Unit I

Introduction
to Networks

1
 TOPICS
• Introduction & History
• Network Types – LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN
• Network Topology – BUS, STAR, RING, MESH & HYBRID
• Switching – Circuit & Packet switching
• OSI Layered Architecture
• TCP/IP Model
• Physical Layer Overview – Latency, B/W etc.
• Guided Media – TP, Coaxial & Fiber Optic
• Unguided Media – Radio waves, Microwave & Infrared
Resources:
Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data Communication & Networking”, 5th edition, 2010.
Bhusan Trivedi, Data Communication & Networks”, 2016.
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Introduction & Basic Concepts
Definition:
• A computer network consists of two or more computing devices connected to each
other to share resources and information.
• The network becomes a powerful tool when computers communicate and share
resources with other computers on the same network or entirely distinct networks.
• Computers on a network can act as a client or a server.
• A client is a computer that requests for resources.
• A server is a computer that controls and provides access to resources.
• The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by
the parties creating and using the data.
• Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form
of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Introduction to Networks (Contd.)
• For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs).
• The computing concept ‘hierarchy of data’ is used when planning a network.
• It is essential to maintain a hierarchy of data to manage and control resources among
computers.
• Network access to data must be evaluated carefully to avoid security issues

1. Protocol
2. Sender
3. Message
4. Receiver
5. Tx Medium (Wired/Wireless)
Need for Networks
• Enhance communication
• By using networks, information can be sent to a larger audience in an extremely
fast and efficient manner.
• Share resources.
• A copy of data or application stored at a single central location is shared over a
network. Hardware resource can also be shared.
• Facilitate centralized management.
• Networks are used to assist in management tasks associated with their own
operation and maintenance.
• Using networks results in increased efficiency and a resultant reduction in
maintenance costs.
Data Flow
• Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex,
or full-duplex as shown in Figure.
a) Simplex
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit;
the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are
examples of simplex devices. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
b) Half-Duplex
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive,
but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can
only receive, and vice versa. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band)
radios are both half-duplex systems.
c) Full-Duplex
• In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two-way
street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. One
common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network.
 Network & It’s Criteria
• A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication. In this
definition, a device can be a host (or an end system as it is sometimes called) such as a large
computer, desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system. A device in this
definition can also be a connecting device such as a router, which connects the network to
other networks, a switch, which connects devices together, a modem
(modulator-demodulator), which changes the form of data, and so on. These devices in a
network are connected using wired or wireless transmission media such as cable or air. When
we connect two computers at home using a plug-and-play router, we have created a network,
although very small.
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
 Classification of Networks
• Classification by Network Geography (LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN).
• Classification by Physical Topology (Star, Bus, Ring, Mesh).
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable
to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links,
are also possible. When we change television channels by infrared remote
control, we are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television’s control system.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link In a multipoint environment, the
capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several
devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
 Classification by Network Geography
• Networks are frequently classified according to the geographical
boundaries spanned by the network itself.
• LAN, WAN, PAN and MAN are the basic types of classification, of which
LAN and WAN are frequently used.
1. LAN
A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and
connects some hosts in a single office, building, or campus.
Depending on the needs of an organization, a LAN can be as
simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office, or it
can extend throughout a company and include audio and video
devices.
LANs are inexpensive to install and also provide higher speeds
LAN also provides higher security.
 LAN
In the past, all hosts in a network were connected
through a common cable, which meant that a packet sent
from one host to another was received by all hosts. The
intended recipient kept the packet; the others dropped
the packet.
Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is
able to recognize the destination address of the packet
and guide the packet to its destination without sending it
to all other hosts. The switch alleviates the traffic in the
LAN and allows more than one pair to communicate with
each other at the same time if there is no common source
and destination among them.

Characteristics of LAN:
LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are Ethernet, Token ring.
It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted geographical area.
 Metropolitan Area Network
• A metropolitan area network is a
network that covers a larger geographic
area by interconnecting a different LAN
to form a larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to
connect to the citizens and private
industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to
each other through a telephone
exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN
are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,
OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
MAN (Contd.)
Characteristics:
• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
• Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Applications:
• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college campuses within a city.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN can be private, or it can be public leased
network.
• It is used for the network that covers large
distance such as cover states of a country.
• It is not easy to design and maintain.
• Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN
or Satellite links.
• WAN operates on low data rates.
Example:
• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used
across a region or country.
• Private network: A bank provides a private
network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased
line provided by the telecom company.
WAN (Contd.)
Characteristics
• It generally covers large distances(states, countries,
continents).
• Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone
networks which are connected by routers.
Point-to-Point WAN
• A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two
communicating devices through a transmission media (cable
or air).
Switched WAN
• A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. A
switched WAN is used in the backbone of global
communication today. We can say that a switched WAN is a
combination of several point-to-point WANs that are
connected by switches.
Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research
scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged
within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters (30 feet).
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting
the computer devices of personal use is known
as Personal Area Network.
• Personal computer devices that are used to
develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play
stations.
Example: Body Area Network: Body Area Network
is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person.
Classification by Physical Topology
 Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic
only between the two devices it connects. To find the number of physical
links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider
that each node must be connected to every other node.
• In a mesh topology, we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode links.
Advantages:
1. First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can
carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can
occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
2. Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does
not incapacitate the entire system.
3. Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message
travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
4. Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation
easy.
 Mesh Topology (Contd.)
Disadvantages:
The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/O
ports required.
1. First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
2. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
3. Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.

Example:
• One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone regional offices in
which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.
Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to
one another.
• Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to
send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device.
• A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device
needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
• Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is
affected.
• One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole
topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
• The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs)
Bus Topology

• A bus topology is based on multipoint connection. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between
the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
• Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most
efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less
cabling than mesh or star topologies.
• Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally
efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal reflection at the taps can
cause degradation in quality. In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even
between devices on the same side of the problem.
Example:
• Traditional Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular now.
 Tree Topology
• It’s is a type of network topology that resembles a
tree. In a tree topology, there is one central node (the
“trunk”), and each node is connected to the central
node through a single path.
• Sometimes it is also called hierarchical topology as in this
topology, all elements are arranged like the branches of a
tree.
• Tree topologies are commonly used to arrange data in
databases and workstations in corporate networks. In a tree
topology, any two linked nodes can only have one mutual
connection, hence there can only be one link between
them.

• The disadvantage of a tree topology is that if the primary node

is damaged, the entire system can be crippled, because all other
nodes are connected to the primary node.
 Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated
point-to-point connection with only the two devices on
either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device
in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each
device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either
physically or logically).

To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The only constraints are media and
traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices).
In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally, in a ring a signal is circulating at all times. If one device
does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm.
However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a
disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a
switch capable of closing off the break.
Hybrid Topology

• A hybrid network topology is an interconnection of two or more basic network

topologies, each of which contains its own nodes. The resulting topology will exhibit
characteristics of all the constituent topologies, thereby limiting the inherent
weaknesses of each topology.
• The structure of hybrid topology is more complex but offers various advantages such
as flexibility and fault tolerance.
Switching Techniques
Switching
• An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links together. A switch
needs to forward data from a network to another network when required.
• The two most common types of switched networks are circuit-switched and packet-switched networks.

From the above diagram, What are possible ways to send the data from Node C to Node K?
 Circuit-Switched Network
• In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available between
the two end systems; the switch can only make it active or inactive.
• The thick line connecting two switches is a high-capacity communication line that can handle four
voice communications at the same time; the capacity can be shared between all pairs of telephone
sets.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
• The switches used in this example have forwarding tasks but no storing capability.
Circuit-Switched Network
Three Phases
• Connection Setup
• Transmission Phase
• Termination Phase
• In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase; the
resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown
phase.
• In Transmission phase, actual data communication takes place.
• Once the transmission is over, the resources has to be released in this phase.

• Circuit switching was very common in telephone networks in the past, although part
of the telephone network today is a packet-switched network.
Circuit-Switched Network
Efficiency
• It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two
types of networks because resources are allocated during the entire duration of the
connection. These resources are unavailable to other connections. In a telephone
network, people normally terminate the communication when they have finished
their conversation. However, in computer networks, a computer can be connected to
another computer even if there is no activity for a long time. In this case, allowing
resources to be dedicated means that other connections are deprived.
Delay:
• Delay Although a circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the delay in
this type of network is minimal. During data transfer the data are not delayed at each
switch; the resources are allocated for the duration of the connection.
Delay in a circuit-switched network
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:
• It has fixed bandwidth since the communication channel is dedicated.

Disadvantages:
• Speed of transmission is fixed after connection establishment.
• It takes a long time to establish a connection approx. 10 seconds during which no
data can be transmitted.
• It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
Message Switching
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a
message is transferred as a complete unit and routed
through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no
establishment of a dedicated path between the sender
and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message.
Message Switching provides a dynamic routing as the
message is routed through the intermediate nodes based
on the information available in the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that
they can provide the most efficient routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then
forward it to the next node. This type of network is
known as store and forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an
independent entity.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Message Switching
Advantages:
• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in
the nodes.
• Message priority can be used to manage the network.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore,
it supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages:
• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to
store the messages until the message is forwarded.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by
the message switching technique.
 Packet Switching
• The message is divided into smaller pieces called
packets and they are sent individually.
• packets are given a unique number to identify their
order at the receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its
headers such as source address, destination address
and sequence number.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end
in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.
 Approaches of Packet Switching
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an
independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses
this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
• Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching:
• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are
sent.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
• In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Advantages of Packet Switching
• Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require
massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some
extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a
cost-effective technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that
the Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth
very efficiently.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching
• Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications
that require low delay and high-quality services.
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of
lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are
nor recovered.
 LAYERED
TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider
two friends who communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a
letter to a friend would be complex if there were no services available from the
post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
38
Tasks involved in sending a letter
 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a

multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications
is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the
late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
41
42
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An Exchange Using the OSI Model
Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

46
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

47
Session Layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

48
Transport
LayerThe transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.

49
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the source host to the destination host.

50
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

51
52
Summary of Layer Functions
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI
model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Physical Layer
• Functions
Transmission of a raw bit stream
Forms the physical interface between devices
• Issues
Which modulation technique (bits to pulse (analog
signal))?
Which Line Coding technique (bits to digital signal?)
How long will a bit last? (bit interval vs bit rate)
Bit- serial or parallel transmission?
Half- or Full- duplex transmission?
How many pins does the network connector have?
How is a connection set up or torn down?
 Performance
One important issue in networking is the performance of the network—how
good is it? We discuss quality of service, an overall measurement of network
performance.
▪ Bandwidth - capacity of the system
▪ Throughput - no. of bits that can be pushed through.
▪ Latency (Delay) - delay incurred by a bit from start to finish
▪ Bandwidth-Delay Product
Note: In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.
▪ The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal or the range
of frequencies that a channel can pass.
▪ The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a channel or
link. Often referred to as Capacity.
Example
Propagation & Transmission delay
• Propagation speed - speed at which a bit travels though the medium from
source to destination.
• Transmission speed - the speed at which all the bits in a message arrive at
the destination. (difference in arrival time of first and last bit)

Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed

Transmission Delay = Message size/bandwidth bps

Latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay + Queueing time + Processing time

Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte
message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels
at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
• Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed
Bandwidth-Delay Product
The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits
that can fill the link.
• We can think about the link between two points as a pipe. The cross section of the
pipe represents the bandwidth, and the length of the pipe represents the delay. We
can say the volume of the pipe defines the bandwidth-delay product, as shown in
Figure.
 Transmission Media

TYPES
Guided Media
• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals.
• Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted.

Types
• Twisted-Pair Cable
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber-Optic Cable
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as
compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The
frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot. Increasing the number
of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
 UTP Vs. STP
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the
telecommunication. Following are the categories of mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
the UTP cable: transmission rate.
• Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines
that have low-speed data. Characteristics of STP:
• Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps. • The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not
• Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps. very high and not very low.
• Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. • An installation of STP is easy.
Therefore, it can be used for long distance • It has higher capacity as compared to
communication. unshielded twisted pair cable.
• Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps. • It has a higher attenuation.
Advantages Of UTP: • It is shielded that provides the higher data
• It is cheap. transmission rate.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN. Disadvantages
Disadvantage: • It is more expensive as compared to UTP and
• This cable can only be used for shorter distances coaxial cable.
because of attenuation. • It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
• The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is
made up of copper mesh.
• The middle core is made up of nonconductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor.
• The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission:
• It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission:
• It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.
Advantages of Coaxial cable:
• The data can be transmitted at high speed.
• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
• It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fiber Optic Cable
• Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses light signals for communication.
• Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are
used to send the data by pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
• Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
 Fiber Optic – Views & Modes

Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:

Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of
glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light
transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of
the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fiber.
Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as
cladding. The main functionality of the cladding is to
provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so
that the light waves are transmitted through the fiber.
Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is
known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to
preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra
fiber protection.
Fiber Optic – Modes
Advantages & Disadvantages of OFC
Advantages of Optical Fiber Cable
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cable
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
 UNGUIDED MEDIA
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.

Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared
Frequency Bands
 Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

These are unidirectional in

Direction These are omni-directional in nature. These are unidirectional in nature.
nature.

At low frequency, they can penetrate

At low frequency, they can penetrate
through solid objects and walls but They cannot penetrate through
Penetration through solid objects and walls. at high
high frequency they bounce off the any solid object and walls.
frequency, they cannot penetrate.
obstacle.

Frequency range: 300 GHz to 400

Frequency range Frequency range: 3 KHz to 1GHz. Frequency range: 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
GHz.

Security These offers poor security. These offers medium security. These offers high security.

Attenuation Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.

Some frequencies in the radio-waves

Government Some frequencies in the microwaves There is no need of government
require government license to use
License require government license to use these. license to use these waves.
these.

Usage Cost Setup and usage Cost is moderate. Setup and usage Cost is high. Usage Cost is very less.

These are used in long distance These are used in long distance These are not used in long
Communication
communication. communication. distance communication.
Summary
Topics discussed in Unit-I
Network Types – LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN
Network Topology – BUS, STAR, RING, MESH & HYBRID
Switching – Circuit & Packet switching
OSI Layered Architecture
TCP/IP Model
Physical Layer Overview – Latency, B/W etc.
Guided Media – UTP, STP, Coaxial & Fiber Optic
Unguided Media – Radio waves, Microwave & Infrared