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Spintronics Handbook, Second Edition: Spin Transport and

Magnetism: Volume One: Metallic Spintronics Evgeny Y.
Tsymbal (Editor)

Spintronics Handbook, Second Edition: Spin Transport and

Magnetism: Volume Three: Nanoscale Spintronics and
Applications Evgeny Y. Tsymbal (Editor)

Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering, Fourth

Edition: Volume 3A: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors and
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Noise in Spintronics From Understanding to Manipulation
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Spintronics Handbook:
Spin Transport and
Magnetism,
Second Edition
Semiconductor Spintronics—Volume Two
Spintronics Handbook:
Spin Transport and
Magnetism,
Second Edition
Semiconductor Spintronics—Volume Two

Edited by
Evgeny Y. Tsymbal and Igor Ž utić
CRC Press
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Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
About the Editors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
List of Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Section IV—Spin Transport and

Dynamics in Semiconductors

Chapter 1. Spin Relaxation and Spin Dynamics in Semiconductors and

Graphene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Jaroslav Fabian and M. W. Wu
Chapter 2. Electrical Spin Injection and Transport in Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . 59
Berend T. Jonker
Chapter 3. Spin Transport in Si and Ge: Hot Electron Injection and
Detection Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Ian Appelbaum
Chapter 4. Tunneling Magnetoresistance, Spin-Transfer and
Spinorbitronics with (Ga,Mn)As. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
J.-M. George, D. Quang To, T. Huong Dang, E. Erina,
T. L. Hoai Nguyen, H.-J. Drouhin, and H. Jaffrès
Chapter 5. Spin Transport in Organic Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Valentin Dediu, Luis E. Hueso, and Ilaria Bergenti

v
vi   Contents

Chapter 6. Spin Transport in Ferromagnet/III–V Semiconductor

Heterostructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Paul A. Crowell and Scott A. Crooker
Chapter 7. Spin Polarization by Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Sergey D. Ganichev, Maxim Trushin, and John Schliemann
Chapter 8. Anomalous and Spin-Injection Hall Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Jairo Sinova, Jörg Wunderlich, and Tomás Jungwirth

Section V—Magnetic Semiconductors,

Oxides and Topological Insulators

Chapter 9. Magnetic Semiconductors: III–V Semiconductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Carsten Timm
Chapter 10. Magnetism of Dilute Oxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
J.M.D. Coey
Chapter 11. Magnetism of Complex Oxide Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Satoshi Okamoto, Shuai Dong, and Elbio Dagotto
Chapter 12. LaAlO3/SrTiO3: A Tale of Two Magnetisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Yun-Yi Pai, Anthony Tylan-Tyler, Patrick Irvin, and Jeremy Levy
Chapter 13. Electric-Field Controlled Magnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Fumihiro Matsukura and Hideo Ohno
Chapter 14. Topological Insulators: From Fundamentals to Applications. . . . . . 543
Matthew J. Gilbert and Ewelina M. Hankiewicz
Chapter 15. Quantum Anomalous Hall Effect in Topological Insulators . . . . . . . 573
Abhinav Kandala, Anthony Richardella, and Nitin Samarth
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Foreword

S
pintronics is a field of research in which novel properties of materials,
especially atomically engineered magnetic multilayers, are the result of
the manipulation of currents of spin-polarized electrons. Spintronics, in
its most recent incarnation, is a field of research that is almost 30 years old.
To date, its most significant technological impact has been in the develop-
ment of a new generation of ultra-sensitive magnetic recording read heads
that have powered magnetic disk drives since late 1997. These magnetoresis-
tive read heads, which use spin-valves based on spin-dependent scattering at
magnetic/non-magnetic interfaces and, since 2007, magnetic tunnel junctions
(MTJs) based on spin-dependent tunneling across ultra-thin insulating layers,
have a common thin film structure. These structures involve “spin engineer-
ing” to eliminate the influence of long-range magneto-dipole fields via the use
of synthetic or artificial antiferromagnets, which are formed from thin mag-
netic layers coupled antiferromagnetically via the use of atomically thin layers
of ruthenium. These structures involve the discoveries of spin-dependent tun-
neling in 1975, giant magnetoresistance at low temperatures in Fe/Cr in 1988,
oscillatory interlayer coupling in 1989, the synthetic antiferromagnet in 1990,
giant magnetoresistance at room temperature in Co/Cu and related multilayers
in 1991, and the origin of giant magnetoresistance as being a result of predomi-
nant interface scattering in 1991–1993. Together, these discoveries led to the
spin-valve recording read head that was introduced by IBM in 1997 and led,
within a few years, to a 1,000-fold increase in the storage capacity of magnetic
disk drives. This rapid pace of improvement has stalled over the past years
as the difficulty of stabilizing tiny magnetic bits against thermal fluctuations
whilst at the same time being able to generate large enough magnetic fields to
write them, has proved intractable. The possibility of creating novel spintronic
magnetic memory-storage devices to rival magnetic disk drives in capacity and
to vastly exceed them in performance has emerged in the form of Racetrack
Memory. This concept and the physics underlying it are discussed in this book,

vii
viii   Foreword

together with a more conventional spintronic memory, magnetic random

access memory (MRAM). MRAM is based on MTJ magnetic memory bits,
each one accessed in a two-dimensional cross point array via a transistor.
The fundamental concept of MRAM was proposed in 1995 using local fields
to write the MTJ elements. This basic concept was proven in 1999 with
the subsequent demonstration of large-scale, fully integrated 64 Mbit mem-
ory chips in the following decade. Writing these same elements using spin
angular momentum from sufficiently large spin-polarized currents passed
through the tunnel junction elements emerged in the 1990s and is now key
to the development of massive-scale MRAM chips. The second edition of
this book discusses these emerging spintronic technologies as well as other
breakthroughs and key advances, both fundamental and applied, in the field
of spintronics.
Beyond MRAM and Racetrack Memory, this book elucidates other
nascent opportunities in spintronics that do not rely directly on magneto-
resistive effects, such as fault-tolerant quantum computing, non-Boolean
spin-wave logic, and lasers that are enhanced by spin-polarized carriers. It
is interesting that spintronics is a field of research that continues to surprise
even though the fundamental property of spin was realized nearly a century
ago, and the basic concept of spin-dependent scattering in magnetic materi-
als was introduced by Neville Mott just shortly after the notion of “spin” was
conceived.
Since the first edition of this book, spintronics has so much evolved
that a new name of “spin-orbitronics” has been coined to describe these new
discoveries and developments. In the first edition of this book, spin-orbit
coupling was regarded rather negatively as a property that leads to mix-
ing between spin-channels and the loss of spin angular momentum from
spin currents to the lattice, thereby limiting the persistence of these same
spin currents, both temporally and spatially. In this edition, several physi-
cal phenomena derived from spin-orbit coupling are shown to be key to the
development of several new technologies, such as, in particular, the current-
induced motion of a series of magnetic domain walls that underlies Racetrack
Memory. This relies especially on the generation of pure spin currents via
the spin Hall effect (SHE). The magnitude of the SHE was thought for some
time to be very small in conventional metals, but over the past few years,
this has rather been shown to be incorrect. Significant and useful SHEs have
been discovered in a number of heavy materials where spin-orbit coupling is
large. These spin currents can be used to help move domain walls or to help
switch the magnetization direction of nanoscale magnets. Whether they
can be usefully used for MRAM, however, is still a matter of debate.
Another very interesting development since the first edition of this book
is the explosive increase in our understanding and knowledge of topological
insulators and their cousins including, most recently, Weyl semi-metals. The
number of such materials has increased astronomically and, indeed, it is now
understood that a significant fraction of all extant materials are “topologi-
cal”. What this means, in some cases, is that the spin of the carriers is locked
to their momentum leading, for example, to the Quantum Spin Hall Effect.
 Foreword    ix

The very concept of these materials is derived from band inversion, which is
often due to strong spin-orbit coupling. From a spintronics perspective, the
novel properties of these materials can lead to intrinsic spin currents and
spin accumulations that are topologically “protected” to a greater or lesser
degree. The concept of topological protection is itself evolving.
Distinct from electronic topological effects are topological spin textures
such as skyrmions and anti-skyrmions. The latter were only experimentally
found 2 years ago. These spin textures are nano-sized magnetic objects that
are related to magnetic bubbles, which are also found in magnetic materi-
als with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy but which have boundaries or
walls that are innately chiral. The chirality is determined by a vector mag-
netic exchange – a Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction (DMI) – that is often
derived from spin-orbit coupling. The DMI favors orthogonal alignment of
neighboring magnetic moments in contrast to conventional ferromagnetic
or antiferromagnetic exchange interactions that favor collinear magnetic
arrangements. Skyrmion and anti-skyrmion spin textures have very interest-
ing properties that could also be useful for Racetrack Memories. Typically,
skyrmions and anti-skyrmions evolve from helical or conical spin textures.
The magnetic phase of such systems can have complex dependences on tem-
perature, magnetic field, and strain. Some chiral antiferromagnetic spin tex-
tures have interesting properties such as an anomalous Hall effect (AHE),
which is derived from their topological chiral spin texture in the absence of
any net magnetization. In practice, however, a small unbalanced moment is
needed to set the material in a magnetic state with domains of the same chi-
rality in order to evidence the AHE. On the other hand, these same chiral
textures can display an intrinsic spin Hall effect whose sign is independent
of the chirality of the spin texture.
The DMI interaction can also result from interfaces particularly
between heavy metals and magnetic layers. Such interfacial DMIs can give
rise to chiral domain walls as well as magnetic bubbles with chiral domain
walls – somewhat akin to skyrmions. The tunability of the interfacial DMI
via materials engineering makes it of special interest.
Thus, since the first edition of this book, chiral spin phenomena, namely
chiral spin textures and domain walls, and the spin Hall effect itself, which is
innately chiral, have emerged as some of the most interesting developments
in spintronics. The impact of these effects was largely unanticipated. It is
not too strong to say that we are now in the age of “chiraltronics”!
Another topic that has considerably advanced since the first edition of
this book is the field of what is often now termed spin caloritronics, namely
the use of temperature gradients to create spin currents and the use of ther-
mal excitations of magnetic systems, i.e. magnons, for magnonic devices.
Indeed, magnons carry spin angular momentum and can propagate over
long distances. Perhaps here it is worth mentioning the extraordinarily long
propagation distances of spin currents via magnons in antiferromagnetic
systems that have recently been realized.
Recently discovered atomically thin ferromagnets reveal how the pres-
ence of spin-orbit coupling overcomes the exclusion of two-dimensional
x   Foreword

ferromagnetism expected from the Mermin-Wagner theorem. These two-

dimensional materials, which are similar to graphene in that they can readily
be exfoliated from bulk samples, provide a rich platform to study magnetic
proximity effects and transform a rapidly growing class of van der Waals
materials. Through studies of magnetic materials, it is possible to reveal
their peculiar quantum manifestations. Topological insulators can become
magnetic by doping with 3d transition metals; the quantum anomalous Hall
effect has been discovered in such materials, and heterostructures that con-
sist of magnetic and non-magnetic topological insulators have been used to
demonstrate current-induced control of magnetism.
Spintronics remains a vibrant research field that spans many disciplines
ranging from materials science and chemistry to physics and engineering.
Based on the rich developments and discoveries over the past thirty years,
one can anticipate a bountiful future.

Stuart Parkin
Director at the Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics
Halle (Saale), Germany
and
Alexander von Humboldt Professor, Martin-Luther-Universität
Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics
Halle (Saale), Germany
Preface

T
he second edition of this book continues the path from the foundations
of spin transport and magnetism to their potential device applications,
usually referred to as spintronics. Spintronics has already left its mark
on several emerging technologies, e.g., in magnetic random access memories
(MRAMs), where the fundamental properties of magnetic tunnel junctions are
key for device performance. Further, many intricate fundamental phenomena
featured in the first edition have since evolved from an academic curiosity into
the potential basis for future spintronic devices. Often, as in the case of spin
Hall effects, spin-orbit torques, and electrically-controlled magnetism, the
research has migrated from the initial low-temperature discovery in semicon-
ductors to technologically more suitable room temperature manifestations in
metallic systems. This path from exotic behavior to possible application contin-
ues to the present day and is reflected in the modified title of the book, which
now explicitly highlights “spintronics,” as its overarching scope. Exotic topics
of today, for example, pertaining to topological properties, such as skyrmions,
topological insulators, or even elusive Majorana fermions, may become suitable
platforms for the spintronics of tomorrow. Impressive progress has been seen in
the last decade in the field of spin caloritronics, which has evolved from a curi-
ous prediction 30 years ago to a vibrant field of research.
Since the first edition, there has been a significant evolution in material sys-
tems displaying spin-dependent phenomena, making it difficult to cover even
the key developments in a single volume. The initially featured chapter on gra-
phene spintronics is now complemented by a chapter on the spin-dependent
properties of a broad range of two-dimensional materials that can form a myriad
of heterostructures coupled by weak van der Waals forces and support super-
conductivity or ferromagnetism even in a single atomic layer. Exciting develop-
ments have also been seen in the field of complex oxide heterostuctures, where
the non-trivial properties are driven by the interplay between the electronic,
spin, and structural degrees of freedom. A particular example is the magnetism

xi
xii   Preface

emerging in two-dimensional electron gases at oxide interfaces composed of

otherwise nonmagnetic constituents. The updated structure of a significantly
expanded book reflects various materials developments and it is now the-
matically divided into three volumes, each based on broadly defined metallic
and semiconductor systems or their nanoscale and applied aspects.
Spintronics becomes more and more attractive as a viable platform for
propelling semiconducting technology beyond its current limits. Various
schemes have been proposed to enhance the functionalities of the exist-
ing technologies based on the spin degree of freedom. Among them is the
voltage control of magnetism, exploiting the nonvolatile performance of
ferromagnet-based devices in conjunction with their low-power operation.
Another approach is utilizing spin currents carried by magnons to trans-
port and process information. Magnon spintronics involves interesting fun-
damental physics and offers novel spin wave-based computing technologies
and logic circuits. Optical control of magnetism is another approach, which
has attracted a lot of attention due to the recent discovery of the all-optical
switching of magnetization and its realization at the nanoscale. Chapters on
these subjects are included in the new edition of the book.
Nearly nine decades after the discovery of superconducting proximity
effects by Ragnar Holm and Walther Meissner, several new chapters now
explore how a given material can be transformed through proximity effects
whereby it acquires the properties of its neighbors, for example, becoming
superconducting, magnetic, topologically non-trivial, or with an enhanced
spin-orbit coupling. Such proximity effects not only complement the con-
ventional methods of designing materials by doping or functionalization but
can also overcome their various limitations and enable yet more unexplored
spintronic applications.
We are grateful both to the authors who set aside their many priorities
and contributed new chapters, which have significantly expanded the scope
of this book, as well as to those who patiently provided valuable updates to
their original chapters and kept this edition even more timely. The comple-
tion of the second edition was again greatly facilitated by Verona Skomski,
who tirelessly collected authors’ contributions and assisted their prepara-
tion for the submission to the publisher. We acknowledge the support of
NSF-DMR, NSF-MRSEC, NSF-ECCS, SRC, DOE-BES, US ONR which,
through the support of our research and involvement in spintronics, has also
enabled our editorial work. We are thankful to our families for their sup-
port, patience, and understanding during extended periods of time when we
remained focused on the completion of this edition.

Evgeny Y. Tsymbal
Department of Physics and Astronomy,
Nebraska Center for Materials and Nanoscience, University of Nebraska,
Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA
Igor Ž utić
Department of Physics, University at Buffalo,
State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14260, USA
About the Editors

Evgeny Y. Tsymbal is a George Holmes University Distinguished Professor

at the Department of Physics and Astronomy of the University of Nebraska-
Lincoln (UNL), and Director of the UNL’s Materials Research Science and
Engineering Center (MRSEC). He joined UNL in 2002 as an Associate
Professor, was promoted to a Full Professor with Tenure in 2005 and named
a Charles Bessey Professor of Physics in 2009 and George Holmes University
Distinguished Professor in 2013. Prior to his appointment at UNL, he was a
research scientist at University of Oxford, United Kingdom, a research fellow
of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation at the Research Center-Jülich,
Germany, and a research scientist at the Russian Research Center “Kurchatov
Institute,” Moscow. Evgeny Y. Tsymbal’s research is focused on computational
materials science aiming at the understanding of fundamental properties of
advanced ferromagnetic and ferroelectric nanostructures and materials relevant
to nanoelectronics and spintronics. He has published over 230 papers, review
articles, and book chapters and presented over 180 invited presentations in the
areas of spin transport, magnetoresistive phenomena, nanoscale magnetism,
complex oxide heterostructures, interface magnetoelectric phenomena, and
ferroelectric tunnel junctions. Evgeny Y. Tsymbal is a fellow of the American
Physical Society, a fellow of the Institute of Physics, UK, and a recipient of the
UNL’s College of Arts & Sciences Outstanding Research and Creativity Award
(ORCA). His research has been supported by the National Science Foundation,
Semiconductor Research Corporation, Office of Naval Research, Department of
Energy, Seagate Technology, and the W. M. Keck Foundation.

Igor Ž utić received his Ph.D. in theoretical physics at the University of

Minnesota, after undergraduate studies at the University of Zagreb, Croatia.
He was a postdoc at the University of Maryland and the Naval Research Lab.
In 2005 he joined the State University of New York at Buffalo as an Assistant

xiii
xiv   About the Editors

Professor of Physics and got promoted to an Associate Professor in 2009

and to a Full Professor in 2013. He proposed and chaired Spintronics 2001:
International Conference on Novel Aspects of Spin-Polarized Transport and
Spin Dynamics, at Washington DC. Work with his collaborators spans a
range of topics from high-temperature superconductors, Majorana fermions,
proximity effects, van der Waals materials, and unconventional magnetism,
to the prediction and experimental realization of spin-based devices that are
not limited to magnetoresistance. He has published over 100 refereed articles
and given over 150 invited presentations on spin transport, magnetism, spin-
tronics, and superconductivity. Igor Žutić is a recipient of the 2006 National
Science Foundation CAREER Award, the 2019 State University of New York
Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Scholarship and Creative Activities,
the 2005 National Research Council/American Society for Engineering
Education Postdoctoral Research Award, and the National Research Council
Fellowship (2003–2005). His research is supported by the National Science
Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, the Department of Energy, Office
of Basic Energy Sciences, the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency,
and the Airforce Office of Scientific Research. He is a fellow of the American
Physical Society.
Contributors

Ian Appelbaum Elbio Dagotto

Department of Physics Department of Physics and
University of Maryland Astronomy
College Park, Maryland The University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
and
Ilaria Bergenti
Materials Science and Technology
Institute for Nanostructured
Division
Materials Studies
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Bologna, Italy
Oak Ridge, Tennessee

J. M. D. Coey
T. Huong Dang
Centre for Research on Adaptive
Unité Mixte de Physique
Nanostructures and Nanodevices
Centre National de la Recherche
Trinity College
Scientifique-Thales
Dublin, Ireland
Université Paris-Saclay
and
Scott A. Crooker Laboratoire des Solides Irradiés,
National High Magnetic Field Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS and
Laboratory CEA/DRF/IRAMIS
Los Alamos National Laboratory Institut Polytechnique de Paris
Los Alamos, New Mexico Palaiseau, France

Paul A. Crowell Valentin Dediu

School of Physics and Astronomy Institute for Nanostructured
University of Minnesota Materials Studies
Minneapolis, Minnesota Bologna, Italy

xv
xvi   Contributors

Shuai Dong Ewelina M. Hankiewicz

Department of Physics Institute for Theoretical Physics
Southeast University and Astrophysics
Nanjing, China Würzburg University
Würzburg, Germany
H.-J. Drouhin
Laboratoire des Solides Irradiés, Luis E. Hueso
Ecole Polytechnique CIC nanoGUNE Consolider
CNRS and CEA-DRF-IRAMIS Basque Foundation for Science
Institut Polytechnique de Paris Bilbao, Spain
Palaiseau, France
Patrick Irvin
E. Erina Department of Physics and
Laboratoire des Solides Irradiés, Astronomy
Ecole Polytechnique University of Pittsburgh
CNRS and CEA-DRF-IRAMIS and
Institut Polytechnique de Paris Pittsburgh Quantum Institute
Palaiseau, France Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Jaroslav Fabian Henri Jaffrès

Department of Physics Unité Mixte de Physique
University of Regensburg Centre National de la Recherche
Regensburg, Germany Scientifique-Thales
Université Paris-Saclay
Sergey D. Ganichev Palaiseau, France
Department of Physics
University of Regensburg Berend T. Jonker
Regensburg, Germany Magnetoelectronic Materials and
Devices Branch
Jean Marie George Materials Science and Technology
Unité Mixte de Physique Division
Centre National de la Recherche Naval Research Laboratory
Scientifique-Thales Washington, DC
Université Paris-Saclay
Palaiseau, France Tomás Jungwirth
Institute of Physics
Matthew J. Gilbert Academy of Sciences of the Czech
Department of Electrical and Republic
Computer Engineering Praha, Czech Republic
University of Illinois at and
Urbana-Champaign School of Physics and Astronomy
Urbana, Illinois University of Nottingham
and Nottingham, United Kingdom
Department of Electrical
Engineering Stanford Abhinav Kandala
University IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
Stanford, California Yorktown Heights, New York
 Contributors    xvii

Jeremy Levy John Schliemann

Department of Physics and Department of Physics
Astronomy University of Regensburg
University of Pittsburgh Regensburg, Germany
and
Pittsburgh Quantum Institute Jairo Sinova
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Johannes Gutenberg Universität
Mainz
Fumihiro Matsukura Institute of Physics
Tohoku University Mainz, Germany
Sendai, Japan
Carsten Timm
T. L. Hoai Nguyen Institute of Theoretical Physics
Institute of Physics, VAST, 10 Technische Universität Dresden
Daotan, Dresden, Germany
Badinh, Hanoi, Vietnam
Duy-Quang To
Laboratoire des Solides Irradiés,
Hideo Ohno
Ecole Polytechnique
Tohoku University
CNRS and CEA-DRF-IRAMIS
Sendai, Japan
Institut Polytechnique de Paris
Palaiseau, France
Satoshi Okamoto
Materials Science and Technology
Maxim Trushin
Division
Centre for Advanced 2D Materials
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
National University of Singapore
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Singapore

Yun-Yi Pai Anthony Tylan-Tyler

Department of Physics and Department of Physics and
Astronomy Astronomy
University of Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh
and and
Pittsburgh Quantum Institute Pittsburgh Quantum Institute
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Anthony Richardella M. W. Wu
Department of Physics and Hefei National Laboratory for
Materials Research Institute Physical Sciences at Microscale
The Pennsylvania State University and Department of Physics
University Park, Pennsylvania University of Science and
Technology of China
Nitin Samarth Hefei, Anhui, China
Department of Physics and
Materials Research Institute Jörg Wunderlich
The Pennsylvania State University Hitachi Cambridge Laboratory
University Park, Pennsylvania Cambridge, United Kingdom
 Section IV
Spin Transport
and Dynamics in
Semiconductors
Chapter 1 Spin Relaxation and Spin Dynamics in
Semiconductors and Graphene 3
Jaroslav Fabian and M. W. Wu
Chapter 2 Electrical Spin Injection and Transport in
Semiconductors59
 
Berend T. Jonker
Chapter 3 Spin Transport in Si and Ge: Hot Electron
Injection and Detection Experiments 149
 
Ian Appelbaum

1
2   Section IV.  Spin Transport and Dynamics in Semiconductors

Chapter 4 Tunneling Magnetoresistance, Spin-Transfer

and Spinorbitronics with (Ga,Mn)As 175
 J.-M. George, D. Quang To, T. Huong Dang, E. Erina,
T. L. Hoai Nguyen, H.-J. Drouhin, and H. Jaffrès
Chapter 5 Spin Transport in Organic Semiconductors 247
  Valentin Dediu, Luis E. Hueso, and Ilaria Bergenti
Chapter 6 Spin Transport in Ferromagnet/III–V
Semiconductor Heterostructures 269
  Paul A. Crowell and Scott A. Crooker
Chapter 7 Spin Polarization by Current 317
  Sergey D. Ganichev, Maxim Trushin, and John Schliemann
Chapter 8 Anomalous and Spin-Injection Hall Effects 339
  Jairo Sinova, Jörg Wunderlich, and Tomás Jungwirth
 1
Spin Relaxation and
Spin Dynamics in
Semiconductors
and Graphene
Jaroslav Fabian and M. W. Wu

1.1 Toy Model: Electron Spin in a Fluctuating

Magnetic Field 5
1.1.1 Motional Narrowing 12
1.1.2 Reversible Dephasing, Spin Ensemble,
Random Walk in Inhomogeneous Fields 12
1.1.2.1 Reversible Spin Dephasing: Spin
Ensemble in Spatially Random
Magnetic Field 12
1.1.2.2 Spin Echo 14

3
4   Chapter 1.  Spin Relaxation and Spin Dynamics in Semiconductors

1.1.2.3 Spin Random Walk in

Inhomogeneous Magnetic Field 14
1.1.3 Quantum Mechanical Description 16
1.1.4 Spin Relaxation of Conduction Electrons 16
1.2 D’yakonov–Perel’ Mechanism 18
1.2.1 Spin–Orbit Field 18
1.2.2 Kinetic Equation for the Spin 19
1.2.3 Persistent Spin Helix 21
1.3 Elliott–Yafet Mechanism 24
1.3.1 Electron-Impurity Scattering 25
1.3.1.1 Spin–Orbit Coupling by the Impurity 25
1.3.1.2 Spin–Orbit Coupling by the Host
Lattice 26
1.3.2 Electron–Phonon Scattering 27
1.3.2.1 Yafet Relation 29
1.4 Results Based on Kinetic-Spin-Bloch-Equation
Approach 31
1.4.1 Kinetic Spin Bloch Equations 31
1.4.2 Spin Relaxation/Dephasing 32
1.4.3 Spin Diffusion/Transport 41
1.5 Spin Relaxation in Graphene 47
Acknowledgments 51
References 51

T
he spin of conduction electrons decays due to the combined effect of
spin–orbit coupling and momentum scattering. The spin–orbit cou-
pling couples the spin to the electron momentum that is randomized
by momentum scattering off of impurities and phonons. Seen from the per-
spective of the electron spin, the spin–orbit coupling gives a spin precession,
while momentum scattering makes this precession randomly fluctuating,
both in magnitude and orientation.
The specific mechanisms for the spin relaxation of conduction elec-
trons were proposed by Elliott [1] and Yafet [2], for conductors with a cen-
ter of inversion symmetry, and by D’yakonov and Perel’ [3], for conductors
without an inversion center. In p-doped semiconductors, there is in play
another spin relaxation mechanism, due to Bir et al. [4]. As this has a rather
limited validity we do not describe it here. More details can be found in
reviews [5–9].
 1.1 Toy Model: Electron Spin in a Fluctuating Magnetic Field    5

Before we discuss the two main mechanisms, we introduce a toy model

that captures the relevant physics of spin relaxation without resorting
explicitly to quantum mechanics: the electron spin in a randomly fluctuating
magnetic field. We will find certain universal qualitative features of the spin
relaxation and dephasing in physically important situations.
The next part of this review covers the experimental as well as compu-
tational status of the field, discussing the spin relaxation in semiconductors
under varying conditions such as temperature and doping density.

1.1 TOY MODEL: ELECTRON SPIN IN A

FLUCTUATING MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider an electron spin S (or the corresponding magnetic moment) in the
presence of an external time-independent magnetic field B0 = B0z, giving rise
to the Larmor precession frequency ω0 = ω 0z, and a fluctuating time-depen-
dent field B(t) giving the Larmor frequency ω(t) (see Figure 1.1). We assume
that the field fluctuates about zero and is correlated on the -timescale of τc:

w(t ) = 0, wa (t )wb (t ¢) = dab w2ae -|t -t ¢|/ tc . (1.1)

Here α and β denote the Cartesian coordinates and the overline denotes
averaging over different random realizations B(t). We will see later that such
fluctuating fields arise quite naturally in the context of the electron spins in
solids.
The following description applies equally to the classical magnetic
moment described by the vector S as well as to the quantum mechanical
spin whose expectation value is S. Writing out the torque equation, S = w ´ S ,
we get the following equations of motion:

S x = −ω 0 S y + ω y (t )Sz − ω z (t )S y , (1.2)

S y = ω 0 Sx − ω x (t )Sz + ω z (t )Sx , (1.3)

B0, ω0

B(t), ω(t)

FIGURE 1.1 Electron spin precesses about the static B0 field along z. The randomly
fluctuating magnetic field B(t) causes spin relaxation and spin dephasing.
6   Chapter 1.  Spin Relaxation and Spin Dynamics in Semiconductors

Sz = ω x (t )S y − ω y (t )Sx . (1.4)

These equations are valid for one specific realization of ω(t). Our goal is to
find instead effective equations for the time evolution of the average spin,
S(t ) , given the ensemble of Larmor frequencies ω(t).
It is convenient to introduce the complex “rotating” spins S± and Larmor
frequencies ω± in the (x,y) plane:

S+ = Sx + iS y , S− = Sx − iS y , (1.5)

ω + = ω x + iω y , ω − = ω x − iω y . (1.6)

The inverse relations are

1 1
Sx = ( S+ + S − ) , S y = ( S+ − S − ) , (1.7)
2 2i
1 1
ωx = (ω+ + ω − ) , ω y = (ω+ − ω − ). (1.8)
2 2i
The equations of motion for the spin set (S+, S−, Sz) are

S+ = iω 0 S+ + iω z S+ − iω + Sz , (1.9)

S− = −iω 0 S− − iω z S− + iω − Sz , (1.10)

1 
Sz = −  i ( ω + S− − ω − S+ ) . (1.11)
2 
In the absence of the fluctuating fields, the spin S+ rotates in the complex
plane anticlockwise (for ω 0 > 0) while S− clockwise.
The precession about B0 can be factored out by applying the ansatz*:

S± = s± (t )e ± iω0t . (1.12)

Indeed, it is straightforward to find the time evolution of the set (s+, s−,
sz ≡ Sz ):

s+ = iω z s+ − iω + sz e − iω0t , (1.13)

s− = −iω z s− + iω − sz e iω0t , (1.14)

1 
sz = −  i  ω + s− e − iω0t − ω − s+ e iω0t  . (1.15)
2 

* This is analogous to going to the interaction picture when dealing with a quantum mechani-
cal problem of that type.
 1.1 Toy Model: Electron Spin in a Fluctuating Magnetic Field    7

The penalty for transforming into this “rotating frame” is the appearance of
the phase factors exp(±iω 0t).
The solutions of Equations 1.13 through 1.15 can be written in terms of
the integral equations

t t

∫0
∫
s+ (t ) = s+ (0) + i dt ′ω z (t ′)s+ (t ′) − i dt ′ω + (t ′)sz (t ′)e − iω0t ′ ,
0
(1.16)

t t

∫0
∫
s− (t ) = s− (0) − i dt ′ω z (t ′)s− (t ′) + i dt ′ω − (t ′)sz (t ′)eiω0t ′ ,
0
(1.17)

t
1
sz (t ) = sz (0) −
2i ∫
dt ′  ω + (t ′)s− (t ′)e − iω0t ′ − ω − (t ′)s+ (t ′)e iω0t ′  .
0
(1.18)

We should now substitute the above solutions back into Equations 1.13
through 1.15. The corresponding expressions become rather lengthy, so we
demonstrate the procedure on the s+ component only. We get

∫
s+(t ) = iω z (t )s+ (0) − ω z (t ) dt ′ω z (t ′)s+ (t ′)
0
t

∫
+ ω z (t ) dt ′ω + (t ′)sz (t ′)e − iω0t ′ − iω + (t )e − iω0t sz (0)
0
(1.19)

t
1
2 ∫
+ e − iω0t ω + (t ) dt ′  ω + (t ′)s− (t ′)e − iω0t ′ − ω − (t ′)s+ (t ′)e iω0t ′  .
0

The reader is encouraged to write the analogous equations for sz (that for s−
is easy to write since s− = s+* ).
We now make two approximations. First, we assume that the fluctuat-
ing field is rather weak and stay in the second order in ω.* This allows us to
factorize the averaging over the statistical realizations of the field

ω(t )ω(t ′)s(t ′) ≈ ω(t )ω(t ′) s(t ′) (1.20)

as the spin changes only weakly over the timescale, τc, of the changes of
the fluctuating fields. This approximation is called the Born approximation,
alluding to the analogy with the second-order time-dependent perturba-
tion theory in quantum mechanics. Going beyond the Born approximation
one would need to execute complicated averaging schemes of the product in
Equation 1.20, since s(t) in general depends on ω(t′ ≤ t).

* More precisely, we assume that |ω(t)|τc ≪ 1, so that the spin does not fully precess about the
fluctuating field before the field makes a random change.
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