Unit

1
Properties of Matter

Elasticity - Stress-strain diagram and its uses - factors affecting

elastic modulus and tensile strength - torsional stress and
deformations - twisting couple - torsion pendulum. Theory and
Experiment -bending of beams - bending moment - cantilever:
theory and experiment - uniform and non-uniform bending: theory
and experiment - I-shaped girders - stress due to bending in beams.

1.1 ELASTICITY
When an elastic material is deformed due to an external force, it
experiences internal forces that oppose the deformation and restore it to
its original state if the external force is no longer applied.
On the other hand, Material deforms under stress but returns to its
original size and shape when the stress is released. There is no permanent
deformation. Some elastic strain, like in a rubber band, can be large, but
in rocks it is usually small enough to be considered infinitesimal.
Elasticity is a branch of physics which deals with the elastic property
of materials. Materials do not regain its original shape or size even after
the removal of the deforming force are said to be Perfectly Plastic.

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 1.2 Engineering Physics 

1.2 STRESS AND STRAIN

1. Stress
Stress is defined as the restoring force per unit area area which
brings back to original state from deformed state.

i.e. Stress = Deforming force = F

Unit : Nm–2
Area A
Types of Stress
i) Longitudinal (or) Tensile Stress
ii) Shearing (or) Tangential Stress
iii) Axial (or) Compressive Stress

2. Strain
Strain is defined as the ratio of the change in dimension to the
original dimension.

Change in dimension l
i.e., Strain
Original dimension L
Since strain is a ratio, it has no unit.
Types of Strain
i. Longitudinal or Tensile Strain (Change per unit Length)
ii. Shearing Strain (Change per unit Area)
iii. Volume (or) Bulk Strain (Change per unit Volume)

1.3 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM AND ITS USES

The elastic behavior of a material of wire can be studied by plotting a
curve between the stress along with y axis and the corresponding strain on
the x axis. The curve is called Stress – Strain Curve.

Let a wire be clamped at one end and loaded at the other end
gradually from zero value until the wire breaks down. The nature of the
stress-strain curve for low carbon steel wire is shown in Fig 1.1.

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Properties of Matter 1.3

A – Proportional Limit
A' – Elastic Limit
B – Yield Point
C – Ultimate Tensile Strength
D – Breaking Stress

Fig 1.1 Stress - Strain Curve

(i) The body obeys Hooke’s law upto the region OA called as elastic range
(ii) In the vicinity of the point A there lies another point A' called the
elastic limit. Up to the point A', the wire behaves as a perfectly
elastic body. These two points A and A' are very nearer to each other
and may coincide for some materials.

(iii) On increasing the load still further a point B, called yield point is
usually determined by the minimum value of stress for which the
material begins to deform without an increase of load. The value of the
stress at the yield point is called yield strength of that material.

(iv) If the wire is further loaded, a point represented by C is reached. At

the point C, the value of the developed stress is maximum and is
called the ultimate tensile strength (or) tensile strength of the given
material.

(v) The stress corresponding to the point D where the wire actually breaks
down, is called the breaking stress.

Uses of Stress – Strain Diagram

1. It is used to estimate the elastic strength, yield strength and tensile
strength of metals. Elastic strength is used to define the elastic limit
of a material.
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 1.4 Engineering Physics 
2. It is used to estimate the working stress and safety factor of an
engineering material.
3. The area under the curve in the elastic region gives the energy required
to deform it elastically. The area under the curve up to Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS) point gives the energy required to deform it plastically.
4. It is also used to identify the ductile and brittle materials.

NOTE :

Normally the working stress on a body is kept far below the ultimate tensile stress
and is never allowed to cross the elastic limit. The above fact is practiced by all
design engineers to get higher stability and reliability of the structures. The ratio
between the ultimate tensile stress and the working stress is called the safety
factor.
Ultimate tensile stress
i.e. Safety factor = Working stress

Hooke’s Law
The maximum stress up to which a body exhibits the property
of elasticity is called elastic limit.
According to this law, within elastic limit, the stress developed
in the body is directly proportional to strain produced in it. i.e.,
the ratio of the stress to the strain is a constant.
Stress Strain

Stress = E Stain.
Stress
Unit : Nm–2
Strain = Constant
E

This constant E is called the modulus of elasticity.

Corresponding to the three types of strain, there are three kinds of
modulus of elasticity. They are Young’s modulus (Y), Bulk modulus (K)
and Rigidity modulus ( )
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 Properties of Matter 1.5

1. Young’s Modulus (Y)

It is defined as the ratio between the longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain with in the elastic limits.

Linear stress
–2
Young's Modulus Y = Linear strain Unit:Nm

2. Bulk Modulus (K)

It is defined as the ratio between the volume stress to the volume
strain within the elastic limits.,

Bulk stress
Bulk Modulus K = Bulk strain Unit:Nm–2

3. Rigidity Modulus ( )
It is defined as the ratio between the tangential stress to the
tangential strain within the elastic limits.

Shearing Stress
Rigidity modulus ' ' = Shearing Strain Unit:Nm–2

NOTE:
 The reciprocal of the bulk modulus of a substance is called its compressibility. 


 Derivation and explanation of three modulus of elasticity are discussed in
Appendix - 1

4. Properties of Modulus of Elasticity
1. All solids have three modulus of elasticity and fluids (gases and
liquids) have only bulk modulus of elasticity.
2. By the Young’s modulus and bulk modulus of a material, the material
undergoes change in size (or) volume due to the applied force and
there is no change in shape of the material.
3. But by the rigidity modulus the material undergoes change in shape
only due to the applied force and there is no change in size or volume
of the material.
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 1.6 Engineering Physics 
5. Poisson’s Ratio :
It is defined as the ratio between the lateral strains per unit stress (β)
to the longitudinal strain per unit stress (α) with in the elastic limits.

Poisson’s ratio (σ) =

6. Relationship between three modulus of elasticity

We know that,
Y
i.e., Y 2 (1 ) .....(1)
2(1 )
Y
and K i.e., Y 3K(1 2 ) .....(2)
3(1 2 )
The above relations are discussed in Appendix - 2
Thus
2 2 Y 1 2 Y
From eqn.(1), From eqn. (2),
3K

Adding the above two equations, Y Y

3 3K
3 1 1
4

Y3K
Multiply by 3
9 31y
K

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Properties of Matter 1.7

1.4 FACTORS AFFECTING ELASTICITY

Some materials losses their elastic properties even within the elastic
limit due to the following factors. They are,
1. Effect of Stress
i) If a body is subjected to a constant stress, it loses its elastic property
even within elastic limit. It will regain its elastic property if it is
allowed to rest sufficiently.
ii) Similarly a wire is loaded repeatedly or subjected to a large number of
cycles of stresses; it gets tired or ruptured due to gradual fracture of
the material and hence loses its elastic property apparently.
2. Effect of Temperature
i) Normally the elasticity decreases with the increase of temperature.
ii) A carbon filament which is highly elastic at normal temperature
becomes plastic when it is at high temperature.
iii) Lead is not a very good elastic material. But at low temperature it
becomes a very good elastic material.
iv) Creep resistance is a property by which the material can withstand
its elastic property without fracture at high temperatures and during
quick loading.
v) If annealing is made to a material, the elastic property is decreases.

3. Effect of Impurities
i) The elastic property of a material may increase or decrease due to the
addition of impurities.
ii) If we add carbon in minute quantities to molten iron., the elastic
properties of iron are increased enormously. But the carbon content is
more than 1% in iron, then the strength of iron decreases.
iii) Similarly the addition of potassium in gold increases the elastic
properties of gold.
iv) If any addition of impurity atoms distorts the lattice structure of the
base metal, then the elastic property of the base metal decreases.
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 1.8 Engineering Physics 

4. Effect of Crystalline Nature

For a given metal, the modulus of elasticity is more when it is in
single crystal form. In the polycrystalline state, its modulus of elasticity is
comparatively small.
However, for most of the engineering uses, we are using
polycrystalline form of metals due to the increased mechanical properties
like ductility, malleability, machinability, etc.

1.5 TORSIONAL STRESS AND DEFORMATION

When a body is fixed at one end and twisted about its axis by means
of a torque at the other end, the body is said to be under torsion. The
twisting of a rod (or) wire about its longitudinal axis by two equal and
opposite torques (twisting couple) is expressed through a certain angle.
The stress seen in this situation is not tensile or compressive, it is said to
be shearing or shear stress. The strain in this case is measured by an
angle in unit of radians.

Expression for torque per unit twist - Twisting Couple

Let us consider a cylindrical rod of length l and radius r with its
upper end fixed. Let a twisting couple is applied to the lower end of the rod
in a plane perpendicular to its length and let the rod twist through an
angle θ (radians). While the rod is twisted restoring couple acts in the
opposite direction and in the position of equilibrium , the twisting couple is
equal and opposite to the restoring couple.

Fig. 1.2 Twisting Couple

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