SocSci 212: Ethics

An Overview of Basic Concepts

Prepared By: Donnaville L. Rubio, LPT
Ethics
● the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong. The term is also applied to
any system or theory of moral values or principles.
● deals with such questions at all levels. Its subject consists of the fundamental issues of practical decision making,
and its major concerns include the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be judged
right or wrong.

Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as moral philosophy.

The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which can mean custom, habit, character or disposition.

Ethics covers the following dilemmas:

● how to live a good life

● our rights and responsibilities
● the language of right and wrong
● moral decisions - what is good and bad?
Origin of Ethics
1. Code of laws of Hammurabi / Code of Hammurabi (Babylonia)
2. Hebrew Bible / Ten Commandments of God
3. Protagoras by Plato -mythical account of how Zeus took pity on the hapless humans, who were
physically no match for the other beasts. To make up for these deficiencies, Zeus gave humans a moral
sense and the capacity for law and justice, so that they could live in larger communities and cooperate
with one another.
Moral Standards
are norms or prescriptions that serve as the frameworks for determining what ought be done or what is right or wrong action, what is good
or bad character such as:

● Do not lie
● Don't steal
● Don't cheat others
● Don't kill

Moral standards are either consequences standards (like Stuart Mill's utilitarianism) or non-consequence standards (like Aristotle's virtue, St Thomas'
natural law. or Immanuel Kant' good will or sense of duty) The consequence standards depend on results, outcome An act that results in the general
welfare, in the greatest good of the greatest number, is moral. To take part in a project that results in the improvement of the majority of people is,
therefore. moral.

The non-consequence standards are based on the natural law Natural law is the law of God revealed through human reason lt is the "law of God written
in the hearts of men" To preserve human life is in accordance with the natural law. therefore it is moral. Likewise, the non-consequence standard may
also be based on good will or intention. and on a sense of duty. Respect for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person, an act that is moral.
springs from a sense of duty, a sense of duty that you wish will apply to all human persons.
Non-Moral Standards
-are social rules, demands non-moral of etiquette and good manners. They are guides of action
which should be followed as expected by society.
-are rules of good manners and right conduct, etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, teachers, and
standards of grammar or language, standards of art, and standards of sports set by other authorities.
■ No talking while your mouth is full.
■ Wear black or white for mourning; never red.
■ The males should be the one to propose marriage not females
■ Observe correct grammar when writing and speaking English.
■ Submit school requirements on time.

An indicator whether or not a standard is moral or non-moral lies in it compliance as distinguished from it's
non-compliance. Non-compliance with moral standards causes sense of guilt, while on- compliance with a
non-moral standard may only cause shame and embarrassment.
Moral Agent + Moral Act = Moral Experience
Moral Agent

● A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held accountable for
his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility not to cause unjustified harm, moral
agency is assigned only to those who can be held responsible for their actions. Children, and adults with
certain mental disabilities, may have little or no capacity to be moral agents.

Moral Act

● action that is freely chosen and comes into existence through our exercise of reason and will. For
example, the person sitting next to you drops her book on the floor, so you reach down, pick it up, and
hand it to her. In this case you fully know what you are doing (picking up the book), and you make the
free choice to do it. This is a moral act. Because the act comes into existence through your free
exercise of reason and will, it can be morally evaluated.
Moral Acts Principles
1. The object is an action that is rationally and freely chosen by the will. It is an intentional kind of behavior or thought. Stated
more clearly, it is an action that we knowingly and willingly perform. This means that the object is what gives an action its
particular moral character. Action or Behavior

2. The intention is not, as many suppose, the reason why we act or our motive for acting. Rather, the intention is the choice of
the will to do something. For example, my choice to drink a glass of water is my intention. I will (or choose) to drink the water
and I do it. Now one cannot see my willing to perform this action, one only sees the result of my willing to perform it. The
choice of my will to drink the water is my intention. The actual drinking of the water is the object. The intention and the object
are so closely connected that they are often combined under the expression “the intentional act.” It is this intentional act that
is subject to moral evaluation. The purpose or Goal

3. Circumstances involve matters such as who, what, where, when, why, how, and how much. Circumstances are very
important because in order to evaluate a particular moral act we must know who is acting and what is involved. For example,
did the acting person fully know what he or she was doing? . Factors/ conditions
Moral Dilemma
● A moral dilemma is a short story about a situation involving a moral conflict.
● Exists when available choices and obligations do not allow for moral outcomes. In such instances, a choice or an
action is anticipated or required, and all of the available alternatives violate some moral obligation.
● paradigm in the field of cognitive neuroscience of moral decision-making.
● A dilemma, in the most general sense, is a situation that requires a choice between two options that are (or seem to
be) equally undesirable or unsatisfactory.
● A moral dilemma is a situation in which the decision-maker has to give priority to one moral value over another
(Brinkmann, 2005; Maclagan, 2003; Toffler, 1986). Such dilemmas “arise when, faced with a difficult situation (e.g.
fair treatment for some versus job security for others), two or more such values conflict in the perception of a
decision-maker, or when one is assessing another’s moral choice” (Maclagan, 2003, p. 22). A person who faces a
dilemma must decide which moral duty to prioritize; “whichever action is taken … will offend an important moral
value” (Maclagan, 2003, p. 23).
The True Dilemma

is an argument intended to put one’s opponent in the position where he is forced to choose between two alternatives, both of
which are distasteful, unpleasant or contradictory to his own argument.

Example:

John 8:4-7

(4) “Teacher, this woman was caught in the act of adultery.

(5) In the Law Moses commanded us to stone such women. Now what do you say?”

(6) They were using this question as a trap, in order to have a basis for accusing him. But Jesus bent down and started to write
on the ground with his finger.

(7) When they kept on questioning him, he straightened up and said to them, “If any one of you is without sin, let him be the first
to throw a stone at her.”
False Dilemma
it presents a scenario with multiple options and outcomes as a binary situation, often presenting one option as
the only “good” choice.

A false dilemma is a fallacy that misrepresents an issue by presenting only two mutually exclusive options

rather than the full, nuanced range of options. Here’s a basic example:

If we don’t order pizza for dinner, we’ll have to eat the week-old spaghetti in the fridge.
Levels of Moral Dilemmas
A. Individual

This refers to personal dilemmas. It is an individual's damn-if you-do-and-damn-if-you-don't situation.

Example:

The case of Heinz as given in the Activity phase of the lesson is one of the best-known individual dilemma's of Kohlberg's
(1958). Kohlberg's dilemma questions were as follows: "Should Heinz have stolen the drug." (Mackinnon, B., et al 2015) If he
did not steal the drug that would mean his wife's death. He was torn between stealing the drug and saving his wife. The
dilemma is faced by an individual who is torn between 2 obligations to save the wife or obey the law. So this an example of
an individual dilemma.
B. Organizational

An organizational dilemma is a puzzle posed by the dual necessities of a social organization and members'
self-interest. It may exist between personal interests and organizational welfare or between group
interests and organizational well-being... (Wagner, J. 2019)

The example of the Catholic school in the Activity phase of the lesson shows the dilemma between the goal of the
school to give quality education for the poor and so must charge the lowest tuition fee possible and yet to keep
quality faculty the school must raise their salary and consequently, must raise tuition.

Organizational dilemmas may likewise occur in business, medical, and public sector.Organizational dilemmas arise
due to different opposing concerns between various groupings in an organization.
C. Structural

The case of the principal whether to be participatory or non-participatory in school affairs but due to her
not so favorable experience of attempting to be participatory ended up to one-woman rule is an example
of a structural dilemma. Any attempt to introduce reform in society or government creates structural
dilemma. For instance, promoting or introducing universal health care, which is tantamount to socialized
health care, gives rise to a structural dilemma that is, a conflict of perspective of sectors, groups and
institutions that may be affected by the decision.A structural dilemma is a conflict of perspective of
sectors, groups and institutions that maybe affected by the decisions.
 Moral Reasoning
Moral reasoning is our cognitive capacity to process information related to ethical
dilemmas. It has long been regarded as the principal determinant of a person’s
ethical and moral behaviour. It is reflected at three levels: pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional.
A person operating at the pre-conventional level of moral reasoning considers any decision or ethical dilemma from the
point of view of avoiding personal harm, loss or seeking personal gain. The one operating at the conventional level is mainly
concerned about following the norms of the group he belongs to, and he follows the law. Anyone operating at the
post-conventional level, approaches an ethical dilemma from the perspective of human values like love, truth and
goodness, and from a universal perspective.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Levels of Moral Age Stages Included in This Level
Development

Preconventional 0 to 9 Stage 1: Obedience and punishment Stage 2: Individualism

Morality and exchange

Conventional Morality Early adolescence to Stage 3: Developing good interpersonal relationships Stage 4:
adulthood Maintaining social order

Postconventional Some adults; rare Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights stage 6:
Morality Universal principles
Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the
age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults
and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development,

obedience and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also
capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage
see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to
avoid punishment.6

Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of

moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions
based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that
the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is
possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding
what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral
standards they have learned from their role models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the
group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the "good

boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.6 There is an emphasis
on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following
the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract

principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract
and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the
differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.6 Rules of law are
important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree
upon these standards.
Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is
based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage,
people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with
laws and rules.7
Determinism ( "Nothing occurs at random, but everything for a reason and by necessity.")

in philosophy and science, the thesis that all events in the universe, including human decisions and actions,
are causally inevitable. Determinism entails that, in a situation in which a person makes a certain decision or
performs a certain action, it is impossible that he or she could have made any other decision or performed any
other action. In other words, it is never true that people could have decided or acted otherwise than they
actually did.

Human beings are programmed to act according, we are destined to do without thinking about them or feeling
sorry about them. Human are sophisticated animals that are made to follow instructions and can do nothing
about it.

Philosophers and scientists who deny the existence of free will on this basis are known as “hard” determinists.

In contrast, so-called “soft” determinists, also called compatibilists, believe that determinism and free will are
compatible after all.
 Human Being as Moral Creature
The phrase "the only moral creature" often refers to the unique capacity of humans to engage in moral reasoning, make ethical
decisions, and reflect on concepts of right and wrong. Here are some key points that explain what makes humans moral:

1. Capacity for Reasoning: Humans possess advanced cognitive abilities that allow for abstract thinking, reasoning, and
the ability to consider the consequences of actions. This capacity enables individuals to evaluate moral dilemmas and
make conscious ethical choices.
2. Moral Emotions: Humans experience complex emotions such as guilt, empathy, and shame, which are integral to moral
behavior. These emotions help individuals understand the impact of their actions on others and encourage prosocial
behavior.
3. Social Structures and Norms: Human societies create and enforce moral codes and norms that govern behavior. These
social constructs facilitate cooperation and coexistence, and individuals are often held accountable for their actions
based on these shared moral frameworks.
4. Moral Philosophy and Ethics: Humans have developed various philosophical systems to explore and define morality
(e.g., utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics). This intellectual pursuit reflects a deep engagement with moral questions
and the desire to create a more just society.
5. Cultural Transmission: Morality is often passed down through generations via cultural practices, education, and
storytelling. This transmission of moral values shapes individual and collective identities, influencing how people view
their responsibilities to one another.
6. Self-Reflection and Moral Agency: Humans possess the ability to reflect on their own beliefs, actions, and values. This
self-awareness allows for moral growth and the capacity to change one's behavior based on ethical considerations.

While other animals exhibit social behaviors that can be seen as moral (e.g., cooperation, altruism), the combination of reasoning,
emotional complexity, and cultural influence uniquely positions humans as the only creatures who engage in moral discourse and
ethical deliberation in a profound way.
Moral Freedom
Moral freedom refers to the capacity of individuals to make choices based on their values, beliefs, and ethical
considerations. Here are some examples of moral freedom in various contexts:

1. Personal Decision-Making: Choosing to act in a way that aligns with one’s ethical beliefs, such as
deciding not to lie or cheat, even when it might be advantageous to do so.
2. Political Activism: Engaging in protests or movements to advocate for social justice, human rights,
or environmental protection, reflecting the moral choice to stand against perceived injustices.
3. Volunteering: Choosing to dedicate time and resources to help others, such as working at a
homeless shelter or participating in community service, out of a sense of moral responsibility.
4. Consumer Choices: Opting to purchase products from companies that adhere to ethical labor
practices or sustainable sourcing, reflecting a moral stance on consumerism.
5. Whistleblowing: Reporting unethical or illegal activities within an organization, despite potential
personal or professional repercussions, as an act of moral courage.
6. Forgiveness: The decision to forgive someone who has wronged you, which involves a moral choice
to let go of resentment and promote healing.
7. Refusing Harmful Practices: Choosing not to participate in activities that cause harm to others, such
as bullying, discrimination, or exploitation, based on a moral framework that values respect and
dignity.

These examples illustrate how moral freedom allows individuals to navigate complex ethical landscapes and make
choices that reflect their values and principles.
References:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/intro_1.shtml

https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy/Problems-of-divine-origin

https://sites.google.com/ctu.edu.ph/gec-ethics/chapter-i-understanding-morality-moral-standards/lesson-2-moral-non-moral-standards

https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/moral-agent

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/moral-dilemmas

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-15191-1_2

https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-development-2795071

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TX001819-2-Article-A-The_Moral_Act.pdf