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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VIROLOGY
FOURTH EDITION

Volume 1
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VIROLOGY
FOURTH EDITION

EDITORS IN CHIEF

Dennis H. Bamford
Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Programme
Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences
University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Mark Zuckerman
South London Specialist Virology Centre
King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust
London, United Kingdom
and
Department of Infectious Diseases
School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London Medical School
London, United Kingdom

Volume 1

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.
EDITORS IN CHIEF

Dennis H. Bamford, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Virology at the Faculty of Biological and
Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland. He obtained his PhD in 1980 from
the Department of Genetics, University of Helsinki. During 1981–1982 he was an EMBO
postdoctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute of the City of New York, United
States, and during 1983–1992 he worked as a Senior Scientist at the Academy of Finland.
In 1993 he was appointed Professor of General Microbiology at the University of Helsinki.
He was awarded the esteemed Academy Professorship twice, in 2002–2007 and 2012–2016,
and he also served twice as the Director of the Finnish Center of Excellence (in Structural
Virology, 2000–2005, and in Virus Research, 2006–2011). Prof. Bamford has had continuous
external research funding (e.g., from several European Union, Academy of Finland, TEKES and
Jusélius Foundation funds, as well as the Human Frontier Science Program). He is an EMBO
member and has held several positions of trust in scientific and administrative organizations.
Prof. Bamford has published approx. 400 articles in international peer-reviewed journals in
virology, microbiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology (36 of them in high impact
journals). About half of the primary articles have been published with international collaborators
showing high international integration. He has also been invited to give 56 keynote and plenary
presentations in major international meetings. Prof. Bamford has supervised over 35 Master’s and
over 40 PhD theses. Seven of his graduate students or post docs have obtained a professorship and a similar number have a principal
investigator status. Prof. Bamford has studied virus evolution from a structure-centered perspective, showing that seemingly unrelated
viruses, such as bacteriophage PRD1 and human adenovirus have similar virion architecture. When the corona virion architecture was
gradually revealed, it was observed that its structural elements were close to those seen in RNA bacteriophage phi6 so that phi6 has been
actively used as surrogate for pathogenic viruses - quite a surprise!

Dr. Mark Zuckerman is Head of Virology, Consultant Medical Virologist, and Honorary Senior
Lecturer at South London Specialist Virology Centre, King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation
Trust and King’s College London Medical School, Department of Infectious Diseases, School of
Immunology and Microbial Sciences in London, United Kingdom. His interests include the
clinical interface between developing molecular diagnostic tests relevant to the local population
of patients, respiratory virus infections, herpesvirus infections in immunocompromised patients
and blood-borne virus transmission incidents in the healthcare setting. He has chaired the UK
Clinical Virology Network, Royal College of Pathologists Virology Specialty Advisory Committee
and Virology Examiners Panel and is a member of the Specialty Advisory Committee on
Transfusion Transmitted Viruses. He is a co-author on four editions of the “Mims’ Medical
Microbiology” textbook, has written chapters in a number of other textbooks and has over 100
publications in international peer-reviewed journals and is an associate editor for two journals.

v
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editors in Chief
Dennis H. Bamford
Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki,
Finland

Mark Zuckerman
South London Specialist Virology Centre, King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom and Department of
Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London Medical School, London, United Kingdom

Section Editors
Claude M. Fauquet
St Louis, MO, United States
Michael Feiss
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
Elizabeth E. Fry
Department of Structural Biology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
Said A. Ghabrial†
Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States

Eric Hunter
Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine and Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University,
Atlanta, GA, United States

Ilkka Julkunen
Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

Peter J. Krell
Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

Mart Krupovic
Archaeal Virology Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France

Maija Lappalainen
HUS Diagnostic Center, HUSLAB, Clinical Microbiology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland

Hubert G.M. Niesters

Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Division of Clinical Virology, University Medical Center Groningen, Gro-
ningen, The Netherlands
Massimo Palmarini
MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
David Prangishvili
Institut Pasteur, Paris, France and Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

David I. Stuart
Department of Structural Biology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom and Diamond Light
Source, Didcot, United Kingdom

Nobuhiro Suzuki
Institute of Plant Stress and Resources (IPSR), Okayama University, Kurashiki, Japan

†
Deceased.

vii
SECTION EDITORS

Claude Fauquet received his PhD in biochemistry from University Louis Pasteur in Strasburg,
France in 1974. Dr. Fauquet joined the Institut de Recherche pour le Dévelopement (IRD)
and worked there as a plant virologist for 28 years, and served in Ivory Coast, West Africa for
14 years. In 1991, he founded the International Laboratory for Tropical Agricultural
Biotechnology (ILTAB) at The Scripps Research Institute, CA, United States. ILTAB was then
hosted by the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO, from 1999 to 2012. In
2003, he co-founded the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21st Century (GCP21), which he
directed until 2019 and which goal is to improve the cassava crop worldwide.
Dr. Fauquet is an international leader in plant virology including taxonomy, epidemiol-
ogy, molecular virology, and in gene-silencing as an antiviral strategy. He was Secretary of the
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) for 18 years and the editor of
several ICTV Reports including the VIIIth ICTV Report in 2005.
He has published more than 300 research papers in reviewed journals and books. He is a
fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, of the American
Phytopathological Society and a member of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences. In 2007,
Dr. Fauquet was knighted “Chevalier de l’Ordre des Palmes Académiques” by the French
Minister of High Education and Research.

Dr. Michael Feiss is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Microbiology and Immunology of
the Carver College of Medicine at the University of Iowa, IA, United States. Dr. Feiss received his
PhD in Genetics at the University of Washington followed by a postdoctoral traineeship in the
laboratory of Dr. Allan Campbell at Stanford. Dr. Feiss is a microbial geneticist who studies virus
assembly with an emphasis on how a DNA virus, bacteriophage lambda, packages viral DNA into
the empty prohead shell. The lab investigates how sites in the viral DNA orchestrate the initiation
and termination of the DNA packaging process. This work includes comprehensive examination
of the DNA recognition sites. A related interest is study of terminase, the viral DNA packaging
enzyme, including the functional domains for protein–DNA and protein–protein interactions. A
second focus has been the roles of the bacterial host’s IHF and DnaJ proteins in the lytic life cycle
of the virus. More recent work has involved a genetic dissection of the role of terminase’s
ATPase center that powers translocation of viral DNA into the prohead. This interest in the ATP
hydrolysis-driven packaging motor involves a multidisciplinary collaboration examining the
kinetics of DNA packaging during individual packaging events. Finally, recent studies have also
looked at how the packaging process has diverged among several lambda-like phages, including
phages 21, N15, and Gifsy-1.

Elizabeth E. Fry is a senior postdoctoral scientist in structural biology at the University of

Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom, where she received her DPhil. for studies relating to the
structure determination of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus. Specializing in structural virology, Dr.
Fry has studied many virus/viral protein structures but her primary focus is on picornavirus
structure and function, in particular receptor interactions and virus uncoating. She is particularly
interested in rationally designing virus-like-particles as next generation vaccines to reduce the
inherent risks in handling live viruses.

ix
x Section Editors

Said A. Ghabrial† received his BSc in 1959 from Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt, and his PhD
from Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States, in 1965. Dr. Ghabrial did
postdoctoral research at the University of California, Davis, CA, United States, before returning
to Cairo, where he served as a plant virologist in the Ministry of Agriculture. He returned to
the United States in 1970 to do postdoctoral research at Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
In 1972, he joined the Plant Pathology Department at the University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,
United States, where he rose to the rank of professor in 1986 and worked until 2013.
Dr. Ghabrial has served as an associate and senior editor of Phytopathology. He served on the
editorial boards of the Encyclopedia of Virology, 3rd edition and Encyclopedia of Plant Pathol-
ogy, and edited a thematic issue of Advances in Virus Research on “Mycoviruses”. He was a member
of the American Phytopathological Society (APS) and the American Society for Virology (ASV); in
July 2002 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Phytopathological Society. He also acted as
Chair of the ICTV Subcommittee on Fungal Viruses in 1987–1993 and 2011–2014.
His long professional career allowed him to make many scientific achievements in phy-
topathology and virology. Among them are molecular dissection of a legume-infecting RNA
virus, bean pod mottle virus (BPMV), development of BPMV-based vectors, discovery of a
transmissible debilitation disease of the phytopathogenic ascomycete, Helminthosporium vic-
toriae (Cochliobolus victoriae), establishment of a viral etiology of the H. victoriae disease, and
advancement of structural biology of diverse fungal viruses.

Eric Hunter, PhD, is Professor of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at Emory University,
Atlanta, GA, United States. He serves as Co-Director of the Emory Center for AIDS Research
and is a Georgia Research Alliance Eminent Scholar.
Dr. Hunter’s research focus has been the molecular virology and pathogenesis of retroviruses,
including human immunodeficiency virus. He has made significant contributions to the under-
standing of the role of retroviral glycoprotein structural features during viral entry and providing
unique insights into the assembly and replication of this virus family. In recent years the emphasis of
his research has been on HIV transmission and pathogenesis, defining the extreme genetic bottleneck
and selection of viruses with unique traits during HIV heterosexual transmission. He has described
the selection of fitter viruses at the target mucosa, a gender difference in the extent of selection bias,
and a role for genital inflammation in reducing selection. His research has defined the impact of HIV
adaptation to the cellular immune response on immune recognition and control of HIV after
transmission, as well as on virus replicative fitness in vitro and in vivo. Recent work highlights the roles that virus replicative fitness and sex
of the host play in defining disease progression in a newly infected individual. His bibliography includes over 300 peer-reviewed articles,
reviews, and book chapters. He has also been the recipient of four NIH merit awards for his work on retrovirus and HIV molecular biology.
Dr. Hunter served as the Editor in Chief of the journal AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses for 10 years. He was Chair of the
AIDS Vaccine Research Subcommittee which is charged with providing advice and consultation on AIDS vaccine research to the
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and continues to serve on editorial boards for several academic journals and
on external advisory committees for several government, academic, and commercial institutions.

Ilkka Julkunen graduated as an MD/PhD in 1984 from the Department of Virology, University of
Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. He worked as a postdoctoral research fellow at Memorial Sloan-
Kettering Cancer Center in New York, United States, in 1986–1989, followed by positions as a
senior scientist, group leader and research professor at Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare in
1989–2013. In 2013 he became a Professor of Virology at the University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
The research interests of Dr. Julkunen have concentrated on innate and adaptive humoral
immunity in viral and microbial infections. He has studied intracellular signaling and RIG-I and
TLR-mediated activation of interferon system in human macrophages and dendritic cells and stable
cell lines in response to human and avian influenza, Sendai, Zika and coronavirus infections. In
addition, he has analyzed the downregulation of innate immunity by viral regulatory proteins from
influenza, HCV, flavi-, filo- and coronaviruses. He has expertise in vaccinology, biotechnology and
development of methods to analyze antiviral immunity, he has also been actively involved in
research training and collaborations with biotechnological industry.

†
Deceased.
 Section Editors xi

Peter Krell started his career in virology early as a summer high school student working for the
Canadian Forestry Service studying the resistance of nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (now called
baculoviruses) to environmental exposure with Dr. Fred T. Bird at the Insect Pathology Research
Institute in Sault Ste. Marie, ON, Canada. He received his BSc and MSc in biology from Carleton
University studying the iridovirus Tipula Iridescent Virus with Dr Peter Lee, in Ottawa, the Cana-
dian capital. For his PhD he headed east to Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia on the
Atlantic coast. In addition to enjoying the salt sea air, fresh cod, lobster and mussels, he studied the
molecular biology of polydnaviruses under the guidance of Dr Don Stoltz. Heading south to Texas
A&M University in College Station, TX, United States, as a Postdoctoral Fellow he worked with Dr.
Max Summer, of baculovirus fame, and Dr. Brad Vinson continuing to study polydnaviruses, but
also became steeped in the early days of molecular baculovirology. He then accepted a faculty
position in the Department of Microbiology and Immunology at the University of Guelph in
Guelph, ON, Canada. There he switched to baculovirus research, which was more tractable, due in
part to available cell cultures and focused on viral DNA replication and functional genomics,
particularly on chitinase, cathepsin and ME53. In collaboration with Dr. Eva Nagy he studied molecular biology of different animal
viruses, notably Fowl Avian adenoviruses and their development as vaccine vectors, but also on the birnavirus infectious pancreatic
necrosis virus, the coronavirus porcine endemic diarrhea virus, fowlpox virus and the paramyxovirus Newcastle disease virus. He has been
involved extensively with virus taxonomy, being active in the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) as member of the
Polydnaviridae and Baculoviridae study groups, national representative of Canada on the ICTV, member of the Executive Committee for the
ICTV and Chair of the ICTV Invertebrate Virus Subcommittee. In terms of governance, Peter Krell was President of the Canadian Society
of Microbiology, Secretary and later President of the Society for Invertebrate Pathology, as well as being on the Editorial Boards of the
Canadian Journal of Microbiology and the ASM Journal of Virology. While at the University of Guelph, he rose through the ranks to Professor
and is currently University Professor Emeritus.

Mart Krupovic is the Head of the Archaeal Virology Unit in the Department of Microbiology at the
Institut Pasteur of Paris, France. He received his MSc in Biochemistry in 2005 from the Vilnius
University, Vilnius, Lithuania and PhD in 2010 in general microbiology from the University of
Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. His current research focuses on the diversity, origin, and evolution of
viruses, as well as molecular mechanisms of virus–host interactions in archaea. He has published
over 170 journal articles and serves as an editor or on the editorial boards of Biology Direct, Research
in Microbiology, Scientific Reports, Virology, and Virus Evolution. He is also a member of the Executive
Committee of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) and chairs the
Archaeal Viruses Subcommittee of the ICTV.

Maija Lappalainen, MD, PhD, Associate Professor of Clinical Microbiology, is the Head of
Clinical Microbiology in the HUS Diagnostic Center, HUSLAB, University of Helsinki and
Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland. In her thesis during the years 1987–1992 she
studied the incidence and diagnostics of congenital toxoplasmosis. After PhD, her research
interest has been in diagnostic clinical virology, viral hepatitis, respiratory infections, viral
infections in the immunocompromised patients and viral infections during pregnancy.
xii Section Editors

Hubert G.M. Niesters (1958) studied biology and chemistry in Nijmegen, the Netherlands. After
obtaining his PhD in Utrecht (Prof. dr. M. Horzinek and Prof. dr. B. van der Zeijst, 1987) on the
molecular epidemiology of infectious bronchitis virus, he worked as a post-doctoral fellow with
Prof. dr. Jim Strauss at the California Institute of Technology (Pasadena, United States) on the
replication of Alphaviruses. He received a Niels Stensen fellowship (The Netherlands) and an E.S.
Gosney fellowship (Caltech) during this period.
After returning to the Netherlands (1989), he became a research associate in medical
microbiology at the Diagnostic Medical Center (Delft) but moved back to clinical virology as a
senior research associate in 1991 at the Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam (Head
Prof. dr. Ab Osterhaus). From 1993 to 2007, he was responsible for the molecular diagnostics
unit. During this period, he was involved in the discovery and characterization of several new
viruses and variants. In 2007, he became full professor and director of the Laboratory of Clinical
Virology within the Department of Medical Microbiology at the University Medical Center
Groningen and University of Groningen.
He has been actively involved in the implementation and development of new technologies like real-time amplification and
automation within clinical virology. He has been focusing on molecular diagnostics and its use and the clinical value in a
transplant setting, as well as in monitoring treatment of hepatitis viruses. Recently, his interest focuses on rapid regional epide-
miology, automation including MiddleWare solutions for molecular diagnostics, as well as the cost–benefit of rapid point-of-
impact molecular testing. Special interest is focused on raising awareness for the detection of enteroviruses (enterovirus D68) and
its relationship with acute flaccid myelitis (AFM).
Since 2017, he is the Chair of the executive board of QCMD (Quality Control of Molecular Diagnostics, Glasgow). He is an auditor
and team leader for the Dutch Council of Accreditation and Co-Editor in Chief of the Journal of Clinical Virology. He is an
(co)-author of more than 250 peer-reviewed papers, chapters and reviews including emerging viruses, such as enterovirus D68 and
hepatitis E virus (H-index 80).
For his entire work, he received in 2016 the “Ed Nowakowski Senior Memorial Clinical Virology Award” from the Pan
American Society for Clinical Virology.

Massimo Palmarini is the Director of the MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research
and Chair of Virology at the University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom. A veterinarian by
training, his research programs focus on the biology, evolution and pathogenesis of arboviruses
and the mechanisms of virus cross-species transmission. His work is funded by the MRC and the
Wellcome Trust. Massimo Palmarini has been elected Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences,
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and of the Royal Society of Biology and he was a Wolfson-Royal
Society Research Merit Awardee. He is a Wellcome Trust Investigator.

David Prangishvili, PhD, Honorary Professor at the Institut Pasteur, Paris, France, and Professor
at Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia, is one of the pioneers in studies on the biology of
Archaea and their viruses. His scientific career spans ex-USSR (Institute of Molecular Biology,
Moscow; 1970–1976), Georgia (Georgian National Academy of Sciences, Tbilisi; 1976–1991),
Germany (Max-Planck Institute for Biochemistry, Munich; University of Regensburg; 1991–2004)
and France (Institut Pasteur, Paris, 2004–2020). In the research groups headed by him, several
dozens of new species and eight new families of archaeal viruses have been discovered and
characterized, which display remarkable diversity of unique morphotypes and exceptional gen-
ome contents. The results of his research contribute to the knowledge on viral diversity on our
planet and change the field of prokaryotic virology, leading to the notion that viruses of
hyperthermophilic Archaea form a particular group in the viral world, distinctive from viruses of Bacteria and Eukarya, and to the
recognition of the virosphere of Archaea as one of the distinct features of this Domain of Life. David Prangishvili is a member of the
Academia Europaea, the European Academy of Microbiology, and the Georgian National Academy of Sciences.
 Section Editors xiii

David I. Stuart is MRC Professor of Structural Biology in the Nuffield Department of Med-
icine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom, Life Science Director at Diamond Light
Source and Director of Instruct-ERIC (pan-European organisation providing shared access to
infrastructure and methods for structural biology). He has diverse interests in structural
virology from picornaviruses, double-stranded RNA viruses and enveloped RNA viruses. His
drive to develop structural techniques led to the determination of the structure of Bluetongue
virus (1995) and then the first membrane containing virus, PRD1. More recently, he has been
at the fore-front of bringing Cryo-EM technology to bear on virus structure determination and
its future role in visualizing virus function in cellulo. In addition to basic science he has a
strong commitment to structural vaccinology and the development of antiviral drugs.

Dr. Nobuhiro Suzuki, PhD, received his MSc (1985) in phytopathology and PhD (1989) in
virology from Tohoku University in Sendai, Japan. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a full Professor of
the Institute of Plant Stress and Resources, formerly Institute of Plant Sciences and Bioresouces at
Okayama University and as an Editor of Virus Research, Frontiers in Virology, Journal of General Plant
Pathology, Virology Journal, and Biology. He has also been Guest Editor to PLoS Pathogens, PNAS, and
mBio, and an Editorial Board member of Virology and Journal of Virology.
Suzuki Laboratory focuses on characterization of diverse viruses infecting phytopathogenic
fungi and exploration of their interplays. Recent achievements include the discovery of a neo-virus
lifestyle exhibited by a (+)ssRNA virus and an unrelated dsRNA virus in a plant pathogenic fungus
and of multilayer antiviral defense in fungi involving Dicer. Prior to coming to Kurashiki,
Okayama Prefecture, he was a visiting fellow of the Center for Agricultural Biotechnology at the
University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute (UMBI), College Park, MA, United States, for 4 years (1997–2001) to study molecular
biology of hypoviruses in the laboratory of Professor Donald L. Nuss. Before visiting UMBI, he served as an assistant professor and a
lecturer of the Biotechnology Institute at the Akita Prefectural College of Agriculture, Japan, for 11 years (1988–1998) where he was
engaged in a project on molecular characterization of rice dwarf phytoreovirus, a member of the family Reoviridae. He received awards
from the Japanese Phytopathological Society of Japan and Japanese Society for Virology for his outstanding achievements in plant and
fungal virology.
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• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 24: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Test 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 32: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 36: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice 5: Critical analysis and evaluation
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 41: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 47: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Unit 6: Research findings and conclusions
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 55: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 57: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 59: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 7: Study tips and learning strategies
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 67: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 8: Key terms and definitions
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 77: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 78: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 79: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 9: Literature review and discussion
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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