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ENGLISH FOR THIRD YEAR STUDENTS 2016

1.1. Teaching objectives
The general teaching aims can be defined as follows: at the end of English teaching in this
class, students will be able to communicate in English orally and in writing on specific topics
and on general ones. That means, G3 students in Economic Sciences are expected to be able
to:

- listen to and understand spoken English, correctly and appropriately speak English, write
and read it, perform different language functions, and express views on different economic
and related issues.

Specific objectives are numerous and cannot be defined at the beginning of this course. The
fact is, the teaching of any point is purposeful. The teaching of any item in this language
course is meant to equip students with the ability to use structures to perform needed
language functions in appropriate communicative situations. For example, students are
expected to be able to request politely, to invite, to accept or decline invitations, to attract
attention, to ask for clarifications, to apologize, etc…, after they have been trained to do so
in the classroom. This explains why this course combines language structures and functions
to train learners to use structures in order to express different language functions
appropriately.

1.2. Teaching methods

To promote listening and speaking as well as reading and writing in the class, I have chosen
to use Communicative Language Teaching and task-based methodological principles. The
course is intended to more practical than theoretical with the stress on real communication.

2. ENGLISH SOUNDS

Phonetic symbols are used to represent sounds, and sounds stand for pronunciation. This
section is intended to help learners to relate English letters and phonetic symbols to actual
English sounds in their conversations. It is also intended to train learners to read phonetic
symbols correctly, and to transcribe English words whenever they are asked to. It is
expected then, that at the end of this section, students will be able to read phonetic
symbols and use them to indicate the pronunciation of any English word.

The sounds of English fall into two big categories which are vowels and consonants. The
symbols for English consonants are simple and not complicated . I am going to start with
them:

2.1. CONSONANT SOUNDS

[p] people, pens, lips, problems, probable,

[b] baby, liberation, barriers, broadcast, bread, book,

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[t]tooth, teeth, little, trouble, lateral, cattle, true,

[d]drive, do, add, addition, dry, drink, ladder,

[k] cooks, car, like, cage, cakes, career, cry,

[g] go, gain, garage, great, plug, drug,,

[ʧ ] church, choose, watch, picture,

[dʒ ] jokes, George, John, jaws, geology,

[f] foolish, five, fine, leaf, flooding,

[v] very, violence, violation, invitation,

[ᶱ ] thief, path, something, bath, fifth,

[ᶞ ] this, these, those, clothes, with, southern,

[s] say, sort, sing, sister, pass, season,

[z] please, quiz, zoo, pens,

[ʃ ] show, shine, push, shoes, shoulder,

[ʒʃ ] vision, measure, pleasure, television,

[h] house, to hear, hill, house, how,

[m] the moon, mine, women, men,

[n] nothing, night, nine, drain, plain,

[ŋ ] ring, sing, drink, thanks, young,

[l] life, alive, little, battle, alone,

[j] yes, yellow, youth, beyond,

[w] wine, white, when, what,

[r] ringing, ready, write, reading,

Students are required to relate sounds to their spellings. That means they have to know the
letters used to represent sounds in writing. What follows is intended to help them do so.

[p] is regularly spelt -p-, -pp-.It is silent in pneumonia, psalm, ptarmigan, receipt, cupboard,
etc. Hiccough [hik p] is an exception.

[b] is regularly spelt with -b-, -bb-, and is silent the following word: limb, thumb, comb, debt,
subtle, doubt.
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[t] is regularly -t-, -tt- and sometime with -th- like in Thames and Thomas.It is also spelt -ed,
in verbal past tenses and past participles of some regular verbs, when they are followed by
voiceless consonants.

[d] is spelt -d-, -dd-. Examples: dog, do, double, date, dry ,dwindle, duke.

[k] is spelt –k, c, kh, cc + a, o, u, qu, ch: cake, accord, conquer, stomach, chemist, bouquet.
This sound sequence [kw] is found in the words quiet, quart. The sound [k] is silent in the
words muscles, knew, knit.

[g] is regularly spelt -g-,gg-, sometimes -gh-, -gu- as in the following words: begin, jogging,
ghost, guard. It is silent in gnaw, gnat, diaphragm, sign, reign, etc.

[ʧ ] is regularly spelt –ch, -tch, -t + ure, eous, and –t + -ion when –t- is preceded by –s-.
Examples: chain, watch, nature, righteous, question.

[dʒ ] is regularly spelt –j,g, dg, sometimes dj, de, di, ch. Examples: jam, gem, bridge, suggest,
adjacent, grandeur, soldier, Norwich.

[f] is spelt –f,ff,pf,gh. Examples: fork, off, physics, enough.

[v] is spelt with –v,f,ph. Exampels: vine, of, nephew

[Ɵ] is always spelt -th. Examples: thin, thick, something, etc.

[ᶞ ] is always spelt -th. Examples: there, this, that, then, etc.

[s] is spelt –s,ss,sc, c,x. Examples: so, pass, niece, science, celebrate, exe.

[z] is spelt –s, ss, z, zz, x. Examples: roses, scissors, zoo, dizzy, exact.

[ʃ ] is spelt with –sh, ch, sch, s, or ss before, ti,si,sci, ci,ce. Examples: shoe, machine,
schedule, sure, assure, nation, mansion, mission, conscience, special, ocean. Exception:
luxury[l k ri].

[ʒ ] is spelt –si-, s, z before [u], in French loan words, final –ge. Examples: vision, measure,
pleasure, seizure, beige.

[h] is spelt with h, wh. Examples: how, hat, who, whom.

[m] is regularly spelt m, mm. Examples: meat, summer. It is sometimes spelt mb, mn.

[n] is regularly spelt n, nn, and sometimes kn, gn, pn. Examples: now, noon, funny, know,
gnaw, sign, pneumonia.

[ŋ] is spelt ng, and n followed by g and k. Examples: sing, tongue, sink, anxious.

[l] is spelt with l, ll as in little, along, fill. It is silent in post vocalic positions. Examples: talk,
half, calm, folk.

[r] is spelt –r and –rr. Examples: red, carry. I t is also spelt with wr and rh as in write and
rhythm.
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[j] is generally spelt with –y, i as in the words yes, spaniel. It is also spelt with u,ew, eu, eau,
ui. Examples: muse, new, feud, beauty, suit.

[w] is generally spelt with -w, wh, and sometimes with –u before -q and -g. Examples: west,
which, quick, language. The words once, one, choir, and suite contain [w].

2.2. VOWEL SOUNDS

1. Simple vowel sounds

[a:] party, hard, car, heart,

[ae] back, hat, bat, man, cat,

[i:] to see, seat, police, machine,

[I] hit, sit, to kick, hill, kill,

[u:] move, choose, soon, to lose,

[ᴜ ] put, cook, foot, pull, push,

[ᴐ: ] call, sort, horse, caught, bought,

[ᴐ/ɒ ] got, not, hot, moss, pot, loss,

[e] when, net, get, set, head, dress,

[3:] shirt, church, hurt, Sir, skirt, girl,

[ ] sister, writer, singer, drama, sofa,

[ʌ ] much, young, cut, shut, love, glove,

2. Diphthongs

[ei] name , hate, game, cakes, James,

[ai] night, to bite, to hide, kind, nine,

[ ϽI] boy, joy, choice, noise, rejoice,

[e ] care, share, hair, to bear, pair, air,

[u ] poor, sure, pure, secure, cure, ensure,

[i ] ear, to hear, appear, here,

[ u] so, joke, no, alone, won’t, hole,

[au] house, mouse, to found, bound.

A. VERB TENSES

Reviewing some language functions

-Ask somebody’s name:

A. What’s your name, please? Who are you?

Can I have your name, please?

B. My name’s Boniface CIAMALA.

I am Boniface CIAMALA.

-Ask somebody’s age:

A. How old are you?

B. I’m 50 years old.

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-Ask what somebody is doing

A. What are you doing?

B. I’ m writing English exercises.

-Ask how often someone does things:

A. How often do you go to church?

B. I go to church three times a week.

A. How often do you take/have a bath?

B. I take/have bath twice a day.

-Ask and say how people go to work

A. How do you go to work?

B. I go to work by bus/taxi/on foot.
-Ask where people live and say where you live

A. Where do Jon and Mary live?

B. They live in Kinshasa.
A. Where do you live?
B. I live in Lubumbashi.
A. How long have you been living there?
B. I’ve been ling there for 25 years.
A. Where exactly do Mr and Mrs Benn live?
B. They live south of Newcastle, in a suburb.

-Offer your partner something to drink first, and then something to eat:

A. Would you like a cup of coffee

B. Yes, please.

A. And a biscuit?

B. No, thanks. Just a cup of coffee.

-Ask for and give specific information

A. Can I have an orange, please?

B. Yes. Which one would you like?

A. This one.
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………………………………………

A. Can I have an apple, please?

B. Yes. Which one would you like?
A. That one over there.
…………………………………………..

A. I would like some apples, please?

B. Yes. Which ones would you like?
A. Those ones over there.
-Say when people’s birthdays are.

A. When’s Miss Mwadi’s birthday?

B. It’s on December 10th .

Other language functions:

1. Apologize : Sorry, I’m late.

I apologize for being late.
Accept apologies : That’s all right.
2. Invite people to do things : Would you like to go to the cinema tonight?
Accept invitations to do things : Yes, I’d love to.
Refuse invitations to do things : Sorry, I’m afraid I can’t.
3. Offer something : Would you like a cup of tea?
Accept : Yes, please.
Refuse : No, thank you/ No, thanks.
(Alternative) : What would you like, tea or coffee?
: Tea, please.
4. Express pleasure : What a lovely room!
What lovely flowers!
Say you are pleased : Oh, good.
5. Ask for suggestions : What shall we do?
What shall we give her?
Make suggestions : Let’s go to the cinema.
Let’s give her some flowers.
Agree with suggestions : Yes, that’s a good idea!
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Disagree with suggestions : No, not flowers!

6. Ask how long journeys take. : How long does it take to get to L’shi by air?
Say how long journeys take : It takes one hour to get there by plane.
7. Ask and say how much things
cost : How much does it cost? How much is it?
It costs about £50/ It is about £ 50.
8. Ask and say how far places are : How far is Ditu?
It is 135 km away from Mbuji-Mayi.
9. Express former habits : I used to play football well when I was young.
(Now, I don’t).
10. Permission : May I smoke here?
Accept : Yes, you may.
Refuse : No, you may not.
11. Express possibility/probability : The sky is cloudy. It may rain this evening.

12. Giving opinions of a place : Kinshasa is one of the most impressive town
In Africa.
13. Making requests to friends : Do you think you could come and look at this
car.
14. Making requests to strangers : Would you mind signing your name here?

15. Making arrangements and : I’m doing something this afternoon. I’ll be free
predictions. at 12 o’clock.
16. Giving advice and outlining : I wouldn’t stay there if I were you.
consequences. If they take the coast road, they won’t get
there before dark.
17. Expressing imaginary situations : If I found $ 50, I would give it to my girlfriend.

18. Reporting informal, formal and : She asked me to help her.

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authoritative requests She asked me not to tell anyone.

He told her to leave him alone.
He told us not to move.
19. Apologising for faults : (Can I use this cup?)
I’m afraid it’s cracked.
(Shall I use this table cloth?)
I’m afraid it’s stained.
20. Confirming reports : (Did you know, they’ve caught the bank
robbers).
Yes, I knew they were caught.
21. Expressing regrets : (Do you regret leaving school so early?)
Yes, if I hadn’t left school so early things
would
have been different.
22. Giving excuses : I’m sorry, I was late but I lost the way.
23. Commenting on circumstances : (If only there hadn’t been a rail strike.)
The rail strike was a disaster.
(If only the government hadn’t stopped
building the flood barrier.)
Yes, that was a bad decision.

1. IMPERATIVES
The rule is: V(-to) :
To go: Go away.
Don’t go home now.
Let us go to the Campus now (Let’s go to the Campus now).
Let’s not go to the Disco tonight.
Other examples (cfr Students/Teacher)

PRESENT TENSES OF MAIN VERBS: Talking about the present

Example: to peak-spoke-spoken
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Personal Pronouns Simple Present Simple present Present Perfect Present Perfect
continuous Continuous

I Speak am speaking have spoken have been speaking

You Speak Are speaking have spoken have been speaking

He Speaks is speaking has spoken has been speaking

She Speaks is speaking has spoken has been speaking

It Speaks is speaking has spoken has been speaking

We Speak are speaking have spoken have been speaking

You Speak are speaking Have spoken have been speaking

They Speak Are speaking Have spoken have been speaking

Follow the model and conjugate the following verbs:

-to write-wrote-written

-to hide-hid-hidden

-to go-went-gone

-to move-moved-moved

-to fall-fell-fallen
The interrogative and negative forms of the simple present tense require the use of
do and does.
Examples:
-Mary eats rice in the morning. She does not eat nshima.
-What do you eat in the morning?
-I do not eat anything.

The simple present continuous is used to describe an on-going action. That means, the
action that is taking place while we are talking.

A. Where is Paul?
B. He is in the sitting-room.
A. What is he doing?
B. He is watching television.
The following frequency adverbs are often used with the simple present tense:

Always, usually, often sometimes, seldom , ever…

Other examples:
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a)He usually speaks Ciluba very badly He does not speak French well. Does he speak

French well

b)She always plays volley ball well. Does she always play volleyball well?

C)She often cooks caterpillars very well. She does not often cook caterpillars very well.

d)She sometimes cooks mushroom very Does she sometimes cook mushroom very well.

Well.

e)She eats slowly. How often do you eat in a day?

Exercices:
A. How old are you?
B. I am forty (40) years old.
And you, how old are you?
A. I’m fifty (50) years old.
Let us count from one (1) to one hundred (100):
1 0ne 21 twenty-one
2 two 22 twenty-two
3 three 23 twenty-three
4 four 24 twenty-four
5 five 25 twenty-five
6 six 27 twenty-seven
7 seven 28 twenty eight
8 eight 29 twenty-nine
9 nine 30 thirty
10 ten 31 thirty-one
11 eleven 32 thirty-two
12 twelve 33 thirty-three
13 thirteen 34 thirty-four……………………….

14 fourteen 40 forty
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15 fifteen 50 fifty
16 sixteen 60 sixty
17 seventeen 70 seventy
18 eighteen 80 eighty
19 nineteen 90 ninety
20 twenty 100 one hundred (a hundred)

Read the following figures:

67328 Sixty-seven thousand, three hundred and twenty-eight
235,789 (two hundred and thirty-five thousand, seven hundred and eighty-nine)
53,000,000 (fifty-three million)
4,000,000,000 (four billion)

Telling the time

A. Questions

What time is it, please?

What’s the time, please?
Please what’s the time now?
What time is it by your watch, please?
Please tell me what time it is.
Can you tell me the time, please?
Could you tell me the time, please?
Would you tell me the time, please?

B. Telling the time :

It is:

(O’clock : « of the clock »)

12 : 00 = It is twelve o’clock.

= It is twelve sharp

= It is noon ( It is midday).
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00 h 00= It is mid night

20 h 00= It is eight 0’clock p.m.

= It is eight hours p.m.

= It is eight sharp p.m.

It is twenty hours

Past

12 : 03 = It is three minutes past twelve

= It is three past twelve

= It is twelve three

10 : 10 = It is ten minutes past ten

= It is ten past ten

(It is ten after ten)

= It is ten ten = It is ten hours and ten minutes.

To

9 : 50 = It is ten minutes to ten

= It is fifty past nine.

= It is nine fifty.

Quarter

11 : 45 = It is (a) quarter to twelve

= It is fifteen before twelve

= It is eleven forty five.

Half

12 : 30 = It is half past twelve

= It is twelve thirty

THE FUTURE TIME: Talking about the future

To talk about the future we use the Simple Future, Simple Future Continuous, and Future
Perfect. Here are the time expressions for the future:
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Tomorrow

The day after tomorrow

Next time

Next week/weekend/month/year

Next Monday/Tuesday/Wednesday/Thursday/Friday/Saturday/Sunday

Next January/February/March/April/May/June/July/August/September/October

/November/December.

To speak-spoke-spoken

PERSONAL PRONOUNS SIMPLE FUTURE SIMPLE FUTURE CONTINUOUS FUTURE PERFECT

I shall speak shall be speaking shall have spoken

You will speak will be speaking will have spoken

He will speak will bespeaking will have spoken

She will speak will be speaking will have spoken

It will speak will be speaking will have spoken

We shall speak shall be speaking shall have spoken

You will speak will be speaking will have spoken

They will speak will be speaking will have spoken

Examples:

-I always speak to Paul at 5 am every morning. But tomorrow I shall speak to him at 7 am.

-I shall call you when I finish speaking.

-They will eat nshima when you ask them to.

-Come at 6.pm because at that time, I shall be eating my dinner.

-If you come at 8.pm it will be late and you won’t find any food. At that time, I’ll have

eaten all the food.

-If they come now, we shall leave for the post office.

-They will stay in London for three weeks if the money is not sent to them today.

Try with other verbs:

-to withdraw-withdrew-withdrawn

-to sell-sold-sold
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-to buy-bought-bought

-to earn-earned-earned

The simple future is also expressed by going to. In this case, it is the near future.

-Paul is going to eat here this evening.

-I am going to eat with him.

SIMPLE FUTURE WITH GOING TO

Contracted forms

I am going to speak I’m going to speak

You are going to speak You’re going speak

He is going to speak He’s going to speak

She is going to eat She’s going to speak

It is going to eat It’s going to speak

We are going to spe We’re going to speak

You are going to speak You’re going to speak

They are going to speak They’re going to eat

The simple present continuous is sometimes used to describe a future event:

-My wife is travelling to Kinshasa tomorrow morning.

-We are visiting my mother this evening.

-Where are you going next summer?

Talking about dates

A. When is the Boss coming back from the USA?

B. He’s coming back on the 6th of March.

Ordinal numbers are used to tell dates. For example:

- I was born on the 20th of December 1975.

-John was born in January 1983.

-Mary was born in 1990.

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The prepositions on and in are used respectively before days and months/years.

Let us read:

The 1st The first

The 2nd The second

The 3rd The third

The 4th The fourth

The 5th The fifth

The 6th The sixth

The 7th The seventh

The 8th The eighth

The 9th The ninth

The 10th The tenth

The 11th The eleventh

The 12th The twelfth

The 13th The thirteenth

The 14th The fourteenth

The 15th The fifteenth

The 16th The sixteenth

The 17th The seventeenth

The 18th The eighteenth

The 19th The nineteenth

The 20th The twentieth

The 21st The twenty-first

The 22nd The twenty-second

The 23rd The twenty-third

The 24th The twenty-fourth

The 25th The twenty-fifth

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The 30th The thirtieth

The 31st The thirty-first

The 32nd The thirty-second

The 33rd The thirty-third

The 34th The thirty-fourth

3. USING PAST TENSES

Past tenses and time expressions for the past are used to talk about events that took place
in the past. Four past tenses are used for this purpose. They are:

1. Simple past
2. Simple past continuous
3. Past perfect
4. Past perfect continuous.
Some examples:

In the examples above, there are such time expressions as yesterday, a week ago, last year,
last night. These indicate the time or day when the action took place. Here are some more
time expressions for the past:

Yesterday

The day before yesterday

Last time

Last week

Last Monday/Tuesday/Wednesday/Thursday/Friday/Saturday/Sunday.

Last week/Weekend/Month/Year/summer/autumn/winter/spring.

Ago: I met John two weeks ago.

The interrogative and negative forms of the simple past require the use of did.

A. Did you speak to the Boss yesterday? B. No, I did not. I talked to him an hour ago.

A. Did you study English last year? B. Yes, we did. But I did not master it.

Here are the four past tenses:

TALKING ABOUT THE PAST

(to speak-spoke-spoken)
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Personal Pronouns Simple Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous

I Spoke was speaking had spoken had been speaking

You Spoke were speaking Had spoken had been eating

He Spoke was speaking Had spoken had been speaking

She SPOKE was speaking had spoken had been speaking

It SPOKE was speaking had spoken had been speaking

We SPOKE were speaking had spoken had been speaking

You SPOKE were speaking had spoken had been speaking

They SPOKE were speaking had spoken had been speaking

4. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD

We continue to give examples with the verb to eat-ate-eaten to help you see how
different tenses are conjugated.

Personal Simple Conditional Simple Conditional Continuous Conditional Perfect

pronouns

I should speak should be speaking should have spoken

You would speak would be speaking would have spoken

He would speak would be speaking would have spoken

She would speak would be speaking would have spoken

It would speak would be speaking would have spoken

We should speak should be speaking should have spoken

You would speak would be speaking would have spoken

They would speak would be speaking would have spoken

Examples:
-If you called me yesterday on time, I should send you ten dollars.
-If Peter came yesterday on time, we should visit Uncle Bernard.
-If Mobutu had not left Kinshasa on time, he would have been captured by Kabila.
-Had I travelled to Paris last Sunday, I should have met Doctor Simon already.
-If she invited me, at this time, I should be enjoying the party.

5. PASSIVE VOICE

Mr Ilunga eats beans every day. Beans are eaten by Mr Ilunga every day.

Miss muadi is criticizing Paul. Paul is being criticized by Miss Muadi.

A policeman has arrested my wife. My wife has been arrested by a policeman.

Peter bought a new car last month. A new car was bought by Peter last month.
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Mary was buying a bike (when I A bike was being bought by Mary (...).

saw her).

6.PAST PARTICIPLES

Past participles also function as adjectives in certain situations. A good reader is the one
who has memorized regulars and distinguish them from the regular ones. What matters is
the ability to recognize and understand them even when they are used as adjectives.

Example: - English is one of the most spoken languages of the world.

- It is more spoken than Spanish.

- New York is the most visited town of the USA.

It is more visited than any other American town.

7. Journal of Economic Literature Classification of Fields

A. General Economics and Teaching -- The principles course in the economics curriculum
develops core ideas. The course also provides the big picture of how individual economic
events fit together to shape aggregate outcomes. Mastering basic ideas and getting a sense of
how the parts fit into the whole is an essential entry point to the study of other fields and
more advanced ideas in economics. The A category also includes discussion of the teaching
of economics.

B. Schools of Economic Thought and Methodology -- Economists who study the history of
economic thought investigate how the core ideas in economics have developed.

C. Mathematical and Quantitative Methods -- Econometricians develop methods to

measure economic phenomena. They apply the scientific method by formulating hypotheses,
gathering evidence, and judging whether the evidence is consistent with the hypotheses.
Mathematical economists develop tools for finding optimal solutions to economic problems
and advance ideas in game theory. Game theory is the method for analyzing how one player
chooses strategies in light of knowledge of the possible strategies a rival might choose. Game
theory is used to analyze many economic phenomena including the interaction between firms.
In recent decades, experimental economists have tested economic theories in laboratories and
in the field.

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D. Microeconomics -- Studying how markets function and the role of prices is of central
concern in understanding economics. Investigation of the behavior of individual households,
firms, and prices and quantities of specific products like automobiles is called
microeconomics. Behavioral economists study the cognitive and emotional dimensions of
economic decisions.

E. Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics -- The actions of individuals sum to the total
activity in a whole economy. In the aggregate, the total amount of products consumed by
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households and firms must equal the total amount produced. The total amount firms pay to
workers and investors must equal the amount households receive in income. Study of the
aggregate relationships in an economy is called macroeconomics. Economic growth, the role
of money and interest rates, and changes in the overall level of prices and the aggregate level
of unemployment are central concerns of macroeconomics.

F. International Economics -- International economists study trade among nations and the
flow of finance across international borders. Globalization and the deficit in the U.S. balance
of payments with other countries are current concerns.

G. Financial Economics -- Financial economists study the process of saving and investing
with a specific concern for how individuals and firms deal with risk.

H. Public Economics -- Public finance economists consider the role of government in the
economy. Some focus on evaluating government programs and others focus on the design of
tax systems. Public finance economists are also interested in how the political process makes
decisions. Issues of national security and defense appear here as well the study of state and
local governments.

I. Health, Education, and Welfare -- Some economists focus on the markets and
government policies that directly shape access to health care. Others focus on schools and
educational policies. Still others consider the economic circumstances of the poor and
evaluate alternative government programs to improve the well-being of the poor.

J. Labor and Demographic Economics -- Labor economists study employers’ decisions to

hire workers and employees’ decisions to work. They study how wages are set, the nature of
incentives workers face, and the role of minimum wage laws, unions, pensions plans, and
training programs. They are also interested in the formation of families, determinants of birth
rates, migration, population change, and aging.

K. Law and Economics -- Some economists use the tools of economics to study the
incentives for human behavior that are defined by the legal system. Property rights, for
example, are essential for markets to work well but they can be defined in a variety of ways
that have different effects on the well-being of people.

L. Industrial Organization -- IO is the study of individual markets, the nature of

competition, and the role of prices. Some economists study issues in anti-trust policy. Others
study the role of advertising, pricing policies, and how costs vary with the scale of operations.
Some IO economists investigate particular industries such as appliances, software, and
electricity. In the last decade a number of economists have studied economic issues in sports,
recreation, and tourism.

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M. Business Administration and Business Economics, Marketing, Accounting --

Business economists study decisions made by firms. How do firms maximize profit? What
prices should they set and how much should they produce? What is the role of incentives
within the firm, of entrepreneurship, and leadership?
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N. Economic History -- Economic historians explore changes in economic well-being and

how economic institutions have developed. The emergence of markets, the forces shaping the
industrial revolution, the sources of improvements in agricultural productivity, the influence
of railroads and other new technologies provide perspective on current economic issues.

O. Economic Development, Technical Change, and Growth -- Economists who are

interested in the development of economies often focus on third world countries. Why have
some countries developed while others have not? How might the industrialized countries
improve the prospects for development around the world? Who gains and who loses with
industrialization?

P. Economic Systems -- Analysts compare the capital market system to the various forms of
socialism and the transition from centrally planned to more market-based economic systems.
Economists sometimes address issues in specific countries like China, Cuba, and Poland.

Q. Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics, Environmental and Ecological

Economics -- Economists study farming, fishery, and forests with a focus on prices, markets,
and changing technologies. Natural resource economists study markets for energy (oil, coal,
and electricity) and mineral resources. Economists have played an important role in the
evolution of policies to promote clean air, water, and land. Economists model how global
climate change and policies designed to reduce its effects will affect the economy.

R. Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics -- Economists analyze the location decisions of
households and firms and the associated issues in housing, transportation, and local
government.

Y. Miscellaneous Categories -- Data, dissertations, and book reviews are classified here.

Z. Other Special Topics -- Other special topics include the economics of the arts, religion,
and culture.

Each major field defined in the JEL has several subfields. Search for the field and subfield
terms in Wikipedia and Google for more information about each.

Economists add to our collective knowledge by publishing new work in each of the fields
above as explained in the finding facts & ideas page. Some of the latest work addresses issues
of significant current interest.

8. CORRESPONENCE

8.1. USEFULL PHRASES AND VOCABULARY FOR WRITING BUSINESS

LETTERS
 21

• Dear Mr. Brown

• Dear Ms. White

• Dear Sir

• Dear Madam
Salutation
• Dear Sir or Madam

• Gentlemen

………………………………………….

• We are writing

- to inform you that ...

- to confirm ...

- to request ...

- to enquire about ...

• I am contacting you for the following reason...

Starting • I recently read/heard about … and would like to know .

• Having seen your advertisement in ..., I would like

to ...

• I would be interested in (obtaining / receiving) ...

• I received your address from ----- and would like to ...

…………………………………………..

Referring to • Thank you for your letter of March 15.

 22

• Thank you for contacting us.

• In reply to your request, ...

• Thank you for your letter regarding ...

• With reference to our telephone conversation

yesterday...

previous • Further to our meeting last week ...

contact • It was a pleasure meeting you in London last month.

• I enjoyed having lunch with you last week in Tokyo.

• I would just like to confirm the main points we

discussed on Tuesday.

……………………………………………….

Making a request • We would appreciate it if you would ...

• I would be grateful if you could ...

• Could you please send me ...

• Could you possibly tell us / let us have ...

• In addition, I would like to receive ...

• It would be helpful if you could send us ...

• I am interested in (obtaining / receiving) ...

• I would appreciate your immediate attention to this

matter.
 23

• Please let me know what action you propose to take.

…………………………………………………….

• Would you like us to ...?

• We would be happy to ...
• We are quite willing to ...
Offering help • Our company would be pleased to ...

……………………………………………………

• We are pleased to announce that ...

• I am delighted to inform you that ..
Giving good news • You will be pleased to learn that ...

……………………………………………………

• We regret to inform you that ...

• I'm afraid it would not be possible to ...
• Unfortunately we cannot / we are unable to ...
Giving bad news • After careful consideration we have decided (not) to ...

…………………………………………………..

• I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with ...

• I am writing to complain about ...
• Please note that the goods we ordered on ( date )
have not yet arrived.
Complaining • We regret to inform you that our order n° ----- is now
considerably overdue.
• I would like to query the transport charges which seem
unusually high.

9. TEXT ANALYSIS: ECONOMIC ISSUES 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.