Standard level and higher level : 4 hours
Structure 2.2.7
Guiding question:
What determines the ionic nature and properties of a compound?
Covalent network structures.
Allotropes of carbon:
Elements have different structural forms known as allotropes.
Carbon is one such element, and its allotropes include diamond, graphite, graphene,
and a group of substances known as fullerenes.
They are all composed of carbon atoms but have different chemical and physical
properties due to their different structural arrangements.
Graphite
Diamond:
Graphite is composed of layers of sheets made of
carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded to three
In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in a hexagonal arrangement where
other atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. the geometry around each carbon atom is trigonal
It is one of the hardest substances known. planar. The carbon atoms in graphite are bonded such
For this reason, it is often used in heavy-duty that one electron per carbon atom is delocalized.
cutting tools such as saws, polishing tools and These delocalized electrons are free to move in the
dental drills. planes above and below each sheet and therefore
graphite is a good electrical conductor. While the
Diamond is a poor electrical conductor because itcovalent
has bonds between the carbon atoms within the
no mobile charged particles The electrons are allsheets are strong, the forces of attraction (called
localized in the bonds. It is however an London (dispersion) forces) between the sheets are
excellent thermal conductor: vibrational energy weak. This means that the sheets can be separated
carriers called phonons travel well through the easily, making graphite a good lubricant, as well as an
highly regular lattice and strong covalent bonds. ideal material for pencil leads
Graphene: Carbon nanotubes
is essentially a single sheet of graphite. Fullerenes are a group of carbon allotropes with
Graphene is thus one-atom thick and is atoms arranged in interlinking hexagonal and
therefore, said to be two-dimensional. pentagonal rings. Some fullerenes form long hollow
Like graphite, it is an excellent electrical cylinders: these are known as carbon nanotubes. Due
conductor. to their size, carbon nanotubes are utilized in
It is also Flexible, lightweight, transparent and nanotechnology. Nanotechnology involves the use of
at the same time, extraordinarily strong. atoms, molecules and objects with dimensions of less
First isolated in 2004, graphene is a promising than 100 nm.
new material, with a vast range of potential Carbon nanotubes have potential applications in
applications, from desalination technology to electronics because, like graphite and graphene, the
bendable electronic displays. presence of delocalized electrons means that they
are good electrical conductors.
Buckminsterfullerene, C60
The buckyballs, have a covalent molecular structure. With the
formula C60, the atoms in buckminsterfullerene are arranged in
hexagons and pentagons to suggest a very familiar shape: a football.
Along with other spherical fullerenes, buckyballs could have exciting
new roles in medicine as drug carriers. Because of its molecular
structure, C60 has a low boiling point: overcoming the weak
intermolecular forces of attraction does not require much thermal
energy.
Silicon and silicon dioxide:
Silicon forms a three-dimensional lattice where each silicon atom
is bonded to four other silicon atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement. This arrangement is similar to that of the carbon
atoms in diamond.
The extensive covalent bonds in the lattice result in high
strength, as well as high melting point and boiling point.
The Si–Si bond is weaker than its C–C counterpart as silicon has a
larger atomic radius.
Therefore, the Si–Si bond is more reactive than the C–C bond.
This difference in strength also helps to explain the different
melting and boiling points.
Practice questions
Q Explain why graphite and graphene conduct electricity, but
diamond does not.
Q Explain why diamond and silicon dioxide have high melting and
boiling points.
Summarize the properties of some of the covalent substances using
a table like the one below.
Diamond Graphite Graphene C60 fullerene Silicon
dioxide
Element(s) C C C C Si & O
Arrangement 3D lattice of layers of covalently a single layer of spherical 3D lattice of
covalently bonded trigonal covalently molecular tetrahedral
of atoms bonded planar atoms in a bonded structure silicon atoms
tetrahedral hexagonal trigonal composed of bonded to
carbon atoms honeycomb planar atoms 60 covalently oxygen atoms
arrangement in a hexagonal bonded and in a ratio of
honeycomb trigonal 1 to 2.
arrangement planar carbon
atoms
arranged in an array
of 20
hexagons and
12 pentagons
Electrical poor high high poor poor
conductivity
