FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

COURSE OUTLINE FOR ANS506

COURSE TITLE: Animal Products

CREDIT VALUE: 6

VENUE FOR LECTURE: Farm House

NAME(S) OF COURSE INSTRUCTOR: Dr. Ngantu/Itoe/Deutchu………….

WK SLOT TOPICS ACTIVITY

Instructor
DA TIME L T P
Y
1. Introduction 2
Course outline
Definition of animal products
The animal product industry in
Cameroon
Introduction to meat animals: 2
Pre-slaughter care and handling of
animals
Slaughtering of animals

2. Definition of meat products, 2

composition of meat and spoilage
of meat
Meat inspection, grading, 2
packaging and aging
3. Meat preservation: 2
Reasons for preservation
Types of preservation techniques
4. Milk products, fermented milk 2
products, use of cultures in
fermentation process
Cheese, yoghurt, ice cream and
butter

2 5
Poultry products 2
Eggs: composition, nutritive value,
5.
inspection and grading , microbial
spoilage of eggs
Processing and preservation, 2 2
storage, and uses of eggs

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 6. Sea foods, composition and 2 2
spoilage, Processing and
preservation of fish
7. Animal by-products: 2 1
Types of animal byproducts
Utilization of animal byproducts
Revision 2

8. 30 5 5

LECTURE NOTES: ANS506 (Animal Products)

Definition of Terms:

Animal Products: These are any materials derived from the bodies of animals. Examples are
fat, flesh, blood, milk, eggs, and lesser known products, such as isinglass (Gelatin obtained
from fish bladder) and rennet (curdled milk in the stomach of un-weaned calf used in
curdling cheese).
Meat: Is the flesh and organs of animals and birds alike. It is the edible portion of those
animals acceptable for consumption. The flesh of cattle, pigs, sheep and goat are termed red
meat while that of fish, poultry and rabbit are termed white meat. In addition to most
common domestic animals, a wide variety of wild animals are also consumed (deer, squirrels,
rodents, buffalos, monkeys, snakes, porcupines, bats, hare, e.t.c). Meat from non
domesticated animals is usually termed game meat. What makes meat edible and acceptable
may vary according to the practice and beliefs of different ethnic groups, countries, or
different religious groups.

Meat products: They include manufactured and processed meat, as well as mixed food
products that contain meat with other food or foods, such as hamburger patties (pastries with
meat) or spaghetti and meatballs, sausages, bacon, corn beef (Salt cured brisket of beef).

Offals: This is the fresh edible meat other than the carcass (kidney, visceral organs found in
the thorax, abdominal (entrails, intestines .....,) and pelvic cavity including the trachea and
oesophagus, liver, pancreas, spleen, tongue, brain, heart, and may exclude meat flesh, bone
and bone marrow)

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Food animals: These are birds and animals that man utilizes as food. They vary in different
areas depending on availability of food, religion, eating habit of populace and culture. The
most common sources of meat are domesticated animal species such as cattle, pigs sheep,
goat and poultry. In some areas animal species such as buffaloes, camels, yaks, horses,
monkeys, ostriches, crocodiles, snakes and lizards can be eaten. To some extent
grasshoppers, crickets, termites, worms, squirrels, cane rats, snails are also eaten

Pre - Slaughter Handling of Different Farm Animals

It is the way in which an animal is treated before being killed in other words preparation
made prior to slaughtering and how it affects the farm animals and quality of meat produced .
When animals are moved to unfamiliar surroundings, they may become excited, fatigue,
overheated or chilled. All these conditions result from response within the animal body
caused by various factors in the new environment. Hence referring to such reactions of
animals under those conditions it is often noted that such animals are expressing stress.
The term stress is an expression referring to the physiological adjustments, such as the
changes in heat rate, respiration rate, body temperature, and blood pressure that occur during
the exposure of the animal to adverse conditions. Such conditions called stressors occur when
the environment becomes uncomfortable or hazardous to the animal e.g Temperature,
humidity, light, sound and space.
Factor That Causes or Contribute to Stress
1. Environment Factors e.g. temperature, humidity and space.
2. Transportation of the animals: it is during transit that most death losses and tissue bruising
occurs also muscle tissue shrinkage and reduction of weight of the dressed carcass can result
from severe live weight in the marketing process, due to loss of gastro-intestinal tract
contents.
3. Overcrowding
4. Poor ventilation
5. Mixing of unfamiliar animals
6. Physical discomfort
7. Excessive noise
8. Loading and Unloading animals by means of steep ramp or steps.
Remedy to the above situations

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1. Holding livestock in a stocky and prior to slaughter provides opportunity for resting and
feeding. In addition it helps to improve the ability of the animal to withstand later handling,
this in cow can influence the level of energy stored in the muscle.
2. Animals should not be manhandled. The use of sticks and whips should be discouraged.
3. Different social group of animals should not be mixed together, overcrowding should be
avoided.
4. Animals should not be slaughtered immediately on arrival from long treks but should be
rested in Lairage for at least 24hours.
5. Diseased animals should not be slaughtered.
Pre Slaughtering Handling from the Lairage to the Stunning Pen
Animals should be fasted for 12 – 16 hrs before slaughter to reduce the amount of undigested
food and faeces in the intestine. Fasting also improves the quality of meat and reduces risks
of contamination of the carcass by practice during evisceration. Animals to be held for more
than 24hrs should be provided for with light feeding. If pigs are deprived of feed and water
for more than 24hrs they may be unsuitable for the production of sausage or ham.
From the holding yard, the animal should move through a narrow path enough to prevent
turning and which should lead into a stunning pen.
Stunning is rendering an animal unconscious before being bled.
Requisites for Satisfactory Stunning Are
1. Quick rendering of unconsciousness without abuse or mutilation and
2. The prolongation of unconsciousness until the animal has bled out. Death should come
instantaneously and without visible preparation to the animal.
For species like poultry:- They need to be rested in a good place and have access to water
with no food for about 12 hours. Late feeding prevents good bleeding and makes the intestine
tear easily during evisceration
Slaughtering Methods/ Techniques
There are two common method of slaughtering (Scientific Involving stunning and Religious:
(muslim, jewish,)
Muslim/Halal/Islam Method: is a common method in Islam. About 99% of abattoirs in
Africa use the above method and in some countries the method is used on emergency cases.
The four legs are tied with rope. The animal is placed facing the eastern part as the butcher
says some prayers before cutting the carotid artery and jugular vein.
Disadvantages
1. There can cause injury to the handler

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2. Damage of hides and skin
3. It can serve as a source of entry to microbes which can cause putrefaction.
4. There is possibility of incomplete bleeding
ii.) Humane Method: Quality of kindness
A stunning pen may be used to ensure unconsciousness.
Stunning Methods
1. Use of Gas: Here the gas used is CO2 the animal is lead into the air tight chamber and the
within seconds it becomes unconscious.
2. Electric Appliance: The use of electricity for stunning has become the recommended
practice. Electricity is applied with a prior of tons. For pigs the tongs are applied immediately
below the ears for 6-10 secs. With a current of 60-70 volts the time and voltage is similar for
calves and sheep but the tongs are applied between the eye and the ear.
3. Captive Bolts Pistol: it protects on cartridges. It is directed to the frontal lobe. It is often
used for the big animals like bulls.
4. Hammer: it also directed on the frontal lobe of the animals. It is also used for big animals.
Slaughtering Stages or Abattoir Operations
Pre inspection, stunning and bleeding
Bleeding: Cattle throat is slashed where the vena cava, jugular veins and carotid arteries are
situated.
Sheep and Goat: Given a stuck behind the jaw below the ear
Pigs: Incision are made approximately 5cm above the breast bode on the front of the neck
and the knife thus towards the entrance to the chest, cutting the carotid arteries and jugular
veins.
Composition of Meat
Nutritional composition of different types of meat per 100g**
Product Water Protein Fat Ash kJ*
Beef (lean) 75.0 22.3 1.8 1.2 485
Beef carcass 54.7 16.5 28.0 0.8 1351
Pork (lean) 75.1 22.8 1.2 1.0 469
Pork carcass 41.1 11.2 47.0 0.6 1975
Veal (lean) 76.4 21.3 0.8 1.2 410
Chicken 75.0 22.8 0.9 1.2 439
Venison (deer) 75.7 21.4 1.3 1.2 431

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Beef fat (subcutaneous) 4.0 1.5 94.0 0.1 3573
Pork fat (back fat) 7.7 2.9 88.7 0.7 3397
Milk (pasteurized) 87.6 3.2 3.5 - 264
Egg (boiled) 74.6 12.1 11.2 - 661

**Meat processing technology for small- to medium-scale producers (FAO 2007)

* Kilojoules

Meat spoilage: Microbial and Other Deteriorative Changes in Meat

Sources of Microbial contamination of Meat: There are a number of potential sources of

contamination of meat within the abattoir itself, these include;

 Hides/skin and feet

 Gastrointestinal contents
 Instruments such as knives, cleaver saws, hook, etc.
 Water used for washing carcasses and instruments
 Airborne contamination
 Hands and clothing of the personnel

Contamination of meat may also take place during chilling, ageing, processing, packaging
and distribution.

Growth of Microorganisms in Meat:

Microbial growth activity in meat depends on various extrinsic and intrinsic factors. The
extrinsic factors are temperature, oxygen and physical stage of meat. Different groups of
bacteria have their own growth optima. Psychrophiles have their optimum growth
temperature below 200C, thermophiles above 450C and mesophiles an optima ranging
between these two. A refrigerated temperature of nearly 5 0C greatly retards the growth of
most psychrophilic organisms responsible for the spoilage of meat. These bacteria generally
belong to genera Pseudomonas, Achromobactor, Flavobacterirum (G - rods), Micrococcus,
Streptococcus (G+ rods), in cured or vacuum packed meat products. The growth of bacteria
on meat is usually characterized by slime formation. It should be noted that total bacterial
population is above 107 when most signs of spoilage appear on meat. Effective freezing
damages or kills most of the bacteria present on meat. Oxygen environment around the mat

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will determine the type of micro flora that will find favourable conditions for growth.
Bacteria found in meat may be either aerobic or anaerobic or sometimes facultative. Bacteria
that grow on the surface of fresh meat are generally aerobes, whereas it is a different flora in
the interior of meat. All moulds and yeast that grow in meat are aerobic in nature. Physical
state of meat such as whole carcass, prime cuts, retail cuts or comminuted form also influence
the rate of microbial growth. Microbial load increases with the increase in exposed surface
area of meat. Important intrinsic factors which affect the growth of microorganisms in meat
are water activity, pH and redox potential. The amount of water available in a food system
for the growth of microorganisms is generally expressed in terms of water activity. Fresh
meat generally has a water activity of 0.99 or more. Most meat spoilage bacteria can grow
only up to a water activity of 0.91 but most spoilage mold and yeast can grow up to a water
activity of 0.86. This factor is commercially exploited in the production of intermediate
moisture meat products. Meat pH is yet another intrinsic factor which influences the growth
of microorganisms. Bacterial growth is best at neutral pH (i.e. pH 7.0). It keeps on
diminishing as meat pH goes down. If ultimate pH is 6.0 or so, a large number of bacteria
can still grow in meat. However, when normal ultimate pH of nearly 5.5 is achieved in meat,
bacterial growth is reduced to a large extent and the growth of mold and yeast is favoured.
Redox potential refers to the reducing or oxidizing conditions prevailing in meat and this
factor also influences the growth of microorganisms.

Deteriorative Changes in Meat

When meat depicts signs of decomposition and putrefaction, it is referred as spoiled and
becomes unfit for human consumption. Besides microorganisms, intrinsic enzymes also
contribute to the spoilage of meat. Microbial spoilage of fresh chilled meat is generally on the
surface whereas it is within meat at higher temperature. The causative agents and
deteriorative changes are quite different in aerobic and anaerobic spoilage.

Under aerobic conditions, most significant symptom of meat spoilage by bacteria and yeast is
the slime formation on the surface which results due to coalescence of a large number of
individual colonies.

There may be discolouration of meat due to oxidizing agents produced by bacteria or growth
of colonies of coloured organisms.

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The production of off-odours is also usually encountered. Bacterial action causes proteolysis
of meat proteins and lipolysis of meat lipids. The end products of proteolysis are simple
peptides and amino acids under aerobic conditions whereas sulphur dioxide, ammonia and
other obnoxious compounds like amines and ketones under anaerobic conditions. Residual
carbohydrates yield skatol and indole.

Under anaerobic conditions, meat decomposition is more offensive. There may be

putrefaction in the deep tissues such as lymph nodes and bone joints, which is always
accompanied by foul odours or taints. Souring may also develop due to accumulation of
organic acids. Molds may grow on semi-dried meats causing surface stickiness and whiskers.

Post mortem inspection of meat: Many diseases and abnormal conditions not detectable on
ante-mortem necessitate a careful post mortem inspection. It should be conducted as soon as
possible after carcass dressing is complete, as setting of carcass may render it difficult to
expose and examine the lymph nodes afterwards. It has to be carried out in a hygienic manner
avoiding unnecessary cuts. However, character and extent of disease lesions whether
localized or general or whether condition is acute, sub-acute or chronic has to be properly
determined. It will involve palpation of organs and tissues, incisions where necessary and
laboratory tests in certain conditions. All these aspects are taken into consideration before
passing the final judgment.

Objectives of post-mortem inspection of meat

 To detect and eliminate abnormalities from the carcass and organs including
contamination, thus ensuring that only meat fit for human consumption is passed for
food.
 To check the efficiency of slaughter and carcass dressing.

 To diagnose disease conditions for control purpose.

 To ensure that carcasses, parts or organs marked unfit for human consumption are
property disposed of or destroyed.

General principles: Post-mortem inspection involves visual perception and palpation of

organs and tissues, incisions where necessary and laboratory tests wherever confirmation is
required. It should always proceed in a systematic and hygienic manner. Examination of
lymph nodes is of paramount importance in post-mortem inspection, since these glands drain

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different parts of the body, condition of the particular part drained by it. A meat inspector
must have the knowledge of topography and normal appearance of lymph-nodes, colour
shape, size etc in a particular animal. The size of a lymph node generally depends on the area
drained by it. A swelling or enlargement or discolouration of a lymph node indicates a
pathological condition. Some lymph nodes, which drain lymph from important muscles, are
of special interest in meat inspection and these are referred as ‘meat lymph nodes’. In
postmortem inspection, lymph nodes are exposed and examined by population for size and
consistency and if necessary, incised to observe colour and diction of lesions. The head,
lungs, kidneys, liver, bladder, stomach, intestines, testicles, ovaries, could also be viewed for
discolorations, abnormal swellings, septic conditions as well as other abnormalities and
further recommendations made for detailed inspection. As a thumb rule, viscera (internal
organs in abdomen) and head should remain identifiable with the carcass until the inspection
is completed. The carcass should not be subjected to any mutilation. The final decision about
the fitness of the carcass and offals must rest only with the veterinarian. He should be armed
with enough powers to stop the slaughter and dressing operations where necessary. Based on
the post mortem examination, meat inspector can certify the carcass giving any of the
following judgements of passed, total condemnation, partial contamination or conditionally
passed.
Grading: Meat grading refers to the sorting or grouping of meat carcasses and cuts on the
basis of their conformation, finish and overall quality. It is optional, and although this
concept is poorly utilized in developing countries, it may be beneficial to the animal raiser at
the farm, processor at the packing plant, purchaser at the retail outlet and above all to the
quality conscious consumers. There is lot of variation in the carcass conformation, size and
meat quality depending on the breed, age group, body conformation and health status of meat
animals. Carcass conformation, trimming, meat to bone ratio, colour etc. play an important
role in grading. Carcasses of buffalo, goat, sheep or cow may be graded for meat quality as
Prime: Highest, most expensive, well marbled, tender and flavoured
Choice: Most common in groceries, less marbling, tender and flavoured
Good or poor or select: Least amount of marbling and least expensive and sometimes sold
as store brand
Packaging: Packaging refers to the scientific method of containing a food for optimum
protection till it reaches the ultimate consumer. Modern concept treats packaging as an
important marketing tool. Proper packaging helps in maintaining the quality of a product
during storage, transport and provides convenience for easy handling by the consumers. This

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serves to protect against contamination. Paper, plastic foils, aluminium foils, cellophane and
textiles. Vacuum packaging gives longer shelf-life. Cardboard can be used. Prevention of wet
condition setting in order to prevent bacteria and mould under storage is important.
Packaging of fresh meat is required for the following reasons:
- To prevent moisture loss during storage
- To offer meat in a most desirable colour to the consumers
- To prevent further microbial contamination
- To check the pickup of foreign odours by meat
- To prevent lipid oxidation.
Aging/Ageing of Dressed Carcasses: In the absence of microbial spoilage, the holding of
unprocessed meat above freezing point is known as ageing. It is also frequently referred as
conditioning and sometimes ripening. During this period of holding at 0 to 3 0C i.e. above
freezing point several changes occur in meat at a subtle rate. Atmospheric oxidation proceeds
very slowly in the dark. Bacterial action is retarded to a large extent. Proteolytic enzymes
(proteases) within muscle fibres remain active and fragment myofibrils in natural course.
Cathepsins or autolytic enzymes also play their role. Maillard reaction also proceeds to a
varying degree. A combination of these alterations bring about desirable changes in the
sensory attributes of meat system especially increase in tenderness, flavour and to some
extent in the juiciness. Increase in tenderness is relatively rapid during first 3 to 7 days post-
mortem and tenderization rate diminishes after that.
Two types of post-mortem ageing procedures are commercially practiced-dry and wet ageing.
Dry ageing is the traditional procedure in which entire carcass or wholesale cuts, without any
packaging, are hung in the chilling room at 0 to 1 0C for 3 to 4 weeks at relative humidity of
86% and air velocity of 0.5 meter/sec. These conditions can vary widely at commercial level.
Wet ageing is the predominant commercial practice these days wherein wholesale or primal
cuts are put in vacuum bags and held at 0 to 1 0C for 7 to 10 days. In such a situation,
humidity and air velocity provisions become superfluous.
Some of the significant changes in the meat system during ageing are:
- Protein denaturation: Denaturation refers to physical rearrangement of chemical
bonds in the amino acids of protein polypeptide chains without involving any
hydrolysis. This enhances tenderness, although muscle proteins manifest some loss of
water holding capacity. However, connective tissue proteins like collagen and elastin
do not undergo denaturation.

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 - Proteolysis: Denatured proteins are particularly susceptible to the action of proteolytic
enzymes. So myofibrillar proteins are very prone to these enzymes. Proteolysis, thus,
brings about some improvement in water holding capacity of meat.
In the meat industry tenderization is brought about not only by aging and proteolysis but by
using certain meat tenderizing enzymes like papain (papaya), Ficin (figs), Bromelain
(pineapple) .They act on the gristle (tough collagen) and hydrolyse it to make the meat much
tender
Post mortem Glycolysis and pH Decline: In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic glycolysis
leads to the formation of lactic acid from the glycogen reserves. The accumulation of lactic
acid lowers the muscle pH which is an important post-mortem change during the conversion
of muscle to meat. The rate and extent of pH decline are variable, being influenced by the
species of food animal, various pre slaughter factors, environmental temperature etc. In most
species, a gradual decline continues from approximately pH 7 in the living muscle during the
first few hours(5-6 hours) and then there is a little drop in the next 15-20 hours, giving an
ultimate pH in the range of 5.5 – 5.7. The rate of pH decline is enhanced at high
environmental temperatures. A low ultimate pH is desired to have a check on the
proliferating microorganisms during storage. A sharp decline in post-mortem pH even before
the dissipation of body heat through carcass chilling may cause denaturation of muscle
proteins. So, the muscles depict pale, soft and exudative (PSE) condition. Contrary to this,
muscles which maintain a consistently high pH during post mortem conversion to meat depict
a dark, firm and dry (DFD) condition. Both the conditions are undesirable.

Rigor Mortis: It refers to stiffening of muscles after death and is another important post-
mortem change in the process of conversion of muscle to meat. It is now very well-known
that a particular level or concentration of ATP complexed with Mg+ is required for breaking
the actinomyosin bond and bringing the muscle to a relaxed state and as it drops, permanent
actinomyosin cross bridges begin to form and muscle gradually becomes less and less
extensible under an externally applied force. During the period immediately following
exsanguinations, the actinomyosin formation proceeds very slowly at first and the muscle is
relatively extensible and elastic. This period is called the delay phase of rigor mortis. Then
actinomyosin formation picks up and the muscle begins to lose extensibility. This phase is
called the fast or onset phase of rigor mortis. When all the creatine phosphate (CP) is
depleted, ADP can no longer be phosphorylated to ATP, muscle becomes quite inextensible
and stiff. This stage marks the completion of rigor mortis. When post mortem pH decline

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is very slow or very fast, the onset and completion of rigor mortis is rapid. The onset of
rigor mortis is enhanced at ambient temperature above 20 0C. The phenomenon of rigor
mortis resembles that of muscle contraction in a living animal muscle except that rigor mortis
is irreversible under normal conditions. The resolution of rigor mortis takes place due to
microbial degradation of muscle structure in due course of time. Pre-rigor meat is quite
tender but its toughness keeps on increasing until rigor mortis is completed. It continues to
be tough for some more time. However, with the resolution of rigor due to denaturation or
degradation or degradation or ageing, meat again becomes tender. The onset of rigor mortis
is also accompanied by a decrease in water holding capacity. This is true even when rigor
mortis takes place at a high pH due to disappearance of ATP and consequent formation of
acintomyosin.

Types of meat preservation techniques

Preservation is defined as any method of treating food to prolong the length of time in which
it retains its quality and appeal. Methods of preserving meat include refrigeration, freezing,
thermal processing and dehydration. Following exsanguinations, the process of converting
muscle to meat begins by subjecting the meet to degradation by chemical, physical,
enzymatic and microbiological reactions. Preservation is to prevent degradation from taking
effect. Processed meat is one which has been modified from its natural state either through
salting, curing, fermentation or other processes to enhance flavour or improve preservation
(improve taste/extend shelf life) eg sausages, corned beef, hotdog, bacon, launch meat, etc.
Since meat is a highly perishable commodity due to nearly neutral pH (low acid food), high
moisture content and rich nutrients, these therefore have to be preserved. Some of the
methods employed to prolong the shelf-life of meat are:
Cold Storage
I. Chilling Storage: Is generally regarded to be storage at temperature not far above freezing
O O O
(0 C)s e.g. temperature ranging from 0 C to 1.1 C can chill the thickest part of carcass
between 12-21 hours which can be stored for 8 days for beef, 6 days for lamb. Temperature
between 5OC – 10Oc is limited to short period of storage.
II. Freezing:-
a) Slow freezing: Involves freezing with only natural air circulation or at best with electric
fans. Temperature is usually -23.3oc or lower and freezing may take from 3 to 72 hours.
Large ice crystals are usually formed within the muscle fibre. Ice crystals are usually needle
like which are capable of destroying muscle fibre. There is much fluid loss

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b) Quick /fast freezing: Is accomplished either by
i) Direct immersion of food in a refrigerant e.g. freezing of fish in brine.
ii) In direct contact with the refrigerant where the food or package is in contact with the
passage through which the refrigerant at -17.8 to -45.6c flows
iii) By air-blast freezing, where frigid air at -17.8 - 34.4c is blown across the materials being
frozen
Dehydration Method: Removal of water by
i. Sun Drying: Weather must be warm and dry. The demerit of this method is that it is
subject to weather condition and contamination from dust and sand.
ii) Hot air drying: Only applicable to cooked meat.
iii) Salting: its diffusion in meat is by the process of osmosis. It improves the texture of meat
and contributes to the pleasant flavour and aroma of the product. It inhibits the growth of
bacteria although there are some salt tolerant bacteria.
iv) Smoking: It decrease the more - soluble protein (myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic) content
while increasing the amount of the more - insoluble (stomach) proteins.
v) Meat curing: - is an aspect of meat preservation in which salts, sugars nitrite/ nitrate,
phosphate and other curing agents are used to improve meat colour and its acceptability after
slaughter
Curing Ingredients
1. Salt (NaCl)
2. Sugar and corn syrup solids: Sugar is added to curves for its moderating action on
flavour and to soften the products by counteracting the harsh hardening effects of salt by
preventing some of the moisture removal. Corn syrup, corn syrup solids (corn syrup from
which most of the water has been removed) molasses and other natural sugar substitutes are
sometimes used in place of sugar. Corn syrup consists of sugars formed by the breakdown of
starch and contains dextrose maltose, higher sugars, dextrin, and polysaccharides. Corn Syrup
is not so sweet and is less soluble than sugar.
3. Nitrate
- To stabilize the pink colour of the lean tissue
- To contribute to the characteristics flavour of cared meat
- To retard the development of rancidity
- To inhibit the growth of a number of a number of food poisoning and food spoilage
organism e.g Clostridia botulinum
4. Phosphate

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- To increase the water binding capacity
- Improve retention of brine.
- Improve colour and flavour retention
- Act as buffers
5. Ascorbates
- Salt of ascorbate acid are commonly used to hasten the development and stabilize the colour
of cured meat by
a) Taking part in the reduction of metmyoglobin to myoglobin Monosodium Glutamate
(MSG) - To enhance flavour not widely used in the industry
6. Canning: can either be sterile or pasteurized
i.) Sterile Product: Are shelf- stable and need no refrigeration e.g Luncheon meats, corned
beef and sandwiched spread are example of sterile products
ii.) Pasteurized Product: Cooked ham.
Bulging cans could result to food poisoning e.g Clostridia botulinum. A disease condition as
BOTULISM
Symptoms
1. Dizziness
2. General weakness
3. Severe headache
4. Loss of vision
5. Paralysis of throat muscle
This is because the toxins are very lethal which can kill almost immediately. In respiratory
centre leading to death, speech becomes impaired.
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

1. Why do we preserve meat?

2. Enumerate and discuss 3 meat preservation methods you know
3. What are the advantages of freezing over the refrigerator method of preservation?
4. Give the disadvantages of smoking as a method of meat preservation
5. Give two examples each of pasteurized and sterilised meat products
6. Give the significance of the following phenomenon in the conversion of muscle to
meat
- Rigor mortis
- Aging

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 7. What observable deteriorative changes are indicative of spoilage in meat?
8. Define meat processing, state two processed meat products you know and describe
how they can be obtained
9. Give one example each of thermophilic, mesophilic, pschrophilic and psychrophilic
bacteria
10. What are the effects of poor handling or transportation on animals or carcass quality
11. Give 5 sources of meat contamination and possible ways you can ameliorate them.
12. Justify the need for proper bio security measures in abattoirs/ how can you ameliorate
the incidence of diseases or poor sanitation in abattoirs
13. Identify the slaughtering method you will suggest to a Muslim taking into
consideration its advantages and disadvantages
14. Define mechanical stunning and give its disadvantages
15. How different is electrical stunning from mechanical stunning?

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS: MILK DEFINITION, COMPOSITION AND TYPES

“Milk means: the lacteal secretion, practically free from colostrum, obtained by the complete
milking of one or more healthy cows, which may be clarified and may be adjusted by
separating part of the fat there from; concentrated milk, reconstituted milk, and dry whole
milk. Water, in a sufficient quantity to reconstitute concentrated and dry forms, may be
added.”(FDA). However milk could also be got from goats, sheep, camel and buffalo.
Milk products: are products exclusively derived from milk and other substances necessary
for the manufacture of such product, provided that these substances are not intended to take
the place in part or in whole of any milk constituent.eg yoghurt, butter, cheese, whey, etc

Composition of milk:
Water: Milk is composed primarily of water, which is present at a level of approximately
87–88%. If that water is removed, the shelf life of milk products is greatly extended.
Carbohydrate: Is water-soluble and present in the aqueous phase of milk, at levels of
approximately 5%. The disaccharide lactose is the main carbohydrate. It exhibits low
solubility and may precipitate out of solution as a grainy textured substance. It is converted to
lactic acid upon souring due to bacterial fermentation, and in the process of aging cheese.
Therefore, aged cheese may be digestible by lactose-intolerant individuals even in the
absence of the enzyme lactase.

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Fat: Has a low density and may be easily centrifuged or skimmed-off of the milk yielding
low-fat or skim milk. The fat, or butterfat, exists at levels of 3–4% in whole milk (which may
vary), at lesser levels in reduced-fat milks, and at significantly higher percentages in cream.
Fat is the expensive component of milk and the basis on which dairy farmers are paid for
milk. When fat and its carotenoids are removed, milk is bluish in color.
Protein: Represents 3–4% of the composition of milk and components may be fractioned out
of milk by ultracentrifugation. Casein is the primary protein of milk, comprising
approximately 80% of the milk protein. A second protein fraction of milk is the whey or
serum. It makes up approximately 20% of milk protein and includes the lactalbumins and
lactoglobulins. Whey proteins are more hydrated than casein and are denatured and
precipitated by heat rather than by acid. Other protein components of milk include enzymes
such as lipase, protease, and alkaline phosphatase, which hydrolyze triglycerides, proteins,
and phosphate esters, respectively.
Vitamins and Minerals: Milk contains both water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. The non
fat portion of milk is especially plentiful in the B vitamin riboflavin, a greenish fluorescent
colored vitamin. It acts as a photosynthesizer and is readily destroyed upon exposure to
sunlight. Vitamin A is naturally in the fat component of whole milk and more may be added
prior to sale. However whole milk is generally (98%) fortified with vitamin D because it is
naturally present only in small amounts. Vitamin D is present in milk to some extent due to
the synthesis of vitamin D by the cow as it is exposed to sunlight and because vitamin D may
be present in animal feed. Low-fat and nonfat milk are fortified with both of these fat-soluble
vitamins because milk fat is reduced or absent.
Minerals such as calcium and phosphorus are present at levels of approximately 1% of milk,
with a third of calcium in solution and two thirds of it colloidally dispersed. Calcium is
combined with the protein casein as calcium caseinate, with phosphorus as calcium
phosphate and as calcium citrate. Other minerals present in milk are chloride, magnesium,
potassium, sodium, and sulfur.
Types of Milk
Fluid Milk: Milk may come from goats (Mediterranian countries), sheep (southern Europe),
reindeer (northern Europe), cows, and other animal sources throughout the world. Milk
appears white due to the reflection of light from colloidally dispersed casein protein and
calcium phosphate particles in the milk dispersion; however, an off-white color may be due
to carotenoid pigment in the animal feed (precursor of vitamin A). A bluish color may be

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observed in milk skimmed of fat, and thus devoid of carotenoid pigments. Egs of fluid milk
are table milk, flavoured milk and cream
Evaporated and sweetened condensed/concentrated milk are concentrated milk reduced in
volume by removing 50% of the water content using a low-temperature vacuum evaporation
process.
Evaporated milk is sealed into cans and then heat sterilized at 120°C for 20 minutes to
destroy all pathogens. Vitamins A, C and D and stabilizers are added to the milk prior to
sterilization. The stabilizers are necessary to prevent thickening and gelling of milk proteins
during sterilization. Evaporated milks are widely used in the industrial manufacture of foods.
Sweetened condensed milk is produced by the addition of large amounts of sugar to the
vacuum-evaporated milk. The sugared milk is processed by batch pasteurization and sealed in
cans; it is not heat sterilized. The extended shelf life of sweetened condensed milk is made
possible by the high sugar content and the low concentration of active water necessary to
support microbial growth. Sweetened condensed milk is used in home baking and the
industrial manufacture of bakery goods.

Dried Milk: Dried milk powder may be processed from either pasteurized whole or more
commonly from nonfat milk. One method of drying involves spray drying. Milk is first
condensed by removing two thirds of the water and is typically sprayed into a heated vacuum
chamber (spray drying) to dry to less than 5% moisture levels. The drying process has no
appreciable effect on the nutritive value of milk (National Dairy Council). Most nonfat dried
milk is fortified with vitamins A and D. “Instant” nonfat dry milk, or “agglomerated” milk
has some moisture added back to the spray-dried milk powder. It is easily pourable and
dispersible in cold water. The taste is best when it is prepared ahead and served well-chilled.
Dried milk is an economical form of milk for shipping, has an extended shelf life, and is
useful for addition to numerous other foods.
Cultured/ Fermented Milk: Cultured products are fermented by the addition of bacterial
cultures, such as lactobacilli and streptococci, to fluid dairy products. These harmless
bacteria (or bacterial enzymes) induce a chemical change in the organic substrates of milk
solids. Lactose is fermented to lactic acid creating a low pH in the process, which controls
both spoilage and pathogenic bacterial growth, and causes the casein to coagulate. Fermented
products are produced using lactic acid fermentation technology that involves inoculating
lactic acid producing bacteria into pasteurized milk or cream.
- The bacteria convert some of the lactose in the milk or cream into lactic acid.

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 - The lactic acid gives cultured dairy products their characteristic flavours and textures.
The following are examples of some commonly cultured milk products:
• Cultured buttermilk: This is the pasteurized low-fat, nonfat, or whole milk to which a
starter culture of Lactobacillus and Streptococcus (S. lactis) is added after the mix has been
heated and then cooled. These bacteria ferment lactose, producing lactic acid, which clots the
milk. Butter flakes or liquid butter, or low levels (0.01–0.15%) of salt, may be added. Some
bacteria, 0.2% citric acid, or sodium citrate may be added for flavor.
• Sour cream: Traditionally sour cream was made from heavy (whipping) cream that was
soured. Today, it is made from pasteurized, homogenized, fresh, light cream (approximately
18% fat, depending on individual state laws) that is coagulated by a method similar to
buttermilk (recall that while buttermilk starts with low-fat or skim milk, sour cream
production begins with 18% fat, or perhaps cream). While inoculation and fermentation steps
are similar to buttermilk production, fermentation is shortened. S. lactis and Leuconostoc
bacteria may be added for flavor, and stabilizers such as gelatin or gums may be present.
Nonfat milk solids may be added to thicken the cream. A bitter taste in sour cream that is
stored more than 3–4 weeks may form due to proteolytic bacterial enzyme activity.
• Yogurt: This is the food produced by culturing one or more of the pasteurized fluid dairy
ingredients such as cream, milk, partially skimmed milk, or skim milk (used alone or in
combination depending on the desired fat content) with a bacteria culture. In industrialized
regions of the world, yogurt is made with cow’s milk. The milk is both pasteurized and
homogenized before the addition of a starter that contains the lactic-acid producing bacteria,
L. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus. The process used to make yogurt is similar to buttermilk
and sour cream, but the incubation temperature and types of bacteria are different. Yogurt
may be made using whole, low-fat or skim milk. Microorganisms in yogurt exist in a
“friendly” form, known as probiotic flora. Such probiotic yogurt, with Lactobacillus and
Bifidobacterium, is able to survive destruction during gastrointestinal (GI) passage and offer
health benefits such as immune stimulation and positive balance to the GI microflora
• Acidophilus milk: Is a cultured product made from pasteurized low-fat, nonfat, or whole
milk. Lactobacillus acidophilus is added and incubated at 99OF (37OC). Although not proven
yet, a possible benefit of consumption is that ingestion can produce a number of B vitamins,
thereby replacing what may have been destroyed during antibiotic treatment. A variation of
this is sweet acidophilus milk. This sweet version has culture added; however, it is not
incubated. It is thought to be therapeutic without the characteristic high acidity and flavor.

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Acidophilus produces the enzyme lactase and helps correct the symptoms of lactose
intolerance. It is thought that lactase in combination with L. acidophilis is enabled to pass
successfully through the stomach acids and reach the small intestine where it functions in
lactose digestion, preventing the discomfort experienced by those individuals who are lactose
intolerant and unable to digest lactose (National Dairy Council).
• Kefir: Is another less well-known, fermented, probiotic milk product. It contains the
bacteria Lactobacillus caucasius and the yeasts Saccharomyces kefir and Torula kefir. As
well, it is slightly bubbly due to the fermentation process and it contains approximately 1%
alcohol. Other specialty types of milk include low-sodium, lactose-reduced milk, calcium-
fortified, as well as flavored milks and shakes.
Non-milks/milk substitutes or alternatives such as rice, coconut, almond, hemp, cashew and
soy “milk” are also consumed and could be fortified with vitamins and minerals. The latter
are especially useful to persons who are lactose intolerant.
Safety/Quality of Milk
Milk is a highly perishable substance, high in water, with significant amount of protein and a
near-neutral pH (6.6)—the qualities that support bacteria growth. Depending on the
ingredients, even nondairy imitation “milks,” may require refrigeration or freezing
comparable to the dairy product that they resemble. Packaging contains a date on the carton
that should be followed for a retail sale. The following directions, if observed can help
increase the shelf life of milk:
• Use proper containers to protect milk from exposure to sunlight, bright daylight, and strong
fluorescent light to prevent the development of off-flavor and a reduction in riboflavin (Vit
B2), ascorbic acid, and vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)content.
• Store milk at refrigerated temperatures [45 OF (7OC)] or below as soon as possible after
purchase.
• Keep milk containers closed to prevent absorption of other food flavors in the refrigerator.
• Use milk in the order purchased.
• Return milk container to the refrigerator immediately to prevent bacterial growth.
Temperatures above 45OF (7OC) for fluid and cultured milk products for even a few minutes
reduce shelf life. Never return unused milk to the original container.
• Keep canned milk in a cool, dry place. Once opened, it should be transferred to a clean
opaque container and refrigerated.
• Store dry milk in a cool, dry place and reseal the container after opening. Humidity causes
dry milk to lump and may affect flavor and color changes. If such changes occur, the milk

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should not be consumed. Once reconstituted, dry milk should be treated like any other fluid
milk: covered and stored in the refrigerator.
Sanitation and Grading of Milk: Milk is a potentially hazardous food that must be kept out
of the temperature danger zone. With its high water content and plentiful protein, vitamins,
and minerals, milk is an ideal medium for supporting bacterial growth. Production,
processing, and distribution of milk must ensure that products are kept free from pathogenic
bacteria and low in nonpathogens. Healthy cows and sanitary conditions of handling lead to
low bacterial counts. Proper handling also contributes to satisfactory shelf life, as well as
appearance, flavor, and nutritive value. The temperature of raw milk should reach 40OF (4OC)
or less within 2 hours of being milked. It should be kept well chilled, as it is highly perishable
and susceptible to bacterial growth. The shelf life for properly refrigerated milk is 14 days or
up to 45 days for ultrapasteurized milk products including cream, lactose-reduced milk, and
so forth. Several factors lead to the spread of diseases by milk or milk products. A
contaminated cow, cross-contamination at the farm or from workers hands, or unsanitary
equipment or utensils may all become problematic. The control of insects and rodents, as well
as separation of animal waste products from the milking area, also is necessary for safe milk
production. Grades are based on bacterial counts. Grade “A” milk is available to the
consumer for sale as fluid milk, although grades “B” and “C,” with higher bacterial counts,
are also safe and wholesome. The grades of US Extra and US Standard are given to dried
milk. USDA official grades are given to all inspected milk on a voluntary fee-for-service
basis.
Sources of Milk Infection and Contamination
• Infection of milk by disease organisms can be derived from the dairy animal itself, the
human handler, or the environment (including the milk utensils).
• These organisms can be excreted through the udder directly into the milk, or originate from
the skin and mucous membrane of the animal or milker and contaminate the milk and milk
utensils.
• One of the most important extraneous sources of contamination is water used in the
processing plant. The essential requirements are
• To maintain udders free from infection (mastitis)
• Manage cows so that udders and teat are clean,
• Milk them in such a way that minimises bacterial contamination,
• Store milk in clean containers at temperatures which discourage bacterial growth until
cooled.

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Use of cultures in fermentation process
A starter culture is a microbiological culture that performs the fermentation process. Some
of them contain lactic acid producing bacteria and control the souring of milk. Eg of starter
cultures are Leuconostoc species which are very important flavor producers in some
fermented dairy products, Streptococccus thermophilus is found in starter cultures and
classified as a thermophile growing at 45OC and is widely used in the manufacture of yoghurt
Lactobacilliare also used as starter cultures in the manufacture of yoghurt and cheese. They
can also be used to reduce the incidence of bitterness and as a probiotic in yoghurt products.
They have an optimum temperature of 42OC. Lactobacillus delbrueckii sub species
bulgaricus is widely used alongside Streptococcus thermophilus as a starter in yoghurt
making. Other examples are lactobacillus acidophilus which is used as a probiotic and
enterococcus,
Uses of cultures:
- Acid production; gel formation, whey expulsion(syneresis), preservation and flavour
development
- Flavour compound production; formation of diacetyl and acetaldehyde
- Bio-preservation; lowering of pH and redox potential and production of antibiotic
substances eg bacteriocins such as nisin, production of lactic acid/lactate, production
of acetic acid/acetate, out completion of other organisms for nutrients
- Stabilizer formation; results in educed use of milk powder in yoghurt formation
- Lactose utilisation; reduces potential for gas and off flavour development, makes
products more acceptable to lactose intolerants
- Lowering of redox potential; preservation, aids flavour development
Milk products:
Yogurt:
- This is produced from pasteurized milk that has a higher level of milk solids than
fluid milk.
- The milk solid level is increased by partial evaporation or by the addition of skim
milk powder or concentrated evaporated milk.
- Yogurt is fermented at 40 to 50°C.
- The lactic culture used to ferment yogurt, optimally active at higher temperatures,
causes coagulation of the milk producing a custard-like texture.

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 - Gelling agents such as pectin or gelatin may be added to the yogurt to modify its
texture or the milk substrate may be subjected to an additional heat treatment prior to
inoculation.
- Additional sugars, fruits, flavourings or colour may be added during yogurt
processing prior to pasteurization.
- The acidity of cultured products, with a pH of approximately 4.6, gives them a longer
shelf life than fluid milk products.
- Refrigeration is necessary to inhibit the growth of the lactic acid bacteria that remain
viable in the end products.
The production of cottage cheese
- This begins with the addition of lactobacillus culture and a mixture of enzymes
(rennet) used to induce rapid coagulation of the milk.
- The inoculated milk is allowed to ferment for five to sixteen hours at 32°C.
- The coagulated milk is cut into cubes (curds) and the whey is drained from the mix.
- Heating and gentle rolling promotes drainage and smoothens the surfaces of the curds.
- Drainage also makes the curds firmer. The curds are then rinsed and drained.
- Finally, cream and salt are added to the curds to produce the final product
Cheddar-type cheeses are manufactured in four basic steps:
- Curdling, draining, pressing and ripening.
- Variations in the fundamental process produce the wide variety of cheeses available.
- Cheese manufacturing differs from the production of cottage cheese through the
addition of pressing and ripening stages.
Ice cream
- These are mixtures of milk fat, milk solids, sugars and additives such as emulsifiers,
stabilizers, flavours and colours.
- The steps for manufacturing ice cream are blending of the mix ingredients;
pasteurization; homogenization; aging the mix; freezing; packaging; and hardening.
- The final ice cream product may contain up to 50% air; the air is necessary to
maintain the texture of the ice cream.
Tutorial questions

Read on butter production

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What are cultured products? Give two examples and state the use of cultures in the
fermentation process

Define animal by-products, list three of such products and state and their uses

What are the role of eggs in baking and confectionaries

EGGS: These are a natural biological structure with shells offering protection for developing
chick embryos. They have numerous functions in food systems and must be protected against
contamination. Eggs provide nutritive value and culinary variety to the diet, while being an
economical source of food. Eggs are considered by the World Health Organization (WHO) to
be the reference protein worldwide, to which all other protein is compared.
Chemical Composition of the Hen’s Egg by Percentage

Component % Water Protein Fat Ash

Whole egg 100 65.5 11.8 11.0 11.7

Egg white 58 88.0 11.0 0.2 0.8
Egg yolk 31 48.0 17.5 32.5 2.0
Shell 11
Source: USDA

Protein and Fat Content of Egg Components in Grams

Component Protein Fat

Whole egg 6.5 5.8

Egg white 3.6 -
Egg yolk 2.7 5.2
Source: USDA

Inspection and Grading of eggs: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
grades eggs on a fee-for service basis in order to assign grades. Grading involves an
evaluation of the exterior shell, its shape, texture, soundness (not broken), and cleanliness, as
well as the interior white and yolk and air cell size, and at least 80% of a dozen eggs must be
the grade specified on the carton. Lesser grades and older eggs may be used successfully in
other applications than high-grade, fresh eggs. The Federal Egg Products Inspection Act
provides the assurance that egg products are wholesome and unadulterated and that plants

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processing egg products are continuously inspected. Most eggs on the retail market are
graded under federal inspections, according to established standards. (AA, A and B) are
issued voluntarily. Letter grades are based on candled quality and may appear as shields on
the egg cartons. Grade shields on the carton indicate that the eggs were graded for quality and
checked for size under the supervision of a trained packer.
Grades of Eggs

(Source: California Egg Commission)

Microbial spoilage in Eggs

Studies conducted have revealed that microorganisms can gain entry into the egg
congenitally. However, most of the contaminants of eggs are of extragenital origin and come
in contact with egg shell at oviposition from the dust, soil and faecal matter adhered to the
nesting material. Since the cuticle and pores of the egg shell are moist at this stage, the
possibility of invasion of the shell by some contaminants through a few pores cannot be ruled

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out. The microorganisms on the shell surface usually belong to a mixed group, but those
causing spoilage of egg (generally called rot) are gram-negative in nature and have very
simple nutritional requirements. The microorganisms have to pass through a series of in-built
physic- chemical barriers in the egg—the shell, the shell membranes, the albumen before
reaching the yolk where they could easily multiply causing rot. The mechanism of microbial
spoilage can, thus, be divided into three serial steps:

1. Penetration of micro organisms through the egg shell and shell membranes.

2. Colonisation of micro organisms on the shell membrane.

3. Overpowering of the antibacterial factors present in the albumen.

Penetration of Microorganisms through the Egg Shell and Shell Membranes: Egg shell
acquires a diverse microflora at the time of oviposition. Under normal conditions of handling
and storage, shell gets dried soon and most of these microorganisms fail to survive. An egg
shell contains more than 17000 pores. However, only ten to twelve pores allow the
microorganisms to pass through. The micro organisms either succeed in when the egg
contents contract on cooling or gain entry due to capillary action through pore canals when
the shell surface is moist. The role of micro organisms remains passive in both situations. It
is due to capillary action that incidence of rotting are comparatively high in washed eggs
which have been subjected to dry abrasion. The cuticular plugs on the pore canals are opened
during the process of abrasion of eggs. After gaining entry through the shell pores, micro
organisms come across shell membranes. These membranes act as bacterial filters and offer
maximum resistance to the offending organisms which have succeeded in penetrating the
shell. Mold may also cause rot in eggs under humid storage conditions.

Colonisation of Microorganisms on the Shell Membrane: Once the microorganisms have

an access to shell membrane, they are able to multiply and form colonies. However, the
colonization is not instant. In the early stages, there is preferential selection of gram-
negative organisms having low iron requirement from the initial population dominated by
gram positive organisms which have high iron requirement. Thus initially there is a decline
in the microbial numbers. In the later stages, multiplication of organisms takes place at a
faster rate because by this time albumen becomes heavily infected. The pH of egg contents
move towards neutrality and yolk comes in contact with inner shell membrane.

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Overpowering the Antibacterial Factors Present in the Albumen: Egg white or albumen
provides an unfavourable medium for microbial growth because of the defensive role played
by many of its component proteins. They have natural protection against microorganisms by
several natural chemical components; however, they cannot be considered 100% safe once
the shell has been broken or cracked. These components include avidin, lysozyme, and
conalbumin. Avidin in the raw egg white binds the vitamin biotin required for some
microorganism growth. Lysozyme hydrolyzes cell walls of some bacteria, and thus
demonstrates antibacterial action, especially at lower pH levels. Conalbumin binds with the
iron of the yolk preventing growth of the microorganisms that require iron for growth.
Conalbumen is the principal antimicrobial factor present in the egg and its inhibitory action is
more on gram positive as compared to gram negative organisms. This inhibition definitely
delays the spoilage of eggs to some extent. Changes in colour such as blackening of yolk,
greenish albumen and pinkish or yellowish spots could be caused by pseudomonas spp. and
Clostridium.

Processing/Preservation of Eggs: Treatment involving processing or preservation may

occur both for food safety purposes and to keep the egg fresher and limit negative quality
changes. Eggs are laid at a hen’s body temperature and require subsequent refrigeration. It is
possible to hold an egg for 6 months in cold [29–32 OF (O 0C)] storage if the shell pores are
closed. Fresh eggs have thick whites and thus do not run when cracked. They contain a very
pronounced chalazae cord. Over time, eggs lose moisture and Carbon dioxide. Shell eggs or
egg products may be preserved in the following manner:

Mineral Oil: As oil is applied, it partially closes the shell pores and allows less
microorganism permeability. It also allows an egg to hold more moisture, retain their Carbon
dioxide, and be protected against a pH rise in storage. Shell eggs may be sprayed or dipped in
mineral oil on the same day they are laid, and washing off by consumers is unnecessary.
Mineral oil dips or sprays may cause a hard cooked egg to be more difficult to peel.
Pasteurization Is a process required by the FDA for all commercial liquid, dry, or frozen egg
products that are out of the shell. This treatment destroys microorganisms such as Salmonella
bacteria that can travel from the digestive tract and droppings of birds into the egg, causing
food borne illness infection. The USDA requires a process of pasteurization that achieves a
temperature of 140–143OF (60–62OC), held for 3 1/2 minutes or longer. The American Egg
Board also states “If you bring a food to an internal temperature of 160OF, you will instantly
kill almost any bacteria. By diluting eggs with a liquid or sugar (as in custard), you can bring

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an egg mixture to 160OF.” Pasteurization must allow maintenance of the functional properties
of the egg
Freezing: Is a means of preservation. Since the eggs are broken open they must first be
pasteurized prior to freezing. Uncooked whites retain their functional properties after freezing
and thawing, whereas cooked whites exhibit syneresis (water leakage) upon thawing. Whole
eggs and yolks may gel and become gummy upon thawing as a result of an aggregation of
low-density lipoproteins in the yolk. Gumminess is controlled by sugar, corn syrup, or salt
addition. Processors may add the enzyme papain in order to hydrolyze the protein. As water
is bound to the enzyme, the defrosted product exhibits less gel formation.
Dehydration: It offers microbial control to egg products when water levels are reduced by
techniques such as spray drying or drying on trays (producing a flaked, granular form). The
dehydrated whole egg, white, yolk, or blend is then packaged in various sized packages or
drums. Subsequently, it may be reconstituted and cooked or added as an ingredient to
packaged foods such as cake mixes or pasta. Egg whites require the removal of glucose prior
to dehydration in order to improve storage stability because glucose in the whites leads to
unacceptable browning and flavor changes. The browning is a result of the Maillard reaction
(nonenzymatic) of proteins and sugars in long or hot storage. Glucose may be removed by
Lactobacillus microbial fermentation or by enzymatic fermentation with commercial
enzymes such as glucose oxidase or catalase. Egg yolks undergo irreversible changes in their
lipoprotein structure when dehydrated, losing some functional and desirable sensory
characteristics. Dried eggs should be kept cold to meet food safety guidelines.
Storage of Eggs: In addition to the need for cold storage, other factors are significant in
storage. It is recommended that the consumer should store eggs on an inside shelf of the
refrigerator, large end up, not on the door where the temperature is warmer. Whether it is 1
dozen eggs or flats of 30 dozen or more, eggs should be kept in the carton in which they were
obtained in order to prevent moisture loss and the absorption of odours and flavours from
other refrigerated ingredients. The USDA graded eggs are washed, sanitized, oiled, graded,
and packaged soon after they are laid, and it is usually a matter of days between the egg
leaving the hen house and reaching the supermarket. Cold temperatures, high humidity, and
proper handling are required in storage
Functions of Eggs: Eggs are polyfunctional products, their function is important to the
processing facilities, retail food service operations, and the consumer alike, who depend on
eggs for many uses in food preparation. Due to the many number of functions of eggs, a
recipe formulation without eggs may not exhibit the same qualities as one that contains eggs.

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Perhaps the contents of eggs are not ingested. Contents may be discarded and the egg shell
used empty or decorated for use in various ethnic holiday celebrations.

ANIMAL BY-PRODUCTS
As defined by the USDA, are products harvested or manufactured from livestock other than
muscle meat. They are materials of animal origin that people do not consume.
Animal by-products refer to parts of the food animal not used for food by man. In liberal
terms, animal by-products include every part of a slaughtered animal except the dressed
carcass.
Animal by-products may also include all parts of a live animal that are not part of the
dressed carcass. Produced jointly in the process of harvesting meat from the animal, by
products constitute an estimated 30 percent of the live weight of hogs and about 44 percent of
the live weight of cattle.
Classification and utilization of animal by-products
Classification of Animal By-products
Animal by-products can be classified as edible and inedible by-products
This classification is not rigid the basic criterion of division between edible and inedible by-
products is governed by a number of factors such as
• Purchasing power of the consumer,
• The custom and traditions of the people,
• The food habits, religious belief etc.
By-products can also be classified according to ultimate use as follows:
• Agricultural by-products: meat meal, bone meal and fertilizer
• Industrial by-products: gelatine, glue and casings
• Pharmaceutical by-products: insulin, pepsin, bio-chemicals and hormones
Classification according to origin
• Principal by-products,
• Secondary by-products
Principal and secondary animal by-products/uses

Item Principal by product Secondary by product and uses

number

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 1 Hides and skin Leather products such as shoes, gloves, belts, bags etc
2 Hair, bristles, wool Brush, fabrics and yarn, blanket, carpet, pillow, lanolin
and fertilizer
3 Blood Blood pudding, sausage mix, serum and plasma,
albumen, fibrin, haemoglobin, glue, textile, coagulated
blood products, dye setting, stock feed, fertilizer,
liquid blood products
4 Bones Bone meal, fat, gelatine, glue, mineral supplement,
buttons, cutlery handles and bone articles,
osteocalcium tablets from bones,
5 Hooves and horns Buttons, combs, hair pins, toys, hoof and horn meal,
fertilizer, pith used for gelatine and glue etc.
6 Intestines Casings, catgut (suturing material), tennis strips,
musical instrument strings, tallow etc.
7 Condemned meat, Tallow for soap, machine oil, leather dressing, candles,
inedible offal and meat and bone meal
trimmings
8 Ruminal and intestinal Recycling as stock feed, compost manure, production
ingesta of methane for light, heat and power

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