarapu et al., into 2, 5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) at the anode side of a PEC
2021). At the international level, biomass production estimated cell, where 5-hydroxymethylfurfural is the critical intermediate in
nearly 146 billion metric tonnes per year, of which 35% of primary biomass conversion, and FDCA is the essential monomer for
energy consumptions was utilized in developing countries. This numerous polymer synthesis. This type of PEC cell can be ther-
suggests that the world’s total energy synthesis contributed up to modynamically and kinetically suitable for water oxidation process
14% of the total in immediate energy consumption. It is thus (Cha and Choi, 2015; Zhang et al., 2016; Reddy et al., 2020e).
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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

3. Organic materials (useful or waste form) availability with (Reddy et al., 2020c; Reddy et al., 2020d) and innumerable effective
their novel properties strategies have been developed for the utilization of different forms
of biopolymers to produce bioenergy with the value-added prod-
Green plants have shown the capability of natural mode of ucts (Moire et al., 2003; Faraca and Astrup, 2019).
photosynthesis for generating complex organic products, which are
utilized for their growth and development, while the remaining 3.1. Organic matters of plant origin from agro-sector
parts of useful organic matters are found for human utilization.
Organic matters from agro-wastes are displayed in Fig. 4. Many The agro-sector reported products from the starch sources
types of metabolic engineered crops (transgenic plants, grains, or (consumable food to human) and cellulose component, which are
others) have been used to cultivate for food tasks via their non-consumable to humans). These are biosynthesized during the
biosynthesis to their best capability for developing novel polymers plant growth and its products (Srivastava et al., 2020b). Direct D-
with useful material properties for robust and flexible protein- glucose sources (as the best fermentable sugar and preference to
based polymer development. A natural biopolymer viz., poly- microbial systems including bacteria) can be generated from these
hydroxyalkanoate can be synthesized from microbially mediated substrates. Other plant products are proteins and lipids derived
fermentation process, which showed wonderful properties from the plant products, hemicellulose, pectin, or lignin have been
(ranging from stiff plastics to soft elastomers) (Xu et al., 2019) and reported, but only hemicelluloses was utilized for the biofuel pro-
catalytic applications of such nature-inspired materials have shown duction via bioprocesses containing a mixture of pentose and
several advantages of using nanotechnology (Moire et al., 2003). hexose sugars (Li et al., 2018). Typically lignin is not a suitable
This has made it possible for an effective mode of environmental substrate for cellulosic ethanol synthesis. In recent years, efforts
resource utilization with their potential for the production of have been made to converting lignin from corn straw into biofuel
alternative energy sources. The NPs have shown the critical roles in by the use of hydrogenation processes and lignin can also be uti-
producing biofuels with their best performing catalytic activity. lized to convert value-added products or chemical precursors for
Other forms of plant biopolymers in the form of glue products have the biofuel synthesis (Sharma et al., 2020b; Zhang et al., 2019a).
been used to synthesize various plant products such as cytoplasm, Some novelty is also shown below.
plastid, and peroxisome (Faraca and Astrup, 2019; Srivastava et al.,
2020b). However, the utilization of plant biomaterials to replace 1 Various plant biomasses discussed in consumable (food grain
synthetic plastics, fibers, and elastomers hev offered many advan- starches) and non-consumable form (microalgal or other lower
tages such as renewability, sustainability, and biodegradability plant starches and lignocelluloses). These helped to use raw

Fig. 4. Bio-energy synthesis from different organic matters or substrates (glucose, starches or lignocellulosic sources) via involvement of suitable microbial system with utilization
of fermentation processes. The microbial systems help in pretreatment, hydrolysis and fermentation processes that are required for biofuel development. Biofuel as bioenergy can
help in mitigation of toxic compounds and carbon dioxide emission that can main healthy environment.

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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

carbon substrates (available in huge quantities and cheap or low network of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which played a secondary role
prices) in biofuel development. Further, this paper has also in the fermentation process.
discussed the promotion of biofuel energy source and can
mitigate the CO2 emission/or toxic gases or byproducts 3.1.2. Celluloses sources from agro-sectors
(considered as neutral carbon fuel materials) Cellulose reported as a structural component of the plant cell
2 Various components of plant biomass or products discussed wall are found in abundant quantity after pretreatment of the
focused on direct or complex forms of fermentable sugars. These plant’s lignocellulosic matter with a good source of glucoses. These
matters also focused on biosynthesis, degradation, and accu- wastes of organic matter are found to involve in the conversion of
mulation processes, and it has also provided scientific facts liquid transportation fuel development bioprocesses (Paschos et al.,
about these processes such as biosynthesis and degradation 2015). However, their utility can be achieved after proper hydro-
reactions. These can help to biorefineries industry for lysis into simpler sugars that are useful via altering the ratios of the
commercialization of bioenergy promotion or development. cell wall polymers to extract the main biomass components such as
3 It focused on effective pretreatment, hydrolysis, and microbial cellulose or hemicellulosics in their free forms (see Fig. 5). This
fermentation processes. Further, it discussed biofuels variety makes easy for their respective enzymatic attack for the hydrolysis
(from least one carbon or no carbon chain to a maximum few with high yields of their monomer units. As reported earlier, the
carbon chains) in biofuels. It treats as carbon neutral materials composition of plant-based biomass of different origins was found
via comparing to non-renewable fuel energy. It can clean our to vary from species to species from the lower developed plant
natural environment. resources to the highly developed masses (Viikari et al., 2012)
In the literature, efforts have been made to understand the
variations of natural elements (proportions of cellulose, hemicel-
3.1.1. Starches sources from agro-sector lulose, and lignin) of the plant-based biomasses that are well un-
Abundant and renewable form of carbohydrate-rich polymer is derstood about the variations of their components by using
starch, which is grown in large scales with its massive quantity in molecular tools in their wall compositions. This valuable resource
agriculture sectors. Its crop residues or food grains have been uti- has been effectively utilized by generating designer biofuel crops by
lized as the potential feedstock for the development of industrial selecting the best breeding methods or recombinant DNA tech-
bio-compounds including ethanol. In addition, starch has also been niques (Viikari et al., 2012; Bali et al., 2016).
utilized via liquefaction and saccharification processes for the
complete conversion into value-added products with energy- 3.1.3. Pretreatment, saccharification and fermentation
intensive products. However, the complicated non-eco-friendly For the utilization of fermentation processes, it is necessary to
processes have been used for saccharification and fermentation of release high yield of the monosaccharides in various forms or ori-
bioproducts development (Wangpor et al., 2017). Many types of gins of the biomass resources, which is indeed a big challenge
enzymes, including raw starch-digesting glucoamylases were ob- during biofuel production. For the hydrolysis of biomasses, it is
tained for the hydrolysis of starch. These enzymes were found to necessary to achieve via applying different approaches involving
hydrolyze different types of natural starches into glucose formation physical, chemical, physico-chemical, or biological agents to
at low temperatures, thereby making this approach simple with a generate low to high quantities of toxic compounds during pre-
cost reduction of starch-based products for the conversion of treatment processes. However, toxic compounds can be dependent
simple sugar molecules (Yang et al., 2019). on the concentration of the agents. For this approach, we need to
In the literature, innumerable reports are available for starch select suitable hydrolysis methods in individual or combined forms
production (75 million tons) at the worldwide level, which are the of the biological, physical, chemical, or physiochemical agents,
main crops of maize, cassava, wheat, and potato having good depending upon the variations of components in the biomasses
sources of starch from agro-sectors (Wangpor et al., 2017). For the (Chiaramonti et al., 2012).
utilization of starch products, the selection and development of In case of ethanol fermentation, yeasts are used to utilize only
starches should be considered based on specific production as well hexoses (glucose and mannose), but the most common hemi-
as structure, composition, morphology, swelling, or gelatinization. cellulosic polysaccharides have been reported to generate most of
Furthermore, for starches, paste firmness, clarity, and freeze-thaw the pentose sugars (xylose or arabinose, both) with a small quantity
stability are essential for their industrial utilization. These proper- of hexoses sugars. This sugar mixture can be fermented using wild
ties are found in maize, cassava, wheat, potato, and rice starches yeast strains (Boboescu et al., 2018). For these sugars, their utili-
that are found in amylose and amylopectin structures. Different zation to produce ethanol, genetically or metabolically engineered
types of starches were also reported with other essential features yeast strains, is necessary as the best microbial strains to ferment
(granular organization, presence of lipids, proteins and minerals, these pentose sugars in the best or useful ways. Many efforts have
and starch granule size) (Yang et al., 2019). been made to study advanced modifications of microbial strains to
Recently, the utilization of starch products is not much benefi- develop such specialized yeasts and bacterial strains with the best
cial for developing bioenergy due to increasing prices of food or capability to ferment these pentoses in very efficient and effective
food security issues worldwide. Hence, more research efforts are ways (Chiaramonti et al., 2012; Boboescu et al., 2018).
needed to emphasize effective methodologies to utilize lignocel- Innumerable types of microbial strains have been reported, of
lulosics or other forms of organic matter (waste or non-consumable which the main ones are Candida shehatae, Pichia (Scheffersomyces)
starch from algae or other plants) for promoting biofuel de- stipitis, and Pachysolentannophilus that were reported to metabolize
velopments to meet the world’s energy needs (Sharma et al., xylose for ethanol production, while the majority of distiller’s yeast
2020b). There have been some reports to utilize hydrothermally are unable to ferment pentoses into ethanol. For the production of
pretreated wheat straw (as substrate) for ethanol production as ethanol, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation are needed, which
well as simultaneous saccharification and fermentation processes can be achieved using separate saccharification and fermentation
for co-fermentation involving Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Fusa- processes or simultaneous saccharification and fermentation or
rium oxysporum and enzymatic systems of F. oxysporum (Paschos even consolidated bioprocessing that is dependent on the microbial
et al., 2015). This specific microbial system was found to source or its nature (Paschos et al., 2015).
contribute to substrate hydrolysis by applying the metabolic Currently, pentose-fermenting microorganisms have been
7
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

Fig. 5. Waste or residual plant biomass (i.e., palm shell, empty fruit bunches and mesocarp fibers in palm oil industry) is decomposed via using of pyrolysis processes and bio-oils
and chars with syngas synthesis. This approach utilized at higher temperature in absence of oxygen (or presence of nitrogen flow rate) to complete degradation of biomasses.

constructed via genetic engineering technique by introducing (4e5%) to a-1,6-branch points. Amylopectin is expressed in a
xylose-encoding genes into selected microorganism metabolism structural framework with the semi-crystalline nature of the starch,
processes, which can be used after the optimal concentration of whereas amylose was reported in smaller or lesser quantity with
xylose sugars, which is accumulated in the plant biomass after its the lightly branched structure (Lu et al., 2020; Hsieh et al., 2020).
hydrolysis (Bahry et al., 2017). Therefore, it is necessary to discuss
some of the resources of plant products/components with their
3.2.2. Biosynthesis of starch products
structures or synthesis pathway information that can help in their
Water-insoluble polyglucan (starch) can be used to synthesize
utilization as raw materials for bioenergy development to fulfill
inside the plant plastid stroma of higher or advanced cell structure,
daily energy requirements.
acting as a short-term and long-term store of the energy for the
entire plant, which plays a crucial role in carbon budget of total
3.2. Non-consumable/consumable starches from lower or higher carbon accumulation. The physicochemical and self-assembly
plants mechanisms in higher plant cells can help to develop the highly
complex and hierarchical structure of the starch granule that were
Various plant species have exhibited their capability to syn- reported to hydrolyze by the action of enzyme activities of the
thesize starch during their metabolic processes, which is required amylases with an enhanced yield of the fermentable sugars for bio-
for their growth and development processes. Still, some of the energy development (Bertoft et al., 2008).
starch-based polymers are not consumed by human, since these are Innumerable reports have been published on the starch’s
reported as the organic waste sources of the environment. For such biosynthetic pathways that can operate on the multiple plant cells
starch products, bioenergy development can be used as an with esented with about 15e30% of starch granule of the total mass,
effective-and promoting approach with reduced prices of biofuels. and amylopectin (most abundant natural polymer) with 5%
For the hydrolysis of these starch molecules or products, the branches in a clustered configuration. Further, the starch granule
application of effective treatment is required to achieve the best and its functional properties were also reported as due to the
hydrolysis rate, which can be done by a proper understanding of presence of amylopectin component (Bertoft et al., 2008; Fukuoka
the starch molecule structure or its compositions as-synthesized et al., 2019). Excellent control of starch metabolism can be dis-
using higher or lower plant bioprocesses (Lu et al., 2020). cussed with the control mechanism via many critical reactions in its
bioprocesses. Post-translational modifications of enzymes (such as
3.2.1. Structures of starch-based products redox modulation and protein phosphorylation) have also been
Typically, polysaccharides (i.e., starches) contain two different reported involving in one of the essential vital reactions in the
types of glucose polymers (amylopectin and amylose), which are metabolism of higher plants. Enzymes of the starch biosynthesis
joined together to form the starch granules of insoluble and semi- pathway were found from the synthesis of protein complexes that
crystalline nature. These polymers are reported to consist of a-1,4- exhibited specific functional significance for an excellent control of
linked glucan chains connected with a-1,6-branch points that can various other channels (Zhao et al., 2019).
exhibit distinct structures during the biosynthesis (Bahry et al., Many other proteins have been also reported to be involved
2017; Hsieh et al., 2020). In the wild-type starches, amylopectin directly/indirectly in the synthesis of useful biopolymers and
has been reported to account for 75e90% with an exhibition of a degradation mechanisms that can occur during synthetic pathways
high degree of polymerization (DP~105) with branching level in the plant plastid components. However, knowledge of the core
8
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

reactions within each pathway in these polymers would help us to producer country after China, and agriculture in India contributed
understand individual reactions during the co-ordination mecha- to the worth of $ 2.1 trillion and is rated as the third-largest
nism that can occur within different plastid types from different economy after China and USA. In the year 2019e20, wheat pro-
plants under different environmental conditions (Cao et al., 2019). duction in India was nearly 105.2 million tonnes, while the total rice
production was 117.5 million tones, showing more productivity of
wheat and rice compared to the average of five-year productivity
3.2.3. Starch from potato plants
(Fei et al., 2020). Researchers observed the effect of medium ni-
A starch granule in tubers or leaves of Solanum tuberosum is
trogen level (240 kg/hm2) on the development of starch granule,
reported to be isolated from starch as it was produced by the sol-
starch accumulation, and starch structures and this treatment has
ubilization capability with two protein fractions found in it. The
reduced the starch and amylase biosynthesis.
first fraction of protein is reported to bind to the starch particles
Furthermore, the effect of nitrogen treatment on mRNA
surface that is enclosed within the granule. In this analysis, the first
expression of the enzymes related to starch biosynthesis or
fraction protein (160 kDa) is associated with starch, which is found
degradation varied in different developmental stages (Ran et al.,
on starch granule as the surface particle of darkened potato leaves.
2020). High water absorption was reported in high quantity of
For most of the tuber starches, this protein is mainly found in a
amylase wheat starch (HAWS) with low pasting properties, while
enclosed state. Other fractions, 160 kDa proteins are reported to be
the potential source of food products and enhanced nutritional
in a soluble state as resides in the stromal space of amyloplasts from
functionality was reported from HAWS and elevated amylase wheat
tubers or potatoes as confirmed by applying matrix-assisted laser
flour (HAWF) (Li et al., 2020a). However, no suitable mechanism is
desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) technique,
yet available for the understanding of the structure-function rela-
which was identified to be as R1 protein (Wang et al., 2018a), and
tionship of wheat starch. Recently, it was suggested that structural
this involved in the phosphorylation as well as degradation of
bases for water absorption and pasting properties of HAWS and
starch. Starch granules and soluble proteins from tubers, seeds, and
HAWF (amylase reported to contain 71e84%). Higher amylase
fruits from various plant species have been checked for the pres-
content in HAWS and HAWF might be due to longer chains of
ence of R1 protein, and its amount with phosphate is covalently
amylopectin with an increased degree of polymerization (DP > 25)
bound to the starch structure (dosSantos and Balbuena, 2017;
(Ran et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020a).
Subasinghe et al., 2014); more examples of starches are summa-
High temperature (HT) influenced the quality of rice grain and
rized in Table 1.
water stress (WS) might alter the starch structure. However, the
morphological and physiological properties of rice starch from two
3.2.3.1. Starches from wheat and rice food grains. Rice and wheat in different rice varieties are observed that are grown under three
India as food grain production are reported as the second-largest

Table 1
Availability of starches (consumable/non-consumable), utilized for biofuels synthesis.

Sources of starches Processes for synthesis References

1-Five to seven starch granule per chloroplast of Arabidopsis Starch synthase-4 reported for proteins for starch genesis Peng and Yao (2018)
thaliana (a weed plant)
2-Water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC~2.2%) in water hyacinth. Highest contents (in gm2) of WSC is starch and TNC is in Liu et al., 2019b
(4.5%) in stolons, (19.0%) in stem-bases, (21.1%) in roots, or expanded petioles or leaf. Maximum growth rate reduces
laminae and (53.1%) in petioles. pollution in freshwater canals in Nile Delta (Egypt)
3-Duckweed with high biomass (59.70e63.93 gm2) reported ABA promotes more biomass with starch accumulation by Liu et al. (2019c)
with starch accumulation (2.29% up to 46.18%) via treating to regulating endogenous hormone levels in duckweed, that used
endogenous BA, zeatin-riboside (ZR) and indole-3-acetic acid for biofuels production [
4-Duckweed biomass yield (37.41%) treated from 6-BA 6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BA) and abscisic acid (ABA) is most (Sharma et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2018)
(1.0  103 mM) and more starch accumulated (3.3 times) by effective plant hormones that enhanced biomass and starch
ABA treated samples than the control samples accumulation
5-Various Duckweed species such as Lemnaaequinoctialis 5505, Different levels of temperature, light intensity, nitrogen and Zhao et al. (2018)
Landoltiapunctata 5506 and Spirodelapolyrhiza 5507, phosphorus concentrations showed to effect the a median
produced biomass (39.1e105.9 ton$ha1$year1) and starch/ starch/protein content
protein content (3%e75% of dry wt.)
6-Landoltiapunctata accumulated the high content starch Landoltia punctata shown to accumulate enormous amounts of Guo et al. (2020)
rapidly due to alterations in endogenous hormone levels and starch with key enzymes in starch biosynthesis or down-
can accumulate starch content (48%) compared to control regulated transcript-encoding enzymes in starch degradation
(15.7%) for bioethanol production.
7-Starch content of cassava roots is analysis by mean absolute Best ANN used to identify seven important factors (such as Buddhakulsomsiri et al. (2018)
percentage errors (MAPE~2.35% starch) and root mean harvest age, planting density, growing season, farm location,
square error (RMSE2.41). type of soil, cassava variety, and weed control method) for
starch content.
8e7.055% starch is analyzed by artificial neural network (ANN). This analysis affected by harvest age, planting density, growing Buddhakulsomsiri et al. (2018)
2.35 and 6.226% starch is analyzed by best hybrid deep belief season, farm location, type of soil, cassava variety, and weed
network (HDBN) control method
9-Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) accessions for starch, C allele correlated with a high starch content, while the T allele Chen et al. (2019)
amylose (AM ~20.19), and amylopectin (AP~ 79.81%) is linked with a low level of starch content
contents of grain with verage starch content (67.64%)
10-Starch extraction from the defatted and dephenolated Swelling power (13.73 g/g) and solubility 7.26%, of the starch is Wijay et al. (2019)
Limnophilaaromatica (DFPLA) shown to purity of 70.43% with at 90
C with high total dietary fiber (76.28%) with potential
55.1% resistant starch amylose (23.78%), particle diameters application as a new feedstock.
~3e6 mm in vascular plants.
11-Wolffia arrhiza, a small weed at optimum conditions Nutrient removal rates in this vegetative is estimated around Toyama et al. (2018)
reported the starch production rate (6 g-starch/m2 (nutrient 126 mg-N2/m2/d and 38 mg-P/m2/d at continuous flow
removal tank)/d.) condition.

9
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

stress treatment conditions (HT, WS, and WS combined HT) during pathway. Eukaryotic green microalgae have a critical role in per-
grain filling stages. It found that WS effect has increased the forming photosynthetic functions as they occur in higher plants
amylase content (AC%) with large starch granules (LSG) ratio and small size of their genome with a decreased gene redundancy
(Zhang et al., 2020a) and the enzyme treatment might have lowerd has been reported as an excellent model for studying fundamental
the relative crystallinity and surface order. Swelling power with the properties of its photosynthetic physiology (Anto et al., 2020a).
setback viscosity and gelatinization enthalpy also could lower these An understanding of the biosynthesis processes of starch as well
values. In addition, HT treatment has decreased AC% and milled rice as the structure-function relationship of enzymes involved in the
rate with increased chalky rice rate and LSG. Treatment of WS and production of biomasses has increased plant biomass to improve
HT showed higher relative crystallinity and surface order. Swelling the quality of starch (Zhang et al., 2018). In green plants, other types
power, setback viscosity and gelatinization enthalpy was also of starches have been reported with the help of soluble starch (SS)
lowered. These three different treatments have indicated the mild and granule-bound SSs (GBSSs) synthase enzymes, which are
antagonistic effect on rice starch development via analyzing the synthesized via the utilization of ADP-glucose (ADP-Glc) units,
effects of HT and WS simultaneously (Zhang et al., 2020a; Duan derived from symbiotic relationship. These symbiont components
et al., 2020). have played significant roles in plant growth, development, and
~ JRS) of rice
Varieties (i.e., Indica ~ IRS, waxy ~ WRS, and japonica good health by providing more nutrients and increased tolerance
starch (RS) reported potassium sulfate’s effect, and these exert in- capacity to the biotic and abiotic factors (Wang et al., 2014). In this
fluence on swelling, gelatinization, and pasting properties. How- regard, red algae and glaucophytes have shown the symbiotic
ever, addition of potassium sulfate (0. 05-0.6 M) showed increased relationship and capability to synthesize the SSs synthase via UDP-
gelatinization temperature (TP~10e13
C), swelling properties, and glucose (UDP-Glc) utilization from the host. For GBSSs-like syn-
pasting viscosity of the three rice samples varying in the order of thase, this enzyme biosynthesis is the main enzyme for the syn-
WRS > JRS > IRS (Yang et al., 2021). But K2SO4 has a positive impacts thesis of amylose in chloroplastids, yet this is not essential for
on amylopectin content (AC%) and molecular weight and more amylopectin synthesis in higher plants (Liu et al., 2019a). Amylo-
compact structure of rice starch granules can be related to pectin synthesis in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii occurs by involving
increased interaction of starch chains with potassium ions, thereby GBSS-like proteins or enzymes that exhibit the capacity to produce
giving the reduced swelling capacity (27.3e2.5 g/g for WRS) (Duan long glucan chains with the evolutionary transition for the syn-
et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2021). thesis of amylopectin-like polymers rather than glycogen-like
polymers (Liu et al., 2019a).
For the biofuel development, many types of carbohydrates have
3.2.3.2. Starch from corn or maize food grain. The swelling property
been metabolized into ethanol, butanol, hydrogen, lipids, and
of regular corn starch granules is due to heating in water, which
methane/methanol as multiple forms of biofuels. However, poly-
enlarges the starch granules as well as increased internal cavity size
glucans accumulation in microalgae can be utilized for a variety of
during heat treatment in water, but extent of swelling of starch can
other value-added products, including biofuels/biogases synthesis.
be controlled via tuning the size of the internal cavity. The starch
Phyla Chlorophyta and Rhodophyta have shown the capability to
microcapsules (SMCs) can be possibly obtained due to swelling
store a-1,4 linkages of the branched and a-1,6-linkage of the
with temperature and these tunable properties of SMCs have ap-
branched glucans as that of the starch polymer. However, starch
plications in various industries (Wulffa et al., 2020). Modification of
products from Chlorococcum have been utilized for bioethanol
morphological, technological and starch thermal properties offer
production due to its capability of performing dark fermentation of
corn genotype (yellow floury, white floury corn, and yellow flint
the starch (Izumo et al., 2011). Other algal species such as Ulva
corn). Of these, white and yellow genotypes of corn starch have the
Lactuca (a marine and green alga) have exhibited their ability to
floury endosperm (soft), while the polyhedral structure for the
contain 58% carbohydrate with 6.1% C6 sugars in their dry biomass
granules of yellow flint genotype and higher extraction yield for
that can be utilized for ethanol production from the fermentation of
white floury corn starch have been reported (Timm et al., 2020).
untreated biomass (Agarwal et al., 2020). This alga Ulva species can
produce high biomass yield via performing high photosynthetic
3.3. Starches from microalgae (lower plants) efficiency when compared to terrestrial crops. Still, its biomass
utilization can be utilized via combustion processing for removing
Starches produced from algal species (from micro or macro- high contents of moisture, ash, or alkali treatment approaches for
level species) can be utilized for bioenergy production as raw and its hydrolysis to produce fermentable sugars, metabolized during
cheap carbon materials. As reported in earlier section, starch bio-energy production (Izumo et al., 2011; Agarwal et al., 2020).
characterization is necessary for selecting the effective treatment Many species of cyanobacteria, red algae, glaucophytes, cryp-
processes to achieve a high yield of starch hydrolysis. Here, Chlorella tophytes, dinoflagellates, and apicomplexan parasites are known to
sorokiniana has been reported to contain a high quantity of starch, store a high quantity of polysaccharide (fluoride a starch) in their
and its starch has been isolated with their preliminary physico- cytosol or periplast. This can be synthesized from UDP-glucose
chemical characterization techniques (Gifuni et al., 2017a). The processes and stored as fluoride, which is a starch product that
microalgal originated starch is characterized by small granules showed similarity to heterotrophic eukaryotes starch. Di-
(1 mm) of narrow size distributions and its molecular weight re- noflagellates have shown as protists with both autotrophic and
mains same as other plant starch sources. The amylose content and heterotrophic properties (Agarwal et al., 2020). Selection and
crystalline pattern of C. sorokiniana were found to be similar to characterization of a low starch mutant in heterotrophic dinofla-
many cereal starches, and these starch granules have exhibited high gellate Crypthecod iniumcone have been reported. The application
gelatinization temperature of ~110
C. This starch is the best option of Sta1-1 mutation in C. cohnii has led to a modification of UDP-
for developing biodegradable materials as well as bio-energy pro- glucose-specific soluble starch synthase activity to reduce the
duction at high processing temperatures (Gifuni et al., 2017b). starch content with the alteration of amylopectin structure. How-
The starch, being a polysaccharide is the principal source of ever, modified UDP-glucose-based pathway has been proposed for
chemical energy that is found to accumulate in plastids organelle in a high quantity of fluoride and starch synthesis in many species of
green algae and land plants. These plant organisms are reported to the algae (Hlima et al., 2019).
contain various enzyme isoforms for each step in the metabolic
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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

3.4. Celluloses after pretreatment of lignocelluloses/plant wastes fungal/bacterial microorganisms) that can convert celluloses into
glucose via Saccharomyces cerevisiae var ellipsoidus in the fermen-
Cellulose is a polysaccharide that can be utilized in bioenergy tation processes. The use of this potato peels as a potent raw ma-
biosynthesis as well as the design and development of drug de- terial has been used to produce bioethanol or other biofuels using
livery systems as carrier molecules via amalgamation process in various optimal parameters in bioprocesses (Das et al., 2016).
pharmaceutical industries (Uthappa et al., 2018), used widely in
sustained drug delivery area. A polysaccharide is a good source of 3.5. Glucose from different sources after the hydrolysis
glucose monomer, synthesized as components during photosyn-
thesis processes in plant cell wall structure and vascular plants Glucose molecules are reported to produce from the enzymatic
(Sucaldito and Camacho, 2017). In textile industries, cotton plant is hydrolysis of starch, celluloses and sucrose molecules. Also, glucose
a significant and biological source of pure cellulose and various molecules can be synthesized from some lower plants (including
cellulosic derivatives have been developed in pharmaceutical ap- the microalgae) or higher plants (crop or tall plants) via photo-
plications as drug delivery systems (Shah et al., 2018; Soppimath synthetic processes utilizing the sunlight energy or radiation. Light
et al., 2001; Rokhade et al., 2007; Chaturvedi et al., 2011b). with mitochondrial electron transport and dark reactions have also
Further, it can be used in chromatography, paints, and explosives as been reported with the production of phosphoglycerate molecule
the starting materials. Cellulose can be obtained from different by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (rubisco), and
varieties of plant species such as jute, hemp, corn, flasks, rice or these are reported during the photosynthesis by many plant spe-
wheat straw, and sisal as plant sources (Soppimath et al., 2001). cies. The dark reaction (in Calvin cycle) utilizes NADPH, and ATP
In contrast, bacterial cellulose sources have been developed molecules have been utilized to generate glyceraldehydes 3-
from Acetobacter xylinum via fermentation of glucose substrates of phosphate (triose phosphate) that is involved in the production
the corn. Derivatives of cellulose are developed from the oxidation, of fructose, sucrose, and starch (Uyar et al., 2016).
micronization, etherification, and esterification processes. These In plant bioprocesses, six-carbon sugar glucose can be synthe-
processes are utilized for converting natural celluloses into cellu- sized via the utilization of carbon dioxide by harnessing sunlight as
lose derivatives (Rokhade et al., 2007; Pandey et al., 2019). Various the energy source involving a series of biochemical reactions under
types of cellulose hydrolyzing enzymes (cellulases) are also bio- the Calvin-Benson cycle synthesis of three-carbon sugars (glycer-
synthesized from the microbial cells, such as fungi or bacteria. aldehyde 3-phosphate ~ G3P) that in turn can be used in glucose
These microbial strains have been used via biological mode of synthesis. Enzymes synthesizing the UDP-glucose (UDPG) are also
pretreatment for the hydrolysis of cellulose as the abundant carbon found to be essential for sucrose, cell wall biosynthesis, and other
source obtained from the agriculture waste products (Rokhade cell components during the bioprocesses glycosylation of proteins.
et al., 2007). Similarly, lipids are reported to occur using UDPG pyrophosphor-
The most convenient way and abundant quantity of cellulose are ylase, UDP-sugar pyrophosphorylase (USPase), and sucrose syn-
reported as renewable polymer resources from the photosynthesis thase (SuSy) (Wang et al., 2018b). Regulation of some of the UDPG-
of green plants. It was reported for the biosynthesis up to 10111012 synthesizing proteins was reported by the post-translational
tons quantity annually in a pure form and seed hairs of the cotton modifications and oligomerization processes using the novel iso-
plant (mostly cellulose). Cellulose can combine with lignin and zymes. Here, homology models were utilized for the analysis of
other polysaccharides (hemicelluloses) during the cell wall pro- USPase and SuSy structures by employing advanced mode of
cesses of many woody plants (Muthulakshmi et al., 2019). This crystallization processes in the structurally related proteins (Abedi
source of polysaccharide is frequently used by a suitable microbial et al., 2018).
system to produce bio-energy after its proper hydrolysis via suit- Microalgal plants have exhibited significant ability in the con-
able pretreatment agents (biological, chemical, or physical or version of atmospheric CO2 into organic molecules (glucose or
combination of these) (Kassab et al., 2020). other carbohydrates, lipids, and other bioactive metabolites), which
Natural cellulose fibers can be extracted from corn husks are the feasible resources for bioenergy and biopharmaceuticals.
exhibiting suitable properties between cotton and linen, which are However, the outcome of these challenges can be upgraded tech-
utilized in various industries. High-quality cellulosic fibers from nology from pilot-scale to industrial level for using algal plant
corn husks have been utilized to synthesize food packaging mate- species. These microalgae species are needed for the enhanced
rials, clothing, and other major industrial products without any growth rate, product synthesis, dewatering algae culture (biomass
additional natural resources (Manimaran et al., 2018). Corn husk production, or its pretreating approaches for the biomass hydro-
utilization for fibrous applications can also protect the land and lysis) as well as for optimizing the strategies for completing the
other natural resources as fiber crops, thereby minimizing the use fermentation process for algal bioethanol production (Yaghoubi
of nonrenewable petroleum sources for the development of syn- and Tajik, 2019). The advantages of microalgae for the production
thetic fibers. Around 9 million tons of natural cellulose fibers (with of advanced or third-generation biofuels have been reported for the
a potential sale value of $19 billion) have been reported to produce renewable and sustainable feedstock in biorefinery industries along
from cornhusks plant cultivation every year with much benefit to with the utilization of genetic engineering in a microalgal plant for
agriculture sector, fiber synthesis, food packaging materials, and the future source of renewable biofuel synthesis (Chauton et al.,
energy supplement resources (Ibrahim et al., 2020). 2015).
Different types of conversion pathways or strategies have been For the modification of glucose biosynthesis, the cloning of
adopted to convert cellulosic waste into bioethanol as cellulosic or genes (that code the ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase and glycogen
advanced biofuels, and different varieties of cellulosic materials are synthase in synthetic glycogen pathway) can be used in Nitro-
found in various forms including agricultural wastes or potatoes or somonas europaea that exhibit chemolithoautotroph nature. This
other vegetable peels that are available in abundant quantity as a strain has shown the capability for catalysis in the regulatory steps
waste, which are generated from the specific food processing in- during the synthetic glucose pathway, which has shown an elon-
dustries (Ibrahim et al., 2020). The starch content of potato peels gation property for glucose polymers. In plants, starch synthesis
can also be converted to glucose monomers for cellulosic ethanol was reported to occur by the activity of homologous enzymes
fermentation. The production of cellulosic ethanol from potato (Goldstein et al., 2017). The recombinant ADP-glucose pyrophos-
peels can be done using cellulose enzyme (screened from the phorylase from N. europaeastrain was reported to characterize its
11
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

kinetic activity, regulatory and oligomeric properties and can be construct plant mutants with altered hemi-cellulosic structures to
observed by pyruvate, oxaloacetate, and phosphoenolpyruvate demonstrate high importance compared to natural forms of
(PEP). Thermal and pH stability as well as different divalent metal hemicelluloses in plant growth and development. Identifying all
ions as the cofactors, were also reported to effect for this enzyme the necessary genes or proteins involved in hemicellulose biosyn-
(Ma et al., 2017). thesis, can be good future research with a holistic mechanistic
understanding of the biosynthesis of this important class of plant
3.6. Hemicelluloses from the plants after the pretreatment cell wall of polysaccharides (Ge et al., 2018).
Various types of organic compounds are available in nature in
The second more abundance of plant cell wall components is the different forms, which are produced from plants, animals, or mi-
hemicellulose polymer, which provides fermentable sugars of five crobial sources that are usually found in wastewater, sewages,
carbon chain compounds, including xylose, arabinose, and other contaminated soils, freshwater, or marine resources. The best
pentose sugars. All forms of pentose sugars have been utilized for example is alkyl monoesters of fatty acids from the vegetable oils or
the promotion of bioenergy development, especially for advanced animal fats that can be utilized for biodiesel synthesis as obtained
biofuels synthesis (Couto et al., 2020). Apolyose or hemicellulose from soybean oil processing. These soybean oils have been used
polymer is made up of several hetero-polymer or matrix poly- with methanol and an alkaline catalyst for biodiesel synthesis
saccharides with an example, arabinoxylans, which is found with (Canesin et al., 2014). A large number of fats and oils that are un-
cellulose in all terrestrial plant cell walls. Recently, hemicelluloses suitable for human consumption can be converted into biodiesel at
(as substrates after proper hydrolysis) are used as raw substrates for a lower cost. However, the processing of waste oils has some
the production of bioenergy or other value-added bioproducts, problems due to large amounts of free fatty acids, but alkaline
which is one of the essential construction materials across the catalysts can be useful in biodiesel synthesis via the reaction with
plant’s cell structure (Li et al., 2017). Hemicelluloses of wood are the free fatty acids. Developing such a conversion process may be
necessary construction materials that are abundantly available in useful for the pretreating of these high free fatty acids (as suitable
nature, and these are eco-friendly; these have a remarkably diverse feedstock) using acid catalysts at the pilot-scale plant, thus pro-
range of applications. However, the essential features of wood with ducing the biodiesel from a wide variety of waste oil feedstocks
its chemical compositions are found necessary for its growth and containing high free fatty acids (Devaraj et al., 2019).
structure, and it plays a crucial role as the construction material in Efforts have been made to utilize fatty acids alkyl monoesters
seasoning, preservation, and repair mechanisms (Couto et al., 2020; from the vegetable oils or fats of animals as renewable sources.
Li et al., 2017). These waste oil resources can be useful for the development of low
Most of the hemicelluloses have been reported with their cost or cost-effective biodiesel production by utilizing suitable and
functions as the supporting materials in the plant cell wall struc- effective pretreatment approaches, such as acid catalysis, to esterify
ture, and these have shown the degree of polymerization up to 200. the free fatty acids or triglycerides with the alkaline solution
The amount of hemicelluloses in a dry weight of wood is usually catalyst (Malode et al., 2020). In this regard, response surface
reported between 20 and 30% of the total plant cell wall contents, methodology (RSM) model was useful to maximize the percentage
but the composition and structure of hemicelluloses in the soft- (93%) of fatty acid with methyl esterification processes (1.5 v/v)
wood has been reported to differ in their characteristics (Li et al., under optimum conditions (13:1 of methanol to oil by maintaining
2017). Moreover, hemicelluloses involve the bio-based materials the concentration of 0.4 g of sodium hydroxide solution and 90 min
that can be used to construct furniture due to their improved sus- of the reaction time) (Balasubramanian et al., 2018; Nouria et al.,
tainability in our natural environment. On the other hand, hemi- 2019).
celluloses have been used for the construction of natural fibers with Various forms of organic wastes are the primary sources of
renewed interests in the traditional materials, since it is utilized to environmental pollution, which constitute up to 70% of the total
develop more adaptable products that are dependent on their waste stream present generally in the landfills or burned in in-
chemical constituents (Eddine et al., 2020). cinerators, and these may be transformed into the marketable
Hemicelluloses with an equatorial configuration have been re- products by providing more employment opportunities and profits.
ported with b-(1/4)-linked backbones, which can occur in xylo- However, application of advanced and innovative technologies can
glucans, xylans, mannans and glucomannans with b-(1/3, 1/4)- offer the reuse of these resources for energy to produce organic
linkages in the glucans of all terrestrial plants. The most important fertilizers and animal feed. The efficient utilization of these re-
biological roles of these hemicelluloses may contribute to the sources has been closely linked with the flawed alleviation ap-
strengthening of the cell wall by interaction with the cellulose. proaches (Devaraj et al., 2019; Malode et al., 2020). Municipal
Hemicelluloses can be synthesized by glycosyltransferases en- wastes (from restaurant and kitchen waste), domestic organic
zymes that are located in the Golgi bodies membranes. However, wastewater and sewerage, and waste from the food processing
many glycosyltransferases are required for the biosynthesis of industry are good examples of the various forms of waste organics.
xyloglucans and mannans type of hemicelluloses in various plant Agricultural and crop processing (crop and garden waste, sawdust,
cell walls (Ding et al., 2020). While hemicelluloses constitute fruit waste, chicken, animal manure, etc.) have produced some
around 33% of the total cell wall in the plant biomass and hetero- useful biomaterials for bioenergy production (Paes et al., 2020).
mannans, xyloglucan, heteroxylans, and mixed-linkage glucan are Some examples of bioenergy as shown in Table 1 can be utilized for
shown to occur in the fine structures of plant species, which find the worlds’ energy needs.
applications in numerous industrial areas (i.e., food additives or
medicinal applications) and their abundance in lignocellulosic
feedstocks can be utilized for the development of biofuels (Basu 4. Bioenergy synthesis
et al., 2017).
The utilization of renewable polymers has been reported for Biofuel synthesis in different nature discussed from non-
bioenergy generation, including various forms of biofuels in liquid consumable sources of carbon sources can promote advanced
or biogases. In recent years, the understanding of biosynthesis biofuel development to mitigate its water bodies concentration.
mechanism in various hemicelluloses of the plants has increased Further, it can provide information on different biofuel nature with
enormously due to novel genetic approaches. These are useful to more energy security and least pollution in the world.
12
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

4.1. Biomethanol employed as inoculums for the utilization of clarified molasses as a

component of production media in ethanol production at room
Methanol biosynthesis has been reported via the integrated temperature (27
C) in a three-stage continuous (chemostat sys-
framework, which represents synergistically for the second and tem) operations. This fermentation results with a 10.5% yield of
third-generation biofuels in the biorefineries, which has helped to ethanol (highest value) in the third stage of the fermentation
reduce carbon dioxide emission to maximize the biomass potential. cascade under the flow rate of 33 mLh1 and a retention time of
Some mathematical modeling approaches have been implemented 30 h in each tank. Thus, fermentation with its first and second
on lignocellulosic residues main conversion steps to provide bio- stages can achieve the alcohol yields of 4.4 and 6.3%, respectively
syngas (Cotton et al., 2020). These conversions consider thermal (Coelho et al., 2020); the examples of biofuels are given in Table 2.
treatments (such as pyrolysis, and combustion or gasification), Second-generation ethanol or cellulosic alcohol can be pro-
which have helped in biomethanol synthesis to optimize the pro- duced from cellulosic feedstock (e.g., from agricultural residues)
cess for biofuel synthesis (Cotton et al., 2020; Manenti et al., 2016). substrates by the effective pretreatment process to complete hy-
In another study, life cycle assessment approach analyzed the drolysis. In this context, potato peel waste (PPW) from the potato
potentials of environmental impacts and environmental costs on a industries was used to produce large quantities of bioethanol that
novel methanol synthesis process from the wood residues by has attracted a sizeable potential market worldwide (Demiray et al.,
comparing to the conventional methods (Liu et al., 2020). In this 2018). Bioethanol can be used with its mandatory blending with
approach, pretreatment, gasification, and syngas cleaning or traditional gasoline or fossil fuels (up to 10%). The PPW is found to
methanol synthesis were employed to estimate the novel and contain sufficient starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, and fermentable
traditional processes (Yadav et al., 2020). The mass transfer coef- sugars by performing several batches for the hydrolysis of PPW
ficient for oxygen (97.2 h1) in the bioreactor and also for methane using various enzymes and acid to released sufficient quantity of
in the transfer chamber (70.8 h1) was investigated (Miyajia et al., reducing sugar (up to 18.5 g.L1) with the production of ethanol
2020). In this regard, two strains (AS1 and AS2) of methanotroph (7.6 g.L1) after the fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiaestrain
was isolated from the activated sludge and a factorial design ex- (Arapoglou et al., 2010).
periments were performed for optimizing the operational param- For ethanol production, starch is hydrolyzed by applying
eters for the maximum productivity of AS1 strain 28
C via nitrate amylase enzymes, whereas disaccharides (sucrose) are utilized via
as the nitrogen substrate (Ghaz-Jahanian et al., 2018). hydrolysis processes to release the monomers (fructose or glucose).
Later, evaporation, rectification, and dehydration processes can
help in the purification of ethanol up to 45% per volume, 96% per
4.2. Bioethanol volume, and 98.7% per mass, respectively (Daccache et al., 2020).
Sugars and starch have shown the excellent conversion efficiency
Bioethanol, due to its environmentally benign nature, is utilized for ethanol with its good yield, but lignocellulosic biomass (LCB)
as a source of fuel energy for many transportation purposes. Bio- has drawn much attention for the cellulosic ethanol production.
ethanol can be produced from the fermentation of monomer sugars LCB conversion efficiency and ethanol yield from the plant biomass
(from sugar cane and sugar beet), starch from the crops (from corn, vary depending upon the source and nature of LCB due to the
wheat, or potatoes) or other polysaccharides by utilizing the variation in lignocellulosic contents (Khatri et al., 2018).
effective and efficient strain yeasts or bacteria (engineered or Inplant waste, organic matters such as cellulose, and hemicel-
screened from the natural resources) (Pandey et al., 2019). The lulose are firmly linked with lignin that forms the complex ligno-
fermentation processes via yeast strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae cellulosic network having a highly robust and recalcitrant nature
DIST/IPF/90 is reported to ethanol resistant microbial strain

Table 2
Bio-energy synthesis from different types of microbial systems and substrates.

Bioenergy Microbial strains and its substrates References

1-First generation Ethanol (10.5% yield) Saccharomyces cerevisiae DIST/IPF/90 used clarified molasses in (Paes et al., 2020; Demiray et al., 2018)
production media
2-Second generation cellulosic ethanol Saccharomyces cerevisiae used the potato peel waste (PPW) with (Arapoglou et al., 2010; Khatri et al., 2018)
(7.6 g.L1) promotion of ethanol
3-Cellulosic ethanol Fusarium oxysporumusedsolid agricultural wastes as cheap carbon (Sorn et al., 2019; Shahi et al., 2020)
sorices
4-Butanol production (9.83 g.L1) Clostridium saccharo-perbutylacetonicum N1-4 has P2 medium (Pratto et al., 2020; Niglio et al., 2019)
supplemented with sago starch
5-Highest butanol (titer 17.75 g g.L1) Clostridium butylicum TISTR 1032 and Bacillus subtilis WD 161used (Raganati et al., 2015; Farmanbordar et al., 2018)
starchy biomass
6 C. acetobutylicum usedglucose, pure starch, and treated corn starch, (Lipovsky et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2019b)
Yields of ABE (0.43, 0.40 and 0.34) respectively for ABE products
7-Butanol production capability with a Strain Clostridium pasteurianum GL11is reported in batch mode Wang et al. (2019b)
good yield (0.41 g/g from glycerol) (titer~14.7 g.L1) and in fed-batch (titer~28.8 g.L1) from glycerol with
situ extraction of biodiesel
8-Butanol production (3.81 g.L1) and Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 is reported of biobutanol (Kong et al., 2016; Huoa et al., 2020)
the yield (0.11 g-biobutanol/g-sugar) (4.62 g.L1) in DSSF Sago hampas, waste in sago starch processing
9-Biobutanol Clostridium acetobutylicum DSM 792 used starch and Chlamydomonas Huoa et al. (2020)
reinhartii CCAP 11/32c) used biomass hydrolysates
10-Biodiesel Transesterification is used animal fat (used frying oils) and waste oils He et al. (2020)
(from restaurants)
11-Biodiesel Transesterification used microbial oils or single cell oils (SCOs) produced (He et al., 2020; Yousuf, 2012)
by oleaginous yeast microorganisms
12-Algal biodiesel Transesterification process used the lipid content froChlorella Lau et al. (2020)
minutissima,

13
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

during its depolymerization. Hence, an efficient and integrated biology (for engineered bacteria or yeast species), biofuels/biogases
conversion process can be used to achieve an excellent yield of the synthesis of these products can be enhanced (Shahi et al., 2020).
fermentation sugars from the LCB materials. Recent efforts Ethanol synthesis using intermediates of sugar beets (as raw
(involving molecular, system, or synthetic biology and genetic material) can be found in Vojvodina regions and this fuel synthesis
oriented technology) have devoted to techno-economic improve- uses biocatalyst (prepared via immobilized strain S. cerevisiae, ob-
ments of the overall conversion process for screening the promising tained from maize stem ground tissue) with batch fermentation of
LCB feedstocks for other biofuels (Toor et al., 2020) by applying the sugar beet molasses and thick juice under normal very high gravity
biotechnological tools with the reduced conversion costs and (VHG). This bioprocess showed the ethanol concentration of
enhanced target yields of the ethanol. In this regard, green 83.2 g.L1 in molasses and 132.4 g.L1 in viscous liquids under VHG
biotechnology can be the best promising approach to convert most condition with the immobilized strain S. cerevisiae. Razmovski and
of the solid agricultural wastes (lignocellulosics) into liquid bio- Vucurovi
c, 2012. The sugar bagasse was partially hydrolyzed by
based energy-fuels (transportation fuels), as shown in Table 3 and pretreatment with dilute acid. The complete hydrolysis was re-
Table 4 (Rebaque et al., 2017). ported via a commercial enzymatic treatment, resulting in high
Of late, advances in biotechnology have assisted in meeting a yield of hydrolysates that was fermented via S. cerevisiae strain
competitive position for cellulosic ethanol (as shown from corn (found at industrial level). The enzymatic saccharification led to
stover ethanol), making it easy to investigate the physicochemical straw and bagasse hydrolysis, showing different profiles of fer-
features and composition of the agro-industrial biomass to ethanol mentability and bagasse straw achieved a higher ethanol yield
as a fuel for the future. The agro-industrial biomass (with fatty followed by tops and bagasse. Efforts have been made to use the
lignocellulosic composition) is an expensive, renewable, and mixture of varying sugarcane parts (bagasse-straw-top in 1:1:1 in
abundant material having unique natural properties for large-scale dry-weight), which showed 55% higher enzymatic conversion and
and cost-effective bioenergy production (Singlitico et al., 2018). 25% higher ethanol yield, further supporting the 2G ethanol pro-
Also, bioenergy production from biological processes (fermentation duction from the commercial sugarcane varieties (Pereira et al.,
or anaerobic digestion) using an active and suitable microbial sys- 2015).
tem can be a sustainable and cost-effective approach for ethanol or Ethanol biosynthesis has been achieved from the sugarcane
others biofuel production, which has been the best example of the bagasse for energy consumption in the experiments, wherein ex-
exploitation of microbial mediated catabolic processes containing periments including sequential three-stage deacetylation, hot wa-
biochemical reactions (Sorn et al., 2019; Shahi et al., 2020) Further, ter, and disk-refining pretreatment were applied to commercial
by utilizing the optimal process design, synthetic microbial cells, glucose-xylose fermenting microbial strain S. cerevisiae and
foreign gene expression (microalgae species), and system simultaneous saccharification as well as co-fermentation (SScF)
biotechnology (for global cellular information) as well as systems was employed with two solid loads (i.e., 10% and 16% w/w). The

Table 3
Ethanol synthesis from different biomasses via using of efficient microbial system and processes parameters.

Ethanol titer/Yield Sources Reactions/Efficiency Reference

1-Titer: 22.7 g.L1 for B08 and Washed steam-treated Saccharomyces cerevisiae C6 with simultaneous Pitarelo et al. (2016)
25 g.L1 for B16 substrates (STB-WW) of saccharification and fermentation (SSF) used for B16 (for
sugarcane bagasse autohydrolysis) and B08 (for H3PO 4 catalysed steam
explosion) substrates
2- Yield 17% (w/v) with 0.2% (w/ High (30 and 35
Bx) gravity Saccharomyces cerevisiae CAT-1 with urea supplementation Monteiro et al. (2018)
v) sugar residues sugarcane juice used reported highest process efficiency. Efficient retention of
glycerol helped yeast strain for glycerol permease STL1 and
channel FPS1 genes expression.
3-Enhanced ethanol Sugarcane molasses Engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae via replacement of the Wu et al. (2020)
(114.71 g.L1) reported PHO4 gene reported maximum ethanol titer (114.71 g.L1)
and improved yield (5.30% more) with decreased
fermentation time (12.5%)
4-Ethanol/substrate yield Sugarcane bagasse It used immobilized Scheffersomyces shehatae on magnetic Duss
an et al. (2019)
(0.15 g/g) and ethanol hemicellulosic hydrolysate biosupports in a fluidized bed bioreactor assisted with
(0.055 g/g/h) productivity transversal and axial magnetic field lines at 8 and 12 kA/m
show in axial magnetic field. respectively.
5-Ethanol conversion rate Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris L.) Estimated net beet ethanol for delivered cost (207 $m3) Haankuku et al. (2015)
(110 dm3 Mg1) and capital used (1$ Mg ¼ 9.239$m3) was lower than the average net corn feedstock cost of 254
cost (128 M$) for a e396$ m3 in 2013 and 2014 respectively.
152 dam3 y1 reported
6e94.2% and 92.6% theoretical Concentrated raw beet juice Sugar beet pulp, raw, concentrated raw and thick sugar beet Gumienna et al. (2014)
yield respectively and thick juice juice is utilized with Saccharomyces cerevisiae that was pre-
treatment (pasteurization or sterilization) with batch type
culture process (stationary or shaken)
7-Yield of bioethanol 50.96 g/ Sugarbeet wastes Maximum ethanol production by S. cerevisiae S288c Khattab et al. (2020)
100 g) reported reported by use fermentable or reducing sugars (maximum
yield ~124.80 mg/g) that obtained in 1% H2SO4
8- Concentration (6.43% w/v), a Sugar cane juice utilized by Ethanol production in a 5 L jar fermenter with agitation Limtong et al. (2007)
productivity (1.3 g/l/h) and a Kluyveromyces marxianus speed (300 rpm) and an aeration rate (0.2 vvm) throughout
yield (57.1%) reported of DMKU 3-1042 the fermentation reported with K. marxianus DMKU 3-1042
theoretical yield
9-Titer: 119.74 (35 h) and 100 and 170 g.L1 of sugars Influence of sugar concentration and fermentation substrate (Arshad et al., 2017; Baranwal
62 g.L1 (15 h) reported for used from sugarcane molasses on peak ethanol titer values (119.74 in 35 h and 62 g.L1 in et al., 2019).
ethanol via mutant and rejected-banana juice 15 h) with yields (Yps~0.75 and 0.43 g/g) and productivity
S. cerevisiae respectively (Qp~3.42 and 2.61 g/l/h) respectively reported

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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

Table 4
Neutral value of organic matters utility via pyrolysis or biochemical processes for biofuels synthesis.

Organic matter sources Biofuel and their processes of synthesis References.

Liquefy lignocellulosic biomass Co-generation of bioethanol (titer~8.3 g.L1 with yield~ 68%) and bio-oil (31.36 wt%) in Li et al. (2020b)
integrated biochemical and hydrothermal liquefaction process
Under mesophilic (37
C) and Optimal proportions of (pre-prepared waste -PPW/leftover waste- LW ~100/0 and 75/ Blasius et al. (2020)
thermophilic (55
C) conditions, 25%) generated methane (869 mL of CH4.g TVS1.) with maximum organic load (0.30 g
treatment of household waste is TVS.L1.d1) at under mesophilic condition
done by anaerobic digestion,
Food waste leachate treatment is done Promotion in better AD enhancement in graphite-added UASB is shown the 36% effluent Tsui et al. (2020)
by using an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge COD and 38% biogas production enhancement. and also is good for high organic loads.
Bed (UASB)
Electrocatalytic activity of Mo2C/N- Ammonia-rich wastewater using series stacked microbial fuel cells (MFCs)-ammonia Zhang et al. (2019b)
doped graphene (Mo2C/N-rGO) electrolytic cell (AEC) coupled system, reported with 59 mLg.Mo2C/N-rGO1h1 of
nano-composite towards as catalyst hydrogen production rate with continuous bioelectricity (highest power density of
HER is reported 536 mW m2) supply.
Pyrolysis of the RM of the blue-green Specific volumetric gas yield (0.076 nm3/kg) from 1 kg of biomass reference materials Chernova et al. (2020)
microalgae/cyanobacterium (RM) reported via biochemical and thermochemical conversion as technologies
Arthrospira platensis rsemsu 1/02-P reported for their processing steps
Microalgal biomass in raw, hydrolyzed, Using surface response analysis (SRA)-optimized medium, butanol fermentation yields Figueroa-Torres et al. (2020)
and fermented microalgae yielded of 10.31% (g g1 cdw) and 10.07% (g g1 glucose) was achieved from microalgae in raw
0.92%, 3.82% and 3.29% (g g1 cdw) and hydrolysate form (as a biorefinery platform), respectively.
biodiesel, respectively
Characterization of extracted marine Biochar (10.79 MJ/kg) by slow pyrolysis (450
C, 60 min) in a tube furnace and bio-oil Amin et al. (2019b)
Chlorella sp. residue (EMCR) is done as (yielded 46%) by microwave pyrolysis (MWP) with temperature~350e450
C, time- 20
a feedstock e40 min) micro-wave absorber (MA) loading (10e30 wt%) at fixed microwave power of
850 W produced.
Anaerobic co-digestion of WAS with Methane production (685.7mL/gVSadded, at S/I ¼ 0.5) was found 4.0 times higher than in Hao et al. (2020)
FDs within the substrate to inoculum the control (with WAS only) after 42 days of incubation. Formation of fat, oil, and grease
(S/I) ratio is found in range of 0.25 (FOG) and FOG deposits (FDs) reported in sewer systems per year
e1.2, and the maximum

sensitivity analysis was for the estimation of this process operating 4.3. Biobutanol
parameters. In this approach, the minimum ethanol prices varied
between $4.91 and $4.52 gal ethanol, while the 16% w/w of solid For the synthesis of n-butanol (C4H9OH), strain Clostridium
contents in SScF processes showed reduced total operating cost saccharoperbutylacetonicum N1-4 were utilized along with raw
(9.5%) with the production costs of 5.6% (H et al., 2019). carbon sources (i.e., glucose or sucrose) to produce acetone-
In sugar beet processing industry, sugar beet pulp is available as butanol-ethanol (ABE) products having much nutrient supple-
byproducts and utilized for 2G ethanol production via cellulose and mentation. This process has led to a higher quantity of butanol
hemicellulase combinations. During the simultaneous saccharifi- production compared to other starchy materials when used as
cation and fermentation (SSF), aeration rate influenced the release substrates. Thus, biosynthesis of n-butanol supplemented with
of fermentable sugar and this has affected ethanol yield. Here, the sago starch has produced enhanced ABE concentration (up to
hydrolysis did generate sugar beet and the process was based on 16.65 g.L1) and butanol titer (9.83 g.L1). Further improvement in
pressure-thermal pretreatment with 2% w/w H2SO4 solution and ABE production or titer cultivated in P2 medium (supplemented
12% of dry matter (Berłowska et al., 2016). On the other hand, with 70 g.L1 of sago starch) than TYA medium was also discussed,
enzymatic hydrolysis with Viscozyme and Ultraflo Max enzymes in demonstrating the importance of media formulation in fermenta-
the concentration range of 0.015e0.02 mL/g dry matter was good to tion processes for biobutanol synthesis (Pratto et al., 2020). Another
get the fermentative sugars. This sugar employed with two strains strain Clostridium butylicum TISTR 1032 and Bacillus subtilis WD 161
of yeast viz., Red Ethanol (S. cerevisiae~1 g.L1) and Pichia stipitis were also used to produce with high amylase producing strains as
(0.5 g.L1) in a sequential manner for fermentation. However, aco-culture systems for enhancing biobutanol production from the
simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) was found to cassava starch under the effect of pH via fed-batch fermentation
be efficient and effective with sugar beet pulp hydrolysates, where with in situ product recovery of n-butanol in a fermentation broth
high ethanol titer (27 g.L1) and fermentation efficiency (85%) were (Niglio et al., 2019).
achieved with Red Ethanol (H et al., 2019; Berłowska et al., 2016). The pH control (pH 6.5) showed an effect on the best amylase
Enzymatic depolymerization for sugar beet was also used in production with an acid production by the Clostridium strain, but
fermentation processes to synthesize ethanol and other biofuels. pH of 6.0 was found to be most suitable for the overall acetone-
During ethanol production, carbohydrates or fermentative sugars butanol-ethanol (ABE) production in the presence of a co-culture
release is necessary from waste sugar beet pulp via co-culture of at the fed-batch fermentation (Vivek et al., 2019). Thus, pH con-
S. cerevisiae (comes from Ethanol Red) and Scheffersomyces stipitis trol and in situ product recovery are responsible for recovering up
LOCK0047 strains. Using this fermentation process 12.6 g.L1 of to 68% of butanol (titer ~17.75 g.L1) in a fed-batch using the co-
ethanol titer has been synthesized (Berlowska et al., 2017) utilizing culture of ABE products compared to optimized batch co-culture
S. cerevisiae strain and two fermentation processes (multi-stage (10.18 g.L1~butanol titer). This approach has provided the best
batch and fed-batch mode) at different operating conditions. From option for developing industrial-scale production of biobutanol
these experiments, fed-batch fermentation was found to be effi- from starch biomass (Niglio et al., 2019; Vivek et al., 2019).
cient to achieve the highest ethanol titer of 15.2%v/v and produc- The production of n-butanol (as solvent compound) has shown
tivity of 2.3 g.L1h1 at 53 h with a minimal growth and production the growth-inhibitory effects since the use of untreated corn food
inhibition at high sugar or ethanol concentration (Joannis-Cassan has high contents of tannic acid. In order to remove tannic acid, a
et al., 2014). simple extraction was applied at the close-to-boiling conditions of

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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

water using corn powder in fermentation processes with concentration (3.81 g.L1) and the yield (0.11 n-biobutanol/g-
C. acetobutylicum strain to get the maximum yields of ABE in sugars) were reported for further improvement in biobutanol
different ranges (e.g., 0.43, 0.40 and 0.34 g g1 for glucose, pure concentration and productivity by SSF and delayed SSF (DSSF)
starch, and treated corn starch, respectively) in serum-bottle ex- processes. In DSSF, microbial strain inoculums were introduced into
periments (Raganati et al., 2015). the system after 24 h of fermentation to attain a maximum rate of
In another experiment, volumetric ABE productivity of butanol saccharification during fermentative sugar production. These ap-
was 0.21 g.L1 h1 in tannin-free corn powder compared to pure proaches were able to improve 4.62 g.L1of biobutanol (18% higher
starch (0.18 g.L1.h1), which further showed similar results at the than the normal SSF) when operated at optimal conditions (Kong
scale-up processes (in 5 L fermenters of ABE production) (Khatri et al., 2016). However, this has posed restrictions for the commer-
et al., 2018; Farmanbordar et al., 2018). However, the strain Clos- cial implementation of ABE fermentation that had low butanol
tridium pasteurianum GL11 has demonstrated the best butanol yields. Compared to food-based and lignocellulosic biomasses, the
production capability (titer~14.7 g.L1; yield~0.41 g g1) from a microalgal biomass (lab-scale cultures of Chlamydomonas reinhartii
glycerol substrate in batch mode, but this fermentation has not CCAP 11/32c) cultivation was useful since the process is sustainable
been reported for any type of byproducts formation (acetone and and suitable for ABE products due to their ability of starch accu-
1,3-propanediol ~1,3-PDO); here, the glycerol substrate was ob- mulation (Lipovsky et al., 2016).
tained from biodiesel processes. Fed-batch fermentation modes Nutrient-stressed algal cultivation might induce starch accu-
were found to offer improved titer for butanol production mulation at the optimal algal growth with the enhanced starch
(28.8 g.L1) with a good capability (Lipovsky et al., 2016). Genomic formation, and starch-enriched algal biomass was cultivated from a
and enzymatic analysis has also shown the deficiency of critical validated model-based cultivation strategy to increase the
enzymes involved in acetone and 1,3-PDO consumption in the maximum starch formation. This was found to be the best feedstock
pathway of strain GL11. This has resulted in the elimination of for biobutanol production using the wild-type or modified strain
byproducts that were stream separated giving a high yield of Clostridium acetobutylicum DSM 792 as shown in Fig. 6 (Huoa et al.,
butanol production (Wang et al., 2019b; Jyothi et al., 2019). 2020). However, the ABE fermentation was the best via the utili-
Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) processes zation of sugar beet pulp (SBP) hydrolysates (as promising feed-
with a strain of Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 was suitable stocks) and microbial strain Clostridium beijerinckii. SBP substrates
for biobutanol production from sago hampas as a waste organic contained less lignin content and required a low or minimal pre-
matter generated from the processing of sago starch. Sago hamp as treatment to enhance enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation yield
consist of starch (54.6%) with cellulose, hemicelluloses (31.7%), and like ABE products. This substrate utilized autohydrolysis at pH 4 (as
lignin (3.3%). These were required for the mixture of saccharifica- the best pretreatment process for SBP), which has released the
tion enzymes (amylase or Dextrozyme and Acremonium cellulase) fermentable sugars (66.2e71%) via the production of 143 ABE/kg
to produce fermentable sugar (67.0 g.L1) from sago hampas (acetone~ 62.3 g/kg SBP and butanol ~81 g/kg SBP) in broth. This
(90 g.L1) (Jyothi et al., 2019; AwgAdeni et al., 2013). The biobutanol substrate and process utilization provided the highest ABE yield

Fig. 6. Biofuel synthesis from environmentally available organic matters (waste or useful products). These organic matters are obtained from plant products or their structural
components and available as huge quantity. This can utilize in biofuel development that can enhance the energy security and least pollution generation fuels for any country.

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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

(4 g/g~5.1 g.L1 acetone and 6.6 g.L1 butanol) and the results have vegetable or seed oils. On the other hand, majority of efforts have
shown that pretreated SBP was enzymatically hydrolyzed at 7.5% used the biomass for producing biodiesel via a suitable effective
(w/w) solid loads. Further, 10% concrete loads was shown for higher extraction method for getting lipid contents that can be chemically
acetone (~5.8 g.L1) and butanol (~7.8 g.L1) production, and these converted into biodiesel (Yousuf, 2012). The obstacles associated
processes were performed under non-controlled pH conditions of with the use of lignocellulosic biomasses (LCB) are that contained
at 5.3 in the final samples (Bellido et al., 2015). lipid contents, which can be utilized by the application of a
A metabolically engineered Clostridium tyrobutyricum strain Ct potentially viable approach for commercial production of biodiesel
(Dack)-pscrBAK showed an over-expression of scr operon genes from the agricultural biomasses containing lipids contents (Yousuf,
such as scrB. scrA or scrK, which are utilized for sucrose catabolism. 2012; Chuetor et al., 2019).
The aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase gene (adhE2) was for the Physical, chemical, physicochemical, biological, and combined
biosynthesis of n-butanol via corn steep liquor utilization. The cell- pretreatments are the practical approaches for hydrolysis of
free strain of this engineered microbe was used for synthesizing lignocellulosic, but the combined pretreatments are more effective
butanol titer (16 g.L1) with the yield of 0.31 g/g, and productivity compared to single pretreatment with an extensive scope of com-
of 0.33 g.L-1h1 from the sucrose consumption. The yield of 24 g/g binations in the future. Different pretreatment methods can be
and productivity of 0.3 g.L1h1 of butanol was reported from the selected based on the biomass resources or chemical compositions
sugarcane juice (sucrose, fructose, and glucose) consumption and in different agricultural biomasses effectively via optimizing the
fibrous bed bioreactor (FBB). The fermentation process in FBB was critical parameters in processes of bioenergy generation (including
operated in a repeated batch mode for ten consecutive cycles in 10 biobutanol, bio-oils, and biodiesel production) as can be seen in
days that achieved an average butanol yield of 0.21 g/g and pro- Fig. 7 (Karpagam et al., 2018). In case of microalgae cultivation and
ductivity of 0.53 g.L1h1 from the sugarcane juice utilization, process design for algal biodiesel production, the transesterification
which demonstrated the long-term stability without antibiotics process can be used to extract biodiesel from the microalgae
(Zhang et al., 2017). generated lipids contents. However, full-scale and lab-scale pho-
tobioreactors (PBRs) cultivation can be achieved by applying
different bioengineering tools to produce biodiesel from the
4.4. Bio-diesel
microalgae via performing measurements, fixing design parame-
ters, and life cycle analysis (LCA) for the algal biodiesel production
Biodiesel sources can provide energy security with the pro-
(Dasan et al., 2019).
duction from the locally available plant resources or waste lipids
Efficient transformation toolbox has also been applied for the
(Anto et al., 2020b). The biodiesel production from plant or vege-
cultivation of microalgae cells to increase the lipid accumulation
table oils has been widely explored from the available waste
and its quality via proper regulation of key enzymes in lipid pro-
organic matters (He et al., 2020). However, the use of residual
duction and blocking of the enzymes involved in the competing
plants as renewable feedstock has lowered the production of bio-
pathways. Further, pyramiding genes enabling high cell biomass
diesel, microbial oils or single cell oils (SCOs) using oleaginous yeast
have also been studied and applied under nutrient-deprived
microorganisms, which can be a promising alternative to utilize

Fig. 7. Fats, oils, and grease (FOG) utilization as carbon substrates in anaerobic digester that is airtight container used to produce biogases and later utilized in biogases appliance.
Source of FOG is animal and plants fats and oils used in kitchen. Grease build-up in pipes and laterals of sewer caused damages. This approach can help in cleaning of grease deposit
in sewer system and also minimized any blockages and it can utilize for fuel synthesis.

17
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

conditions as well as other environmental stresses via controlling H2 synthesis (Nagarajan et al., 2020; Manoyan et al., 2019).
the upstream regulators of the target genes, the transcription fac-
tors, and the essential microRNAs (Lu et al., 2019). However, the
current progress in the application of genome editing in microalgae 4.6. Value-added bioproducts from organic matters
may help to accelerate the strain capacity. Microalgae biomasses
can be cultured without the agricultural land or ecological land- 4.6.1. Bioplastics production
scapes, and thus, microalgal cultivation can be used to utilize the Due to environmental pollution effects, is has become necessary
opportunities to mitigate global climate change, allowing proper to develop eco-friendly bioplastics for which two microalgal spe-
wastewater treatment and carbon dioxide sequestration processes cies, such as Scenedesmus and Desmodesmus strains were used to
(Dasan et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2019). minimize the conventional plastics that can provide a viable option
The cultivation of microalgae can have many challenges (low to the traditional plastics. These microalgal species as consortium
lipid yield, limited growth conditions, and slow growth in the have shown their capability to remove 80% of nitrogen and phos-
accumulation of high lipid content), but significant advances in phorus wastes from the wastewater streams and also these strains
strain improvement have resulted in the commercial-scale pro- contain 40% of protein contents having the best capability for bio-
duction of biodiesel (Dasan et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2019). Moreover, plastics synthesis (Lau et al., 2020). Bioplastics can be synthesized
lipid metabolism-related genes were also reported to increase the via injection molding of blends (obtained after mixing with
cellular neutral lipids (TAG). The Kennedy pathway for TAG as- different quantity of glycerol) and are characterized by Dynamic
sembly has been studied for catalytic processes by different acyl- Mechanical Thermal Analysis (DMTA) to find test their thermal
transferases (glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase with a substrate stability (Rocha et al., 2020).
of acyl-CoA) lysophosphatidic acyltransferase ~ LPAAT with acyl- Developing biodegradable bio-based plastics can provide the
CoA ~ DGAT) (Lu et al., 2019). best substitute for petroleum-based plastics, and many bioplastics
The lipid pathway engineering strategy has been used for the have been reported to derive from the agricultural wastes. Thus,
cultivation of green microalgae (Chlorella minutissima) that can bioplastics synthesis can minimize food security and help the eco-
simultaneously express five acyltransferases (phosphatidic acid systems. A sustainable, eco-friendly, or simple procedure has been
phosphatase, LPAAT, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, GPAT, applied to convert the high-salt cultivated microalgal species into
and DGAT) to obtain high lipid content (two-folds) (Lau et al., bioplastics film (Liu et al., 2018). These plastics, when blended with
2020). The co-expressing of multiple enzymes have been used to 35% poly(vinyl alcohol), the derived composite film 22 MPa of
construct the effective microbial system to control the metabolic tensile strength under alkali condition. 77% elongation at break
flux towards lipid overproduction, transcriptional regulation, and under acidic conditions and the maximum contact angle (94.4
),
systemic metabolomic flux; these were reported as multiple reg- which confirmed their desirable water resistance potential. Inor-
ulatory points in a metabolic pathway of lipid synthesis (Lu et al., ganic salts present in microalgal residues can act as fillers or cross-
2019; Lau et al., 2020). linkers depending on the media conditions (Faraca and Astrup,
2019). Further, bioplastics can produce a sustainable, eco-friendly
nature of the waste material utilization to provide new insights
4.5. Biohydrogen to reduce the conventional plastics pollution (Faraca and Astrup,
2019; Zhang et al., 2020b).
Cyanobacteria and green algae have been reported for produc- The degreased soybean substrates (that can be used for food for
ing the biohydrogen as an attractive option for renewable energy human or livestock feeds) can also be employed in bioplastics
production and here, microalgal feedstocks were used to synthesize production, but soy protein itself is not reported to be utilized for
bioethanol, biodiesel, or biohydrogen. Due to algal species dual the bioplastics development. Such a bioplastic synthesis is achieved
nature, algal hydrogen synthesis has faced many challenges though by cross-linking with formaldehyde collapsed in water that showed
it has the commercialization potential (Mona et al., 2020; Sharma more water stability (see Fig. 8) (He bert-Ouellet et al., 2017).
et al., 2020c). The current hydrogen synthesis technologies Further, the blending of bioplastic with various concentrations of
include mainly steam methane reforming and water splitting. HCHO can increase the strength of bioplastics showing the
These are energy-intensive with an accompanying colossal carbon maximum value of 35 MPa at 1% HCHO concentration and these
footprintddark fermentative hydrogen biosynthesis reported by bioplastics showed a weight loss of 30% after 6 days of incubation
utilizing the anaerobic hydrogen-producing bacteria and green (Yamada et al., 2020).
sustainable or emission-free pathways. However, the microalgal Biohydrogen (H2) as well as bioplastics (i.e., poly-b-
biomasses as the third-generation biofuel feedstocks have now hydroxybutyrate ~ PHB) generation from organic waste matters via
gained much attention of industrial and academic exploitation due the utilization of dark fermentation, photofermentation, and sub-
to their carbon sequestration abilities (Roma ~o et al., 2019; sequent dark-photo fermentation, have also been discovered to
Chandrasekhar et al., 2020). produce PHB using the microbial strains. These microbial strains
In dark fermentation, microalgal carbohydrates have been uti- were grown mainly from rice husk or rice straw hydrolysate,
lized as the useful carbon sources. Starch and glycogen of the most wastewater from the dairy or mill industry (Yamada et al., 2020).
green algae find major storage stocks that are effective in hydrogen The substrates have shown an effect of concentration of hydrolysate
biosynthesis via the bacterial species (Rao et al., 2019; Nagarajan or wastewater in the presence of 10e100% concentration of organic
et al., 2020). For instance, the green microalgae species Para- matters or hydrolysate at pH ranges of 5.5e8.0. In this regard, the
chorella kessleri RA-002 isolated in Armenia was utilized for bio- batch mode of photo-fermentation was used with100% rice straw
hydrogen synthesis during the oxygenic photosynthesis. This hydrolysate (at pH 7.0), and biohydrogen (1.53 mol H2/mol glucose)
microalgal species (P. kessleri) when tested by the addition of titer with improved PHB titer (9.8 g.L1) was obtained under dark
protonophore, carbonyl cyanide-m-chlorophenylhydrazone fermentation with Bacillus cereus strain. Thus, by using darkphoto
(CCCP), and 2, 4dinitrophenol (DNF) have shown in enhanced fermentation, a high quantity of biohydrogen (1.82 mol H2/mol.
hydrogen yield (Chandrasekhar et al., 2020). However, hydrogen glucose) with the co-production of enhanced quantity of PHB
production from P. kessleri was not observed earlier in the presence (19.3 g.L1) was obtained with 100% rice straw hydrolysate at pH
of protonophores and light conditions mediate this algal species for 7.0 and B. cereus strain (KR809374) and Rhodopsuedomonas rutila)
18
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

Fig. 8. Schematic presentation of different forms of organic for bioenergy and other value products synthesis. These products obtained from utilization of organic matters (sources
are animals, lower (green algae and blue green algae) and higher plants (woody or small sizes tree) products or wastes. And these products are hydrolyzed and also fermented to
form bioenergy. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

(Amin et al., 2019a; Dinesh et al., 2020). biodegradability and has promising applications in medicines, tis-
The cast bioplastics in a wet state can plasticize poly(vinyl sue engineering, or manufacturing of body parts (Lamaming et al.,
chloride) to attain high mechanical strength performance in dry or 2015).
wet conditions. SEM analysis indicated their uniform nature or The majority of biomaterials are eco-friendly as they are
compact surface structure, while their 2D-X-rays diffraction anal- extracted from different biological resources and hence are used in
ysis suggested amorphous nature. Their mass loss test indicated various designs of biomedical devices such as in the repair of lig-
complete decomposition in soil environment for 105 days (Bilo aments and tendons, orthopedic applications (in designing contact
et al., 2018). The produced bioplastics have an advantage due to lenses), wound healing, reproduction therapy of nerve generation,
their benign environmental nature compared to thermoplastic breast implants or manufacturing of different types of surgical
starch or other synthetic organic plastics. Bioplastics have proper devices (Biswal et al., 2020). Lignocellulosic biomasses have been
shape memory and exhibit a dual shape effect with partial recovery utilized to develop biodegradable porous materials such as low
as based on environmental humidity; this material showed dual cost, lightweight, and non-toxic materials (Li et al., 2016). The
mechanical behavior with exploitation for shrink films and sheets structures and morphologies of these materials have been analyzed
derived from shape memory effect (Toor et al., 2020; Bilo et al., by SEM, XRD, FTIR, or thermo-gravimetric analysis (Xu et al., 2018;
2018). Qua et al., 2011).
The development of biocomposite films depends on the
biopolymer matrices and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) (developed
4.6.2. Biomaterials from organic matter using the casting method). The CNC was extracted from various
The benign nature of biomaterial, as well as its capability to lignocellulosic materials (such as sugarcane bagasse fibers, alfa fi-
exhibit good functional properties over a wide range of high-tech bers, or red algae waste) by carrying out the hydrolysis using
applications, suggested them to be suitable food packaging mate- different concentrations of sulfuric acid (Kassab et al., 2019). The
rials as well as biosensors used in energy harvesting devices. In this extracted CNC can be used as a nanoparticle reinforcing filler for
regard, Mediterranean plant originated from lignocellulosic fibers developing a broad type of biocomposite films, and these films
has shown electrical characteristics with a suitable functional possess good optical transparency, thermal stability, and mechan-
biomaterial (Ahmad et al., 2017). The leaf fibers from the Jordanian ical properties. In many areas, they are used as packaging materials
agro-waste originated from lemon, loquat, palm, and olive types (Qua et al., 2011; Kassab et al., 2019). Biomaterials derived from
and have shown electrical characteristics such as space depen- sugarcane bagasse have shown the capacity to remove toxic com-
dence, frequency, the strength of the electric field (Fares et al., 2019) pounds from wastewater bodies. For instance, biomaterial modified
and this plant originated from the lignocellulosic fibers have shown by polyethyleneimine (PEI) has shown enhanced dye removal rate
limited dielectric constant, resistivity or electrical loss tangent (65.5 mg g1) compared to a value of 43.2 mg g1 for the nascent
properties (Table 5). This biomaterial has shown the true com- and immobilized fibers at acidic pH of 2.0 and at 30
C (Zhang et al.,
pactable nature to human tissues due to its reasonable degree of
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R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

Table 5
Value-added products from organic matters via respective microbial strains.

Value-added products Biological processes and sources Applications References

1-Solar fuels produced by Artificial mimic of photosynthesis from Hydrogen and electric energy production Nandakumar et al. (2020)
photoelectron-chemical (PEC) proteins from biomaterials and hematite (a- from high water oxidizing and oxygen-
cells Fe2 O3) as photoanode. evolving biochemical reaction
2-Efficient photocatalytic water It transports the photoinduced electrons to At 100 mW/cm2illumination solar mode Wang et al. (2019a)
splitting step produced the cathode by production of O2 and hydrogen production from modified
photocurrent (2.5 mA/cm2) for hydrogen hematite as nanorod with phosphorus
energy storages/generation
3-Strong and flexible protein-based Silk and elastin synthesized in transgenic Polyhydroxyalkanoates from soft Moire et al. (2003)
polymers plants with renewability, sustainability and elastomers and glues from cytoplasm,
biodegradability plastid and peroxisome
4-Normal and waxy from of Granular and molecular reaction patterns of Granule hydration (49e80%) and overall Yang et al. (2019)
starches maize and wheat starches with hydration/ extent of reaction (3076-fold) from these
plasticization properties starches
5-Biopolymer starch as biomaterial Physico-chemical characterization of Microalgal starch granules used in chemical Gifuni et al. (2017b)
application microalgal starch with optimal molecular additives, bulking agents, and bioplastics
weight, crystallinity, and amylose fraction productions
reported
6- Microbial oils or single cell oils Oleaginous microorganisms is utilized Biodiesel is used for transportation fuel Yousuf (2012)
(SCOs) induced biodiesel lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) come from energy
agriculture
7.Mix-cultured duckweed microbial More growth of mix-cultured duckweed A positive and significant impact on Zhao et al. (2018)
communities decreased the low species L. aequinoctialis and S.polyrhiza is microbial activity, antioxidant enzyme
and high heavy metal in utilized of specific carbon source activity (CAT, GSH, and SOD) and growth
contaminated wastewater reported
8- Sustainable bioplastic obtained Rice straw is treated by using the Naviglio Exhibits good mechanical properties, with Bilo et al. (2018)
from rice straw extractor and dissolved in trifluoroacetic tensile strength and elongation that eco-
acid for this bioplastics material for diff erent application fields.
9-Hiohydrogen (H2~1.82 molH2/ It used the dark, photo, and subsequent Using Bacillus cereus (KR809374) and Dinesh et al. (2020)
mol.glucose) and bioplastic dark and photo fermentation utilizing Rhodo-pseudomonas rutilafor sustainable
(poly-b-hydroxy-butyrate various wastes such as rice husk or rice management of global energy sources
ePHB-19.15 g.L1) straw hydrolysate
10-Bioactive biomaterials with easy This biomaterial is produced using the Used in medicines, tissue engineering, Biswal et al. (2020)
compactable to the human tissue green technology with utility cancer manufacturing of human body parts and
therapy, repairing of ligaments and other manufacturing applications
tendons, orthopedic applications,
11-Biomaterial with good optical Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) is produced Production of a variety of bio-composite Kassab et al. (2019)
transparency, thermal stability, using the solution casting method with use f films, using various polymermatrices for
and mechanical properties sugarcane bagasse fibers, alfa fibers and red packaging applications
algae waste
12-Development an integrated PD biomass is treated using a hydrothermal Extracted lignin dissolved in Athinarayanan et al. (2019)
process for nanostructures using method at 180
C to derive the liquid tetrahydrofuran and subjected to a dialysis
Phoenix dactylifera (PD) fraction containing carbon nanodots (CDs). for getting lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) and it
can use in human mesenchymal stem cells

2020b; He bert-Ouellet et al., 2017). Adsorption studies followed a 200 mgm.L1) and hence, find countless biomedical applications
pseudo-second-order kinetic model, and equilibrium isotherms (Sadaf et al., 2015; Athinarayanan et al., 2019).
data have been interpreted in terms of thermodynamic parameters
(Chirayil et al., 2014; Abraham et al., 2011). 5. Conclusions and future prospects
Other studies on biomaterial characteristics include an inte-
grated process for the fabrication of various nanostructures from Energy transformation in the form of bioenergy (via the uses of
the ligno-cellulosic biomasses from Phoenix dactylifera (PD) as a microbial systems) is discussed in this review using different
sustainable precursor. This biomass was treated by the hydrother- organic materials in the form of simple (glucose, starch) or complex
mal method (at 180
C) for obtaining liquid fractions containing organic forms (lignocellulosics). Even though, these are available in
carbon nanodots (CDs). Further, the pretreated biomasses were large quantities in the natural environment, yet more research ef-
dissociated to give lignin and cellulosic (Sadaf et al., 2015). Lignin forts are needed to focus on the utilization of these bio-compounds
was extracted by dissolving in tetrahydrofuran and then subjected or their resources for bioenergy production as an alternative to
to dialysis, and lignin can be converted to lignin nanoparticles fossil fuel replacement by fulfilling the demands for the energy
(LNPs). Further cellulose-containing fraction can be transformed to worldwide. These matters can also utilize other value-added
offer cellulose nanostructures (CNs) via the sequential processes products such as bioplastics, an organic acid, or biomaterial
(bleaching and acid hydrolysis). The final biomaterial product with synthesis.
NPs (such as CDs, LNPs, and CNPs) was evaluated for morphology Bioenergy production can promote the utilization of agricultural
features, crystallinity, and thermal stability (Athinarayanan et al., wastes, sewage organic matters, or other forms of wastes to miti-
2019). It was found that CDs and LNPs have the spherical shapes gate greenhouse gases (GHGs) and maintain their minimum levels
with different sizes (2e10 nm for CDs), whereas LCNs have sizes in the environment. Natural organic materials with the de-
(400e700 nm). The developed CNs possesses a fibrillated archi- velopments of versatile nanotechnology have been utilized in other
tecture with 5e10 nm width and 400e700 nm length. The disciplines such as engineering, medicine and pharmacy as bio-
biocompatibility analysis of these nanostructures proved to be non- electrodes or in cardiovascular medical devices in making the
toxic to human mesenchymal stem cells (concentration of artificial stents’. This review mainly focuses on the types of
20
R.K. Srivastava, N.P. Shetti, K.R. Reddy et al. Environmental Pollution 276 (2021) 116731

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