Q1. What is lead –acid batteries? Explain in brief.

Ans - The lead–acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery It was the

first type of rechargeable battery to be invented. Compared to modern
rechargeable batteries, lead–acid batteries have relatively low energy
density. Despite this, they are able to supply high surge currents. These
features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor
vehicles in order to provide the high current required by starter motors.

Construction and How It Works

 Composed of multiple electrochemical cells (~2 V each) connected in

series to form typical 6 V or 12 V batteries
 Each cell has:
o Negative electrode: porous lead (Pb).
o Positive electrode: lead dioxide (PbO₂).
o Electrolyte: dilute sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) solution
 Discharging: Pb and PbO₂ are converted to lead sulfate (PbSO₄),
consuming sulfuric acid and releasing electrical energy
 Charging: the process is reversed. Electrical energy reforms Pb and
PbO₂, and sulfuric acid concentration increases

Types of Lead–Acid Batteries

 Starter batteries: Thin plates for high current bursts—used in cars,

motorcycles, etc.; not designed for deep discharge
 Deep-cycle batteries: Thicker plates built for repeated deep
discharge/charge cycles—used in solar systems, forklifts, marine
and off-grid use
 VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead–Acid): Includes AGM and Gel types—
sealed design, lower maintenance, often used in UPS and telecom
backup systems

Advantages

 Very low cost per watt-hour and easy.

 Capable of high surge current, ideal for engine starting and
emergency power
  Reliable, resilient, low self-discharge, and effective across
temperature ranges Around 97–99% recyclable by weight, making
them one of the most recycled products globall

Disadvantages

 Heavy and bulky, with a low energy density (~30–40 Wh/kg)

compared to large lithium-ion spec (~200 Wh/kg)
 Slow charging—full charge may take 14–16 hours
 Limited cycle life, often < 500 deep cycles for standard types; deep-
cycle versions can reach up to ~2,000 cycles under ideal conditions

Q2. What is Nickel – Cadmium batteries? Explain in brief.

Nickel–Cadmium batteries are rechargeable batteries using a

cadmium (Cd) anode, a nickel oxide hydroxide (NiO(OH)) cathode,
and an alkaline (potassium hydroxide, KOH) electrolyte. They were
invented in the late 1890s

How They Work

 Each cell delivers around 1.2 V, with voltage remaining relatively

constant until near depletion
 Discharge chemistry:
2 NiO(OH) + Cd + 2 H₂O → 2 Ni(OH)₂ + Cd(OH)₂
 During charge, reactions are reversed to regenerate NiO(OH) and
metallic Cd.

Advantages

 Long cycle life: Often between 1,000–2,000+ cycles, with industrial

types even exceeding 3,500 cycles
 High power output & fast discharge: Excellent for tools, RC vehicles,
and emergency systems
 Robust and durable: Good tolerance of deep discharge, overcharge,
and extreme environments (–20 °C to –40 °C)
 Stable voltage during most of discharge cycle—devices keep
working consistently

Disadvantages
  Memory effect: Repeatedly partial discharging and recharging can
permanently reduce capacity unless regularly cycled fully
 High self-discharge: Typically around 10% per month, faster than
modern alternatives
 Toxic cadmium: Environmental and health concerns limit usage;
many regions restrict Ni–Cd use or ban it for consumer products
 Lower energy density than newer chemistries like NiMH or Li-ion
(~50–65 Wh/kg)
 Cost: More expensive up-front per kWh compared to lead-acid or
Li-ion

Typical Applications

 Industrial & mission-critical systems: Aviation power systems,

railway backup, telecom infrastructure due to reliability and
tolerance to abuse
 Portable equipment: Older power tools, RC models, emergency
lights, medical and military-grade devices
 Backup power systems: UPS units and standby power setups, where
robustness matters more than energy density over time

Q3. What is Nickel – Metal hydride batteries? Explain in brief.

These are rechargeable batteries that combine a nickel oxyhydroxide

(NiOOH) positive electrode with a hydrogen-absorbing metal alloy
negative electrode, immersed in an alkaline (potassium hydroxide)
electrolyte

Each cell provides around 1.2 V nominal voltage, similar to NiCd cells

How They Work (Simplified)

 Charging: The metal alloy at the negative electrode absorbs

hydrogen (forming a hydride), while Ni(OH)₂ at the positive electrode
oxidizes to NiO(OH)
 Discharging: These reactions reverse—hydride releases hydrogen
and electrons, and NiO(OH) reduces to Ni(OH)₂, producing electrical
current
Key Advantages

 Higher energy density than NiCd—up to 2–3× more capacity for the
same size (~60–100 Wh/kg)
 Reduced memory effect: less prone to capacity loss from partial
recharge cycles, unlike NiCd
 Environmentally friendly: no toxic cadmium; easier to recycle and
safer to dispose of
 Versatile use: Works well in high-drain devices like cameras, power
tools, and hybrid vehicles

Limitations

 Higher self-discharge than Li-ion—loses ~5–20% charge per month,

though low-self-discharge (LSD) variants fare better
 Lower cycle life (~300–800 cycles normal; up to ~1,500 for LSD
types) compared to Li-ion
 Slower charging and generates more heat than NiCd; requires
smarter, temperature-aware chargers
 Heavier and bulkier than lithium-ion; nominal voltage remains lower
(1.2 V vs 1.5 V for alkaline) which may affect compatibility in some
devices

Common Applications

 Consumer electronics: AA/AAA replacements for cameras, remotes,

and gaming devices
 Power tools & robotics: Suitable for moderate-high current loads
without risk of damage
 Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs): Widely used historically (e.g. early
Prius models), thanks to robustness and moderate capacity
 Backup and emergency power: Used in UPS and critical systems
where chemical stability and safety matter

Q4 what is Lithium– ion batteries? Explain in brief.

Lithium-ion batteries are rechargeable cells that move lithium ions
between a graphite (carbon) anode and a metal-oxide cathode (commonly
cobalt, nickel, manganese, or iron-phosphate) through a non-aqueous
electrolyte. This electrochemical setup enables efficient energy storage in
a compact form that powers most modern electronics and EVs

How They Work (Simplified)

 Charging: Lithium ions move from the cathode into the graphite
anode through the electrolyte; electrons travel through the external
circuit to the anode.
 Discharging: Ions flow back to the cathode, releasing stored energy
through the circuit to power devices

Advantages

 Exceptional energy density (~200–250 Wh/kg), significantly higher

than Ni–Cd or NiMH batteries
 Lightweight and compact, ideal for portable electronics and vehicles
Long lifespan: typically several hundred to over a thousand cycles,
depending on chemistry and care
 Low self-discharge (~1–2% per month), retaining charge well when
idle.
 No memory effect: no need for full discharge before recharging

Disadvantages

 Higher initial cost compared to older chemistries (e.g. NiMH, Ni–Cd,

lead-acid)
 Safety risks: at risk of thermal runaway (overheating/fire/explosion)
if manufacturing defects occur or cells are abused; flammable
organic electrolytes exacerbate risk
 Thermal sensitivity: performance and lifespan decline at high or low
temperatures (below ~5 °C or above ~35 °C)
 Finite lifespan: capacity degrades over time due to chemical wear
(e.g. overheating, over-charge/discharge, aging)
 Environmental and ethical concerns: lithium and cobalt extraction
has ecological impacts; recycling infrastructure is still
underdeveloped
Q5 How to choose batteries for E vehicle application

Choosing the right battery for an electric vehicle (EV) involves balancing
factors like energy density, safety, lifespan, cost, and environmental
conditions. Here's a comprehensive guide to help you make an informed
decision:

Key Factors to Consider

1. Battery Chemistry

Different chemistries offer varying benefits:

 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP): Known for safety, thermal stability,

and longevity. While they have a lower energy density,
advancements have extended their range, making them suitable for
many applications.
 Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC): Offers higher energy density,
resulting in longer driving ranges. However, they are more
expensive and require careful thermal management.
 Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (NCA): Provides the highest energy density
but is less commonly used due to cost and manufacturing
complexities.
 Lithium Titanate (LTO): Offers ultra-fast charging and extreme cycle
life but has a lower energy density. Suitable for applications
requiring rapid turnaround.

2. Energy Density vs. Range

Higher energy density allows for longer driving ranges. However, higher
density batteries often come at a higher cost and may require more
sophisticated thermal management.
3. Safety and Thermal Management

Batteries should have built-in protection against overcharging, short

circuits, and thermal runaway. Chemistries like LFP offer better thermal
stability, reducing safety risks.

4. Climate Considerations

In regions with extreme temperatures, consider battery chemistries that

perform well under such conditions. LFP batteries, for instance, have a
wider operational temperature range, making them suitable for colder
climates.

5. Cost and Availability

LFP batteries are generally more cost-effective and have a lower

environmental impact due to the absence of critical minerals like cobalt
and nickel. However, they may offer shorter ranges compared to NMC or
NCA batteries.

6. Battery Management System (BMS)

A BMS is crucial for monitoring and managing the battery's performance,

ensuring safety, and optimizing operation. Ensure the chosen battery is
compatible with an efficient BMS.

Q6 compare between difference type of secondary batteries

Lead-Acid Battery

 Nominal Voltage: 2.0 V per cell

 Energy Density: 35–40 Wh/kg
 Cycle Life: Approximately 300–500 cycles
 Self-Discharge Rate: 3–20% per month
 Memory Effect: None
 Cost: Low
 Environmental Impact: High (due to lead content)
 Typical Applications: Automotive starter batteries, uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS), backup power systems
  Advantages: Low initial cost, capable of delivering high surge
currents
 Disadvantages: Heavy, shorter lifespan, environmentally hazardous

🔋 Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Battery

 Nominal Voltage: 1.2 V per cell

 Energy Density: ~30 Wh/kg
 Cycle Life: 500–1,000 cycles
 Self-Discharge Rate: 10–15% per month
 Memory Effect: Yes (significant)
 Cost: Moderate
 Environmental Impact: High (due to toxic cadmium)
 Typical Applications: Power tools, emergency lighting, aviation
applications
 Advantages: Durable, performs well in extreme temperatures, low
internal resistance
 Disadvantages: Memory effect reduces capacity over time, high self-
discharge rate, environmentally hazardous

🔋 Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery

 Nominal Voltage: 1.2 V per cell

 Energy Density: 60–100 Wh/kg
 Cycle Life: 500–1,000 cycles
 Self-Discharge Rate: 10–15% per month
 Memory Effect: Minimal
 Cost: Moderate
 Environmental Impact: Moderate (no cadmium)
 Typical Applications: Hybrid vehicles, digital cameras, cordless
phones
 Advantages: Higher energy density than NiCd, less prone to memory
effect, more environmentally friendly
 Disadvantages: Higher self-discharge rate than Li-Ion, generally
heavier and bulkier
🔋 Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Battery

 Nominal Voltage: 3.6–4.2 V per cell

 Energy Density: 150–250 Wh/kg
 Cycle Life: 500–1,500+ cycles
 Self-Discharge Rate: 1–5% per month
 Memory Effect: None
 Cost: High
 Environmental Impact: Low (recyclable, but mining impacts)
 Typical Applications: Smartphones, laptops, electric vehicles,
renewable energy storage systems
 Advantages: High energy density, long cycle life, low self-discharge
rate, no memory effect
 Disadvantages: Higher cost, sensitive to temperature extremes,
potential safety risks if damaged or improperly handled

Q7 what is difference between cell and batteries

Feature Cell Battery

Single electrochemical
Composition Collection of multiple cells
unit
Voltage
Fixed (e.g., 1.5V, 3.7V) Sum of individual cell voltages
Output
Size Compact Larger, depending on the number of cells
Weight Light Heavier
Cost Generally cheaper More expensive
Applications Low-power devices High-power devices

Q8 what is mean by alkaline batteries

An alkaline battery is a type of primary (non-rechargeable) battery that

generates electrical energy through an electrochemical reaction between
zinc metal and manganese dioxide, facilitated by an alkaline electrolyte,
typically potassium hydroxide (KOH). This alkaline environment
distinguishes it from older zinc-carbon batteries, which use acidic
electrolytes like ammonium chloride or zinc chloride.

⚙️ Construction & Working Principle

 Anode (Negative Terminal): Composed of zinc powder, which

undergoes oxidation, releasing electrons.
 Cathode (Positive Terminal): Made of manganese dioxide (MnO₂),
which undergoes reduction by accepting electrons.
 Electrolyte: An alkaline solution, usually potassium hydroxide (KOH),
that facilitates the movement of hydroxide ions between the anode
and cathode.
 Separator: A porous material that prevents direct contact between
the anode and cathode while allowing ionic movement.

The overall electrochemical reaction in an alkaline battery is:

Zn (s) + 2MnO₂ (s) + 2H₂O (l) → ZnO (s) + Mn₂O₃ (s) + 2OH⁻ (aq)

This reaction results in the release of electrons, providing electrical

energy to power devices.

📦 Common Sizes

Alkaline batteries are available in various sizes to suit different devices:

 AA (Double A): Widely used in toys, remote controls, and clocks.

 AAA (Triple A): Common in smaller devices like TV remotes and
wireless keyboards.
 9V: Typically used in smoke detectors and certain medical devices.
 C & D: Found in larger devices such as flashlights and portable
radios.
 Button Cells: Used in watches, hearing aids, and calculators.
✅ Advantages

 Higher Energy Density: Provides more energy than zinc-carbon

batteries of similar size
 Longer Shelf Life: Can last 5–10 years in storage due to low self-
discharge rate.
 Leak Resistance: Modern designs minimize leakage risks compared
to older models.
 Widely Available: Commonly found in most retail stores.

Q9 List advantages and disadvantages of primary battery

Advantages of Primary Batteries

1. Convenience and Readiness

o Ready to use straight out of the package, eliminating the need
for charging.
2. Long Shelf Life
o Designed to retain charge for extended periods, making them
ideal for emergency devices and infrequently used gadgets.
3. High Initial Voltage
o Provides a stable and high voltage at the start, suitable for
devices requiring consistent power.
4. Wide Temperature Range
o Performs well across a broad temperature spectrum,
beneficial for outdoor or extreme environment applications
5. Low Self-Discharge Rate
o Maintains charge over time, reducing the need for frequent
replacements.
6. No Maintenance Required
o Does not require special care or charging infrastructure,
simplifying usage.
7. Lower Initial Cost
o Generally less expensive upfront compared to rechargeable
batteries.
❌ Disadvantages of Primary Batteries

1. Non-Rechargeable
o Once depleted, they cannot be reused, leading to increased
waste and higher long-term costs.
2. Environmental Impact
o Improper disposal can lead to pollution due to the presence of
toxic materials like mercury and cadmium.
3. Limited Capacity
o Generally have a lower capacity compared to secondary
batteries, making them less suitable for high-drain
applications.
4. Performance Declines with Use
o Over time, their performance can degrade, especially if left
unused for extended periods.
5. Cost Over Time
o Frequent replacements can lead to higher cumulative costs
compared to rechargeable alternatives.

Q10 List advantages and disadvantages of secondary battery

Advantages of Secondary Batteries

1. Cost-Effectiveness Over Time

o While secondary batteries may have a higher initial cost, their
ability to be recharged multiple times makes them more
economical in the long run compared to primary (non-
rechargeable) batteries.
2. Environmental Benefits
o Rechargeable batteries generate less waste and reduce the
need for frequent replacements, making them more
environmentally friendly.
3. High Energy Density
o Many secondary batteries, especially lithium-ion types, offer
high energy density, allowing them to store more energy in a
 smaller space. This is particularly beneficial for applications
requiring compact and lightweight power sources.
4. Versatility in Applications
o Secondary batteries are used in a wide range of devices, from
portable electronics like smartphones and laptops to larger
systems such as electric vehicles and renewable energy
storage solutions.

❌ Disadvantages of Secondary Batteries

1. Higher Initial Cost

o The upfront cost of secondary batteries and their associated
charging equipment is typically higher than that of primary
batteries.
2. Limited Lifespan
o Rechargeable batteries have a finite number of charge-
discharge cycles before their capacity diminishes significantly.
Over time, this can lead to reduced performance and the need
for replacement.
3. Self-Discharge
o Secondary batteries tend to self-discharge over time, even
when not in use. This means they may lose their charge
gradually, requiring periodic recharging to maintain optimal
performance.
4. Safety Concerns
o Some types of secondary batteries, such as lithium-ion
batteries, have been known to overheat and catch fire or
explode if they are damaged or not used properly. While the
risk is relatively low, it is still a concern for some consumers.
5. Environmental Impact of Disposal
o Improper disposal of secondary batteries can lead to
environmental pollution due to the presence of toxic materials
like lithium, cobalt, and nickel. Recycling processes for these
batteries are still developing and may not be widely
accessible.s