Main purpose of an electronic communications system is to transfer information from one place to another.

 Electronic communications can be viewed as the transmission, reception and processing of information
between two or more locations using electronic circuit/device

 Communication is the process of exchanging information.

 Main barriers are language and distance.
 Contemporary society’s emphasis is now the accumulation, packaging, and exchange of information.
 Methods of communication:
 Face to face
 Signals
 Written word (letters)
 Electrical innovations:
 Telegraph  Television
 Telephone  Internet (computer)
 Radio
Communication Systems Basic components:

 Transmitter  Receiver
 Channel or medium  Noise degrades or interferes with
transmitted information
Communication Systems

 Transmission channel – physical link between the communicating parties

 Modulator – transform the source signal so that it is physically suitable for the transmission channel
 Transmitter – introduce the modulated signal into the channel (also act as amplifier)
 Receiver – Detect the signal on the channel and amplify it (due to the attenuation)
 Demodulator – Get the source signal (original) from the received signal and pass it to the recipient
Transmitter

The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits that converts the electrical signal
into a signal suitable for transmission over a given medium.
 Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency
mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits
Communication Channel
 The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to
another.
 Types of media include
 Electrical conductors  Free space
 Optical media  System-specific media (e.g., water is the
medium for sonar).
Receivers
 A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the transmitted message
from the channel and converts it back into a form understandable by humans.
 Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or
detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated carrier.
Transceivers
 A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits that both send and receive signals.
 Examples are:
• Telephones • Cell phones
• Fax machines • Computer modems
• Handheld CB radios
Attenuation
 Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists in all media of wireless transmission. It is proportional to the
square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Noise
 Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the communication system via the
communicating medium and interferes with the transmitted message.
Communication / Transmission Mode

 Electronic communications are classified according to whether they are

 One-way (simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex) transmissions
 Analog or digital signals.
Simplex System : the system capable of sending information in one direction only where only the sender can send the
information and only the recipient can receive the information
 The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as simplex.
 This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
 Radio
 TV broadcasting
 Beeper (personal receiver)

Full-duplex System : Information can be carried in both Half-duplex System : the system capable to carry
direction at the same time. The 2 directions of information in both direction, but only one direction is
information travel are independent of each other. (e.g. allowed at a time. The sender transmits to the intended
ordinary/mobile phone systems, computer systems) receiver, and then reverse their roles
 The form of two-way communication in which only
 Most electronic communication is two-way and one party transmits at a time is known as half
is referred to as duplex. duplex. Examples are:
 When people can talk and listen  Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
simultaneously, it is called full duplex. The  Citizen band (CB)
telephone is an example of this type of  Family radio
communication.  Amateur radio
Analog Signals
 An analog signal is a
smoothly and continuously
varying voltage or current.
Examples are:
a. Sine wave
b. Voice
c. Video (TV)

Digital Signals
 Digital signals change in steps
or in discrete increments.
 Most digital signals use binary
or two-state codes. Examples
are:
a. Telegraph (Morse
code)
b. Continuous wave
(CW) code
c. Serial binary code (used in computers)
 Many transmissions are of signals that originate in digital form but must be converted to analog form to
match the transmission medium.

 Digital data over the telephone network.

 Analog signals.
 They are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
 The data can then be transmitted and processed by computers and other digital circuits.

Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for transmitting information efficiently from one place to
another.
 Modulation makes the information signal more compatible with the medium.
 Multiplexing allows more than one signal to be transmitted concurrently over a single medium.

Baseband Transmission
 Baseband information can be sent directly and unmodified over the medium or can be used to
modulate a carrier for transmission over the medium.
 In telephone or intercom systems, the voice is placed on the wires and transmitted.
 In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial or twisted-pair
cables for transmission.

Broadband Transmission
 A carrier is a high frequency signal that is modulated by audio, video, or data.
 A radio-frequency (RF) wave is an electromagnetic signal that is able to travel long distances through
space.
 A broadband transmission takes place when a carrier signal is modulated, amplified, and sent to the
antenna for transmission.
 The two most common methods of modulation are:
a. Amplitude Modulation (AM) b. Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Another method is called phase modulation (PM), in which the phase angle of the sine wave is varied.
Figure 1-7: Modulation at the transmitter Figure : (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency modulation.

 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) takes place when data is converted to frequency-varying tones.
 Devices called modems (modulator-demodulator) translate the data from digital to analog and back again.
 Demodulation or detection takes place in the receiver when the original baseband (e.g. audio) signal is
extracted.
Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share the same medium or channel.
 The three basic types of multiplexing are:
a. Frequency division b. Time division c. Code division

Figure Multiplexing at the transmitter

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

 The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies is referred to as the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Figure: The electromagnetic spectrum

Frequency and Wavelength: Frequency
 A signal is located on the frequency spectrum according to its frequency and wavelength.
 Frequency is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occur in a given period of time.
 A cycle consists of two voltage polarity reversals, current reversals, or electromagnetic field oscillations.
 Frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps).
 The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
Frequency and Wavelength: Wavelength
 Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave and is usually expressed in meters.
 Wavelength is also the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle.
 The wavelength of a signal is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
Frequency and Wavelength: Wavelength
Wavelength (λ) = speed of light ÷ frequency
Speed of light = 3 × 108 meters/second
Therefore: λ = 3 × 108 / f
Example:
What is the wavelength if the frequency is
4MHz? λ = 3 × 108 / 4 MHz
= 75 meters (m)

Figure : Frequency and wavelength. (a) One cycle. (b) One wavelength.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into segments
Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) 30–300 Hz. These include ac power lines ( 50
and 60 Hz) ,as well as those frequency in the
low end of human audio range.

Voice Frequencies (VF) 300–3000 Hz. This is the normal range of human
speech ,although human hearing extend
approximately from 20 Hz to 20 Khz , Most
intelligible sound occurs in the VF range.

Very Low Frequencies (VLF) 3K-30 K include the higher end of the human
hearing range up to about 20 kHz.Many musical
instrument make sounds in this . VLF range is
use in some government communication such
as VLF radio used by navy to communicate with
submarines

Low Frequencies (LF) 30–300 kHz.Use in aeronautical and marine

navigation.

Medium Frequencies (MF) 300–3000 kHz

AM radio 535–1605 kHz.

 High Frequencies (HF) 3–30 MHz ,all kinds of simple broadcasting and
half duplex broadcasting

(short waves; VOA, BBC broadcasts; government

and military two-way communication; amateur
radio, CB.

Very High Frequencies (VHF) 30–300 MHz. This popular frequency range is
used by many services including mobile radio,
FM radio broadcasting (88–108 MHz), television FM Broadcasting , and Television channel 2- 13
channels 2–13. ,Radio amateurs have numerous band on this
frequency

Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) 300–3000 MHz , It include the UHF TV channel
from 14-67 and its used for land mobile
TV channels 14–67, cellular phones, military communication and services such as cellular
communication. telephones, some radar and navigation occupy
this portion .

Microwaves and Super High Frequencies (SHF) 1–30 GHz

Satellite communication, radar, wireless LANs, This microwave frequency are used for satellite
microwave ovens communication and Radar , Wireless local area
network also use this region .

Extremely High Frequencies (EHF) 30–300 GHz

Satellite communication, computer data, radar Electromagnetic signals with frequency higher
than 30 GHz are referred to millimetre waves
.Satellite communication telephony , Specialize
radar and computer data.

Optical Spectrum
 The optical spectrum exists directly above the millimeter wave region.
 Three types of light waves are:
 Infrared
 Visible spectrum
 Ultraviolet
Optical Spectrum: Infrared
 Infrared radiation is produced by any physical equipment that generates heat, including our bodies.
 Infrared is used:
 In astronomy, to detect stars and other physical bodies in the universe,
 For guidance in weapons systems, where the heat radiated from airplanes or missiles can be
detected and used to guide missiles to targets.
 In most new TV remote-control units, where special coded signals are transmitted by an infrared
LED to the TV receiver to change channels, set the volume, and perform other functions.
 In some of the newer wireless LANs and all fiber-optic communication.
Optical Spectrum: The Visible Spectrum
 Just above the infrared region is the visible spectrum we refer to as light.
 Red is low-frequency or long-wavelength light
 Violet is high-frequency or short-wavelength light.
Light waves’ very high frequency enables them to handle a tremendous amount of information (the bandwidth of the
baseband signals can be very wide
Optical Spectrum: Ultraviolet
 Ultraviolet is not used for communication
 Its primary use is medical.
Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.
 Channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the desired information.
BW= f2-f1
Ex. A Commonly used frequency range is 902 to 928 Mhz , What is the width of this band ?

Spectrum Management and Standards

 Spectrum management is provided by agencies set up by the United States and other countries to
control spectrum use.
 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the National Telecommunications and
Information Administration (NTIA) are two agencies that deal in spectrum management.
 Standards are specifications and guidelines necessary to ensure compatibility between transmitting and
receiving equipment.
A Survey of Communications Applications
 Simplex
 AM and FM broadcasting
 Digital radio
 TV broadcasting

 Digital television (DTV)
 Cable television
 Facsimile
 Wireless remote control
 Paging services
 Navigation and direction-finding services
 Telemetry
 Radio astronomy
 Surveillance
 Music services
 Internet radio and video
 Duplex
 Telephones
 Two-way radio
 Radar
 Sonar
 Amateur radio/Citizens radio
 Family Radio service
 The Internet
 Wide-area networks (WANs)
 Metropolitan-area networks (MANs)
 Local area networks (LANs)
The electronics industry is roughly divided into four major specializations:
 Communications (largest in terms of people employed and the dollar value of equipment purchased)
 Computers (second largest).
 Industrial controls.
 Instrumentation
Jobs and Careers in the Communication Industry
Types of Jobs
 Engineers design communication equipment and systems.
 Technicians install, troubleshoot, repair, calibrate, and maintain equipment.
 Engineering Technicians assist in equipment design, testing, and assembly.
 Technical sales representatives determine customer needs and related specifications, write proposals
and sell equipment.
 Technical writers generate technical documentation for equipment and systems.
 Trainers develop programs, generate training and presentation materials, and conduct classroom
training.

Engineering industries that accept electronic engineering graduates

Electronic engineering graduates are typically accepted into the following industries. However, different
employers will have different requirements, so do check out companies individually.

 Aerospace industry
 Automotive industry
 Construction industry
 Defence industry
 Electronics industry
 Fast moving consumer goods industry
 Marine industry
 Oil and gas industry
 Pharmaceuticals industry
 Power generation industry
 Rail industry
 Telecoms
 Utilities industry
Functions

1. To fabricate and test electronic circuits Manufacturing, testing and maintenance of electronic devices and systems.
2. To understand the construction, identification, characteristics, specifications, merits, limitations and applications of
electronic components and materials
3. To understand lines communication, audio and video communication, and microwave communication

Employment Opportunities

Electronic Exchanges, Department of Telecommunications, BSNL, Railways, Electricity Board are major employers of
Electronics Engineers.
Industries manufacturing Electronics & Communication systems, PCB components, Computers and other electronic
equipments.
Commercial organisation providing services, in repair & maintenance of Electronics & Computers.
Marketing and Sales Executives
Teaching / Research
Telecommunications
Broadcasting Networks
Semiconductor Companies
 Analog Linear Modulation and Demodulation
Contents:
 Analog Modulation
 Linear Modulation(DSB-FC,DSB-SC,SSB,VSB)
 Analysis of AM wave
 Linear demodulator
 Comparison of Various AM Techniques
 Super Heterodyne Receiver
Objective: The goal of this chapter is to study and analyze the analog linear modulation and
demodulation techniques in communication systems.
2. Introduction: In the early days of wireless communication was carried out by telegraphy,
the radiated signal being an interrupted radio wave. Later, the amplitude of this wave was
varied in sympathy with (modulated by) a speech message (rather than on/off by a telegraph
key), and the message was recovered from the envelope of the received signal. The radio
wave was called a ‘carrier’, since it was seen to carry the speech information with it. The
process and the signal were called amplitude modulation, or ‘AM’ for short. In the context
of radio communications, near the end of the 20th century, few modulated signals contain a
significant component at ‘carrier’ frequency. However, despite the fact that a carrier is not
radiated, the need for such a signal at the transmitter (where the modulated signal is
generated), and also at the receiver, remains fundamental to the modulation and
demodulation process respectively. The use of the term ‘carrier’ to describe this signal has
continued to the present day. The most common method of AM generation uses a ‘class C
modulated amplifier’; such an amplifier is not available in the BASIC TIMS set of modules.
It is well documented in text books. This is a ‘high level’ method of generation, in that the
AM signal is generated at a power level ready for radiation. It is still in use in broadcasting
Stations around the world, ranging in powers from a few tens of watts to many megawatts.
2.1 Types of Modulation
The carrier signal is a sine wave at the carrier frequency. Below equation shows that the sine
wave has three characteristics that can be altered.
Instantaneous voltage E  Ec max(sin(2 fct + )
The term that may be varied are the carrier voltage Ec, the carrier frequency fc, and the carrier
phase angle θ. So three forms of modulations are possible.
 Figure 2.1: Modulation Type
Amplitude Modulation: The amplitude of carrier signal varies accordingly as the message signal, while
other factor such as frequency, phase likes remain constant. Computer modem
Comes under it.
Frequency Modulation: The frequency of the carrier signal varies as message signal remaining other
variable constant, Radio comes under it.
Phase Modulation: The phase of the carrier wave adjust as like the message wave but here
The frequency changes, for which it comes under frequency modulation
The information is considered as the modulating signal and it is superimposed on the carrier wave
by applying both of them to the modulator. The detailed diagram showing the amplitude
modulation process is given below.

Figure 2.2 Amplitude Modulation

As shown above, the carrier wave has positive and negative half cycles. Both these cycles are
varied according to the information to be sent. The carrier then consists of sine waves whose
amplitudes follow the amplitude variations of the modulating wave. The carrier is kept in an
envelope formed by the modulating wave. From the figure, you can also see that the amplitude
variation of the high frequency carrier is at the signal frequency and the frequency of the carrier
wave is the same as the frequency of the resulting wave.
 Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the
carrier signal (high frequency signal), with a modulating signal that typically

contains information to be transmitted.
2.2 Need for modulation:
 Antenna Height
 Narrow Banding
 Poor radiation and penetration
 Diffraction angle
 Multiplexing

2.3 Functions of the Carrier Wave:
The main function of the carrier wave is to carry the audio or video signal from the transmitter to
the receiver. The wave that is resulted due to superimposition of audio signal and carrier wave is
called the modulated wave.

2.4 Types of Linear Modulation: 
1. DSB-SC, Double sideband suppressed carrier.
2.  large carrier (AM)
DSB-LC, Double sideband
3. SSB, Single sideband 
4. VSB, Vestigial side 
band
2.5 Analysis of Amplitude Modulation Carrier Wave:

Let, vc  Vc sin(ct ) and vm  Vm sin( mt )

vc –Instantaneous value of the carrier
Vc – Peak value of the

carrier
ꞷc – Angular velocity of the carrier
vm– Instantaneous value of the modulating signal
Vm – Maximum value of the
modulating signal
ꞷm – Angular velocity of the
modulating signal
fm – Modulating signal frequency

It must be noted that the phase angle remains constant in this process. Thus it can be ignored.
The amplitude of the carrier wave varies at fm. The amplitude modulated wave is given by the
Equation
 vm 
A  Vc  vm  VC  vm sin( mt )  VC 1  sin( mt )   VC 1  ma sin( mt ) 
 vc 
ma -Modulation Index (The ratio of Vm/Vc)
Instantaneous value of amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation
A  vc Vm sin  mt   Vc 1  ma sin  mt   sin  ct   Vc sin  ct   maVc sin  mt  sin  ct  
maVc
 A  Vc sin  ct  
2
 cos  wc  wm  t  cos  wc  wm  t 
The above equation represents the sum of three sine waves. One with amplitude of Vc and a
m aV c
frequency of  c , the second one with an amplitude of and frequency of (  c –  m ) and the
2
m aV c
third one with an amplitude of and a frequency of (  c –  m ).
2
In practice the angular velocity of the carrier is known to be greater than the angular velocity of
the modulating signal (  c >>  m ). Thus, the second and third cosine equations are more close to
the carrier frequency. The equation is represented graphically as shown below.
2.6 Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave:
Lower side frequency:  c –  m

Upper side frequency:  c +  m
The frequency components present in the AM wave are represented by vertical lines
approximately located along the frequency axis. The height of each vertical line is drawn in
proportion to its amplitude. Since the angular velocity of the carrier is greater than the angular
velocity of the modulating signal, the amplitude of side band frequencies can never exceed half of
The carrier amplitude. Thus, there will not be any change in the original frequency, but the side
band frequencies will be changed. The former is called the upper side band (USB) frequency and
the latter is known as lower side band (LSB) frequency. Since the signal frequency  m is present in
the side bands, it is clear that the carrier voltage component does not transmit any information.
Two side banded frequencies will be produced when a carrier is amplitude modulated by a single
frequency. That is, an AM wave has a band width from  c –  m to  c +  m , that is, 2  m or
twice the signal frequency is produced. When a modulating signal has more than one frequency,
two side band frequencies are produced by every frequency. Similarly for two frequencies of the
modulating signal 2 LSB‘s and 2 USB‘s frequencies will be produced.
The side bands of frequencies present above the carrier frequency will be same as the ones present
below. The side band frequencies present above the carrier frequency is known to be the upper
side band and all those below the carrier frequency belong to the lower side band. The USB
frequencies represent the some of the individual modulating frequencies and the LSB frequencies
Represent the difference between the modulating frequency and the carrier frequency. The total
bandwidth is represented in terms of the higher modulating frequency and is equal to twice this
frequency.
2.7: Modulation Index (ma):
The ratio between the amplitude changes of carrier wave to the amplitude of the normal
carrier wave is called modulation index. It is represented by the letter ‗m‘.
It can also be defined as the range in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied by
the modulating signal.

ma 
vm
vc
Percentage modulation, % ma = ma *100 = vvmc  100 100

the percentage modulation lies between 0 and 80%.

Another way of expressing the modulation index is in terms of the maximum and minimum
values of the amplitude of the modulated carrier wave. This is shown in the figure below.

V max  V min
ma 
V max  V min
As told earlier, the value of ‘m’ lies between 0 and 0.8. The value of m determines the
strength and the quality of the transmitted signal. In an AM wave, the signal is contained in
the variations of the carrier amplitude. The audio signal transmitted will be weak if the carrier
wave is only modulated to a very small degree. But if the value of m exceeds unity, the
transmitter output produces erroneous distortion.

2.8 Power Relations in an AM wave:
A modulated wave has more power than had by the carrier wave before modulating. The total
power components in amplitude modulation can be written as:

Ptotal  Pcarrier  PLSB  PUSB

Considering additional resistance like antenna resistance R.
2
Pcarrier   vc  1  VC 2

 2  R 2R
.Hence power in LSB and USB can be written as
2 2 2

PLSB  PUSB  ma v c  ma Pcarrier

4 2R 4

 2

Ptotal  Pcarrier 1 m2a 


 

In some applications, the carrier is simultaneously modulated by several sinusoidal

modulating signals. In such a case, the total modulation index is given as
 mtotal  m12m2 2m32m4 2..........
If Ic and It are the r.m.s values of unmodulated current and total modulated current and R
is the resistance through which these current flow, then
2

Ptotal  I R I  
2 2
t m
Pcarrier  
 t
 1  a

2
 
I R I
c c  2 

2.9 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation:
1. Low Efficiency 3. Noise in Reception
2. Limited Operating Range 4. Poor Audio Quality
2.10 AM TRANSMITTERS:
Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM transmitters. These transmitters are
used in medium wave (MW) and short wave (SW) frequency bands for AM broadcast. The
MW band has frequencies between 550 KHz and 1650 KHz, and the SW band has frequencies
ranging from 3MHz to 30MHz. The two types of AM transmitters that are used based on their
transmitting powers are:
 High Level

 Low Level
High level transmitters use high level modulation, and low level transmitters use low level
modulation. The choice between the two modulation schemes depends on the transmitting
power of the AM transmitter. In broadcast transmitters, where the transmitting power may be
of the order of kilowatts, high level modulation is employed. In low power transmitters, where
only a few watts of transmitting power are required, low level modulation is used.
High-Level and Low-Level Transmitters Below figures show the block diagram of high-level
and low-level transmitters. The basic difference between the two transmitters is the power
amplification of the carrier and modulating signals
1.DSB-FC:
Modulator:
1. Square law modulator
2. Switching Modulator
Demodulator: Demodulator: it is a process by which the modulating voltage is recovered from the
modulated signal.
1. Square law demodulator
2. Envelope or diode detector
Demodulation of AM Signals via rectifier detector: The receiver will first recover A+ m(t) and then
remove A. we can replace the switching demodulator by the rectifier demodulator/detector. In
which case, we suppress the negative part of A(t) cos(2πfct) using a diode (half-wave rectifier:
HWR). Here, we define a HWR to be a memoryless device whose input output relationship is
described by a function f HWR(·):
 Figure 2.3: AM transmitter
2.DSB-SC:
Definition: Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) is transmission in
which frequencies produced by amplitude modulation (AM) are symmetrically spaced above
and below the carrier frequency and the carrier level is reduced to the lowest practical level,
ideally being completely suppressed. DSB-SC is basically an amplitude modulation wave
without the carrier, therefore reducing power waste, giving it a 50% efficiency. This is an
increase compared to normal AM transmission (DSB), which has a maximum efficiency of
33.333%, since 2/3 of the power is in the carrier Which carries no intelligence, and each
sideband carries the same information. Single Side Band (SSB) Suppressed Carrier is 100%
efficient.
Modulator:
1. Balanced Modulator
2. Product Modulator
Generation:
DSB-SC is generated by a mixer. This consists of a message signal multiplied by a carrier signal.
The mathematical representation of this process is shown below, where the product-to-sum
trigonometric identity is used.

Figure 2.4: Generation of DSB-SC signal

Demodulator:
1. Coherent/Synchronous Detector
2. Costas receiver
Demodulation is done by multiplying the DSB-SC signal with the carrier signal just like the
modulation process. This resultant signal is then passed through a low pass filter to produce a
scaled version of original message signal. DSB-SC can be demodulated if modulation index is less
than unity.

The equation above shows that by multiplying the modulated signal by the carrier signal, the
Result is a scaled version of the original message signal plus a second term. Since
, this second term is much higher in frequency than the original message.
Once this signal passes through a low pass filter, the higher frequency component is removed,
leaving just the original message.

2.11 Distortion and Attenuation:
For demodulation, the demodulation oscillator's frequency and phase must be exactly the
same as modulation oscillators, otherwise, distortion and/or attenuation will occur. To see this
effect, take the following conditions:
3. SSB TRANSMISSION:
Definition: since large BW required by DSB transmission can be overcome by suppressing one
sideband either LSB or USB completely. As, a result the transmission BW is f m

There are two methods used for SSB Transmission.

1. Frequency discriminator/Filter Method
2. Phase discriminator/ Phase Shift Method
Demodulator: from the modulated wave the original message signal can be recovered by
The following are the drawbacks of SSB signal generation:
 Generation of an SSB signal is difficult.
 Selective filtering is to be done to get the original signal back.
 Phase shifter should be exactly tuned to 90°.
 To overcome these drawbacks, VSB modulation is used. It can view as a compromise
between SSB and DSB-SC.
4.VESTIGIAL SIDE BAND (VSB) MODULATION:
VSB is similar to SSB transmission, in which one of the sideband fully and vestige of another
sideband is transmitted.

VSB transmission is a compromise between DSB and SSB
 In VSB modulation, one pass band is passed almost completely whereas only a residual
portion of the other sideband is retained in such a way that the demodulation process can
still reproduce the original signal.

 VSB signals are easier to generate because some roll-off in filter edges is allowed. This
results in system simplification. And their bandwidth is only slightly greater than that of
SSB signals (-25 %).

 The filtering operation can be represented by a filter H(f) that passes some of the lower (or
upper) sideband and most of the upper (or lower) sideband.
 Heterodyning means the translating or shifting in frequency.

 By heterodyning the incoming signal at ωRF with the local oscillator
frequency ωLO, the message is translated to an intermediate frequency

ωIF, which is equal to either the sum or the difference of ωRF and ωIF.

Modulator techniques: a VSB modulated wave can be produced by performing DSB-SC signal in
sideband shape filter

Figure 2.5: VSB Modulator

Detection techniques:

Figure 2.6: VSB demodulator

 2.12 SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER:
A super-heterodyne receiver (often shortened to superhetro) uses frequency mixing to convert a
received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF) which can be more conveniently processed
than the original radio carrier frequency.
 Basic Super heterodyne Block Diagram and Functionality:
The basic block diagram of a basic super heterodyne receiver is shown below. This details the
most basic form of the receiver and serves to illustrate the basic blocks and their function.

Figure 2.7 Block Diagram of a Basic Super heterodyne Radio Receiver

The way in which the receiver works can be seen by following the signal as is passes through the
receiver.
Front end amplifier and tuning block: Signals enter the front end circuitry from the antenna.
This circuit block performs two main functions:

Tuning: Broadband tuning is applied to the RF stage. The purpose of this is to reject the signals on
the image frequency and accept those on the wanted frequency. Its main purpose is to
reject signals on the image frequency which is at a frequency equal to twice that of the IF
away from the wanted frequency.

Amplification: enables the signals to be amplified sufficiently to ensure a good signal to noise ratio
is achieved. The amplifier must also be a low noise design. Any noise introduced in this
block will be amplified later in the receiver.
Mixer /frequency translator block: The tuned and amplified signal then enters one port of the
mixer. The performance of the mixer is crucial to many elements of the overall receiver
performance. 

Local oscillator: may consist of a variable frequency oscillator that can be tuned by altering the
setting on a variable capacitor. Alternatively it may be a frequency synthesizer that will enable
greater levels of stability and setting accuracy.

Intermediate frequency amplifier, IF block: These stages contain most of the amplification in
the receiver as well as the filtering that enables signals on one frequency to be separated from
those on the next. Filters may consist simply of LC tuned transformers providing inter-stage
coupling.

Detector / demodulator stage: Once the signals have passed through the IF stages of the super
heterodyne receiver, they need to be demodulated. Different demodulators are required for
different types of transmission, and as a result some receivers may have a variety of demodulators.
Different demodulators used may include:

Diode detector: This is the most basic form of detector and this circuit block would simple
consist of a diode and possibly a small capacitor to remove any remaining RF. The
detector is cheap and its performance is adequate, requiring a sufficient voltage to
overcome the diode forward drop.

Synchronous AM detector: It mixes the incoming AM signal with another on the same
frequency as the carrier. This second signal can be developed by passing the whole
signal through a squaring amplifier. The advantages of the synchronous AM detector are
that it provides a far more linear demodulation performance and it is far less subject to
the problems of selective fading.
Product detector: The SSB product detector block consists of a mixer and a local oscillator,
often termed a beat frequency oscillator, BFO or carrier insertion oscillator, CIO. For
SSB, the CIO re-inserts the carrier to make the modulation comprehensible.
FM detector: As an FM signal carries no amplitude variations a demodulator block that
senses frequency variations is required. It should also be insensitive to amplitude
variations as these could add extra noise. Simple FM detectors such as the Foster Seeley
or ratio detectors
PLL FM detector: A phase locked loop can be used to make a very good FM demodulator.
The incoming FM signal can be fed into the reference input, and the
Quadrature FM detector: This form of FM detector block is widely used within ICs. IT is
simple to implement and provides a good linear output.
Audio amplifier: The output from the demodulator is the recovered audio. This is passed into the
audio stages where they are amplified and presented to the headphones or loudspeaker.
 2.1 Comparison Of Various Am:
PARAMETER VSB - SC SSB - SC DSB-SC
Definition A vestigial sideband (in Single-sideband In radio communications,
Side band
radio communication) is a modulation (SSB) is a is
sideband that has been refinement of a band of frequencies hig
only partly cut off or amplitude modulation her than or lower
Than the carrier
Suppressed. that more efficiently frequency,
uses electrical power containing power as a
and bandwidth. result of
The modulation process.

Application Tv broadcastings & Tv broadcastings & Tv broadcastings &

Radio broadcastings Short wave Radio Radio broadcastings
Door
keyless Opens
broadcastings Garage remotes
Two way
radio
Short wave radio Communi
uses Transmits Tv Signals communications cations.

2.13 APPLICATION & ITS USES:

  Radio broadcastings
  Tv broadcastings
  Garage door opens keyless remotes
  Transmits TV signals
  Short wave radio communications
 Two way radio communication.

2.14 Key Differences between AM and FM

Both AM and FM system are used in commercial and non-commercial applications. Such as radio
broadcasting and television transmission. Each system has its own merits and demerits. In a
Particular application, an AM system can be more suitable than an FM system. Thus the two are
equally important from the application point of view.

1. The amplitude modulation alters the carrier amplitude of the signal. As against, in
frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is altered in accordance with the
modulated signal.
2. In amplitude modulation, the frequency ranges from 535 – 1705 Kilohertz whereas in
frequency modulation the frequency range is 88 to 108 megahertz.
 3. AM usually consumes less bandwidth, i.e. 30 kHz while FM takes a maximum of 80 kHz
bandwidth.
4. AM circuitry is simple as compared to FM as AM is the older technology.
5. FM can resist noise while AM is susceptible to noise and disturbance.
6. AM covers a large distance such as a country. Conversely, FM has a limited range.
7. The physical barriers such as buildings, vehicles could not hinder the performance of the
AM wave. On the other hand, these obstructions could significantly affect the FM wave.
8. AM waves are propagated by experiencing reflection from the upper layer of the
atmosphere. In contrast, FM waves propagate by penetrating the atmosphere.

Tutorial Problems:
1. A 400 watts carrier is modulated to a depth of 75% calculate the total power in a
double side band full carrier AM wave.
2. For the maximum envelope voltage Vmax = 20V and a minimum positive
envelope voltage of Vmin = 6V
Determine
a) Modulation Index.
b) Carrier Wave Vc:
3. Calculate the % power saving when the carrier and one of the sidebands are suppressed in an am
wave modulated to depth of 60%.
Total transmitted power
Carrier power
% of Modulation

4. For an AM DSBFC envelope with Vmax = 40V and Vmin = 10V, determine the
(a) Unmodulated carrier wave ;
(b) % Modulation
 ANGLE (Non-linear) MODULATION
Objective: The goal of this topic is to study and analyze the analog Non-linear modulation and
demodulation techniques in communication system.

3. Introduction:
Angle modulation is a class of analog modulation. These techniques are based on altering the
angle (or phase) of a sinusoidal carrier wave to transmit data, as opposed to varying the amplitude,
such as in AM transmission.
Angle Modulation is modulation in which the angle of a sine-wave carrier is varied by a
modulating wave. Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM) are two types of
angle modulation. In frequency modulation the modulating signal causes the carrier frequency to
vary. These variations are controlled by both the frequency and the amplitude of the modulating
wave. In phase modulation the phase of the carrier is controlled by the modulating waveform. The
two main types of angle modulation are:
Frequency modulation (FM), with its digital correspondence frequency-shift keying (FSK).
Phase modulation (PM), with its digital correspondence phase-shift keying (PSK).

Contents:

 Frequency & Phase  Generation Of Wide
Modulation Band FM
 
 Narrow Band FM  Transmission
 Bandwidth
 Wide Band FM 
  FM Transmitter

3.1 FREQUENCY & PHASE MODULATION:

Besides using the amplitude of carrier to carrier information, one can also use the angle of a
carrier to carrier information. This approach is called angle modulation, and includes frequency
modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM). The amplitude of the carrier is maintained
constant. The major advantage of this approach is that it allows the trade-off between bandwidth
and noise performance.

An angle modulated signal can be written as s  t   A cos t 
Where θ(t) is usually of the form   t   2 f t    t  and fc is the carrier frequency. The signal
c
Փ(t) is derived from the message signal m (t) . If   t   k pm  t  for some constant kp, the
resulting modulation is called phase modulation. The parameter k p
is called the phase
Sensitivity. In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) is the
encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.
(Compare with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the
frequency remains constant.) Frequency modulation is known as phase modulation when the
carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM signal.

If the information to be transmitted (i.e., the baseband signal) is and the sinusoidal carrier
Is , where fc is the carrier's base frequency, and Ac is the carrier's
amplitude, the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted
signal:

In this equation, is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is the frequency
deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from fc in one direction, assuming xm(t) is
limited to the range ±1.While most of the energy of the signal is contained within fc ±Δf, it can be
shown by Fourier analysis that a wider range of frequencies is required to precisely represent an
FM signal. The frequency spectrum of an actual FM signal has components extending infinitely,
although their amplitude decreases and higher-order components are often neglected in practical
design problems.
Sinusoidal baseband signal:
Mathematically, a baseband modulated signal may be approximated by a sinusoidal continuous
wave signal with a frequency fm.
The integral of such a signal is:

In this case, the expression for y(t) above simplifies to:

Where, the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid is represented by the peak deviation
The harmonic distribution of a sine wave carrier modulated by such a sinusoidal signal can be
represented with Bessel functions; this provides the basis for a mathematical understanding of
frequency modulation in the frequency domain.

3.2 Modulation index:
As in other modulation systems, the value of the modulation index indicates by how much the
modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to variations in the carrier
frequency:

Where, is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal xm (t), and is

the peak frequency-deviation—i.e. the maximum deviation of the instantaneous frequency from
the carrier frequency. For a sine wave modulation, the modulation index is seen to be the ratio of
the amplitude of the modulating sine wave to the amplitude of the carrier wave (here unity).
If , the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its bandwidth is approximately .
For digital modulation systems, for example Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK), where a
binary signal modulates the carrier, the modulation index is given by:

Where, is the symbol period, and is used as the highest frequency of the modulating binary
waveform by convention, even though it would be more accurate to say it is the
Highest fundamental of the modulating binary waveform.
With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation
index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases but the spacing
between spectra remains the same; some spectral components decrease in strength as others
increase. If the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the
spacing between spectra increases. Frequency modulation can be classified as narrowband if the
change in the carrier frequency is about the same as the signal frequency, or as wideband if the
change in the carrier frequency is much higher (modulation index >1) than the signal frequency.
For example, narrowband FM is used for two way radio systems such as Family Radio Service, in
which the carrier is allowed to deviate only 2.5 kHz above and below the center frequency with
speech signals of no more than 3.5 kHz bandwidth. Wideband FM is used for FM broadcasting, in
which music and speech are transmitted with up to 75 kHz deviation from the center frequency
and carry audio with up to a 20-kHz bandwidth.
Carson's rule:
BT = 2 ∆f + fm.
3.3 PHASE MODULATION:
Phase Modulation (PM) is another form of angle modulation. PM and FM are closely related to
each other. In both the cases, the total phase angle θ of the modulated signal varies. In an FM
wave, the total phase changes due to the change in the frequency of the carrier corresponding to
the changes in the modulating amplitude.
In PM, the total phase of the modulated carrier changes due to the changes in the instantaneous
phase of the carrier keeping the frequency of the carrier signal constant. These two types of
modulation schemes come under the category of angle modulation. However, PM is not as
extensively used as FM.

Figure 3.1:PM modulated waveform

At time t1, the amplitude of m(t) increases from zero to E1. Therefore, at t1, the phase modulated
carrier also changes corresponding to E1, as shown in Figure (a). This phase remains to this
attained value until time t2, as between t1 and t2, the amplitude of m (t) remains constant at El. At
t2, the amplitude of m(t) shoots up to E2, and therefore the phase of the carrier again increases
corresponding to the increase in m(t). This new value of the phase attained at time t2 remains
constant up to time t3. At time t3, m (t) goes negative and its amplitude becomes E3.
Consequently, the phase of the carrier also changes and it decreases from the previous value
attained at t2. The decrease in phase corresponds to the decrease in amplitude of m (t). The phase
of the carrier remains constant during the time interval between t3 and t4. At t4, m (t) goes
positive to reach the amplitude El resulting in a corresponding increase in the phase of modulated
carrier at time t4. Between t4 and t5, the phase remains constant. At t5 it decreases to the phase of
the unmodulated carrier, as the amplitude of m (t) is zero beyond t5.
3.4 Equation of a PM Wave:
To derive the equation of a PM wave, it is convenient to consider the modulating signal as a pure
sinusoidal wave. The carrier signal is always a high frequency sinusoidal wave. Consider the
modulating signal, em and the carrier signal ec, as given by, equation 1 and 2, respectively.

e m
 Em cos  mt  --------------------- (1)

e c
 Ec cos  ct  ---------------- (2)

The initial phases of the modulating signal and the carrier signal are ignored in Equations (1) and
(2) because they do not contribute to the modulation process due to their constant values. After
PM, the phase of the carrier will not remain constant. It will vary according to the modulating
signal em maintaining the amplitude and frequency as constants. Suppose, after PM, the equation
of the carrier is represented as:
e  E C sin  ---------------------------------- (3)
Where θ, is the instantaneous phase of the modulated carrier, and sinusoid ally varies in
proportion to the modulating signal. Therefore, after PM, the instantaneous phase of the
modulated carrier can be written as:
  wct  k pem ----------------------------------(4)
Where kp is the constant of proportionality for phase modulation. Substituting equation (1) in
equation (4):
θ = ωc t + Kp Em Cos ωm t---------------------------------------------(5)
In equation (5), the factor, Kp Em is defined as the modulation index, and is given as
mp = Kp Em

Where, the subscript p signifies; that mp is the modulation index of the PM wave. Therefore,
equation (5) becomes
θ = ωc t + mp Cos ωm t ---------------------- (7)
Substituting Equation (7) and (3), you get:
e = Ec sin (ωct + mp cos ωmt) --------------------- (8)
 3.5 The Bandwidth of an FM Signal:
The following formula, known as Carson‘s rule is often used as an estimate of the FM
signal bandwidth: BT = 2(∆f + fm) Hz. where ∆f is the peak frequency deviation and fm is
the maximum baseband message frequency component.

3.6 Generation of NBFM

In this section, let us discuss about the modulators which generate NBFM and WBFM waves.
First, let us discuss about the generation of NBFM.
Here, the integrator is used to integrate the modulating signal m  t  . The carrier signal
Ac cos(2 f t ) is the phase shifted by 90 0 to get Ac sin(2
c
f t ) with the help of 90 0 phase
c

shifter. The product modulator has two inputs  m  t dt and Ac sin(2 f t ) . It produces an
c

output, which is the product of these two inputs. This is further multiplied with 2 k f 2 by
placing a block 2 k f 2 in the forward path. The summer block has two inputs, which are
nothing but the two terms of NBFM equation. Positive and negative signs are assigned for the
carrier signal and the other term at the input of the summer block. Finally, the summer block
produces NBFM wave.

Figure 3.2: Block diagram NBFM Generation

3.7 GENERATION OF WIDEBAND FM:
The following two methods generate WBFM wave.
(1) Direct method
(2) Indirect method
This method is called as the Direct Method because we are generating a wide band FM
wave directly. In this method, Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate
WBFM. VCO produces an output signal, whose frequency is proportional to the input signal
voltage. This is similar to the definition of FM wave. The block diagram of the generation of
WBFM wave is shown in the following figure 3.3. Here, the modulating signal m (t) is
applied as an input of Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO). Voltage Controlled Oscillator
produces an output, which is nothing but the WBFM.
 Figure 3.3. Block diagram of the generation of WBFM wave
Using Reactance modulator direct method

Figure 3.4. Reactance Modulator

The FM transmitter has three basic sections.
5. The exciter section contains the carrier oscillator, reactance modulator and the
buffer amplifier.
6. The frequency multiplier section, which features several frequency multipliers.
7. The power output section, which includes a low-level power amplifier, the final power
amplifier, and the impedance matching network to properly load the power section with
the antenna impedance.
The essential function of each circuit in the FM transmitter may be described as follows.

 The Exciter
1. The function of the carrier oscillator is to generate a stable sine wave signal at the
rest frequency, when no modulation is applied. It must be able to linearly change
frequency when fully modulated, with no measurable change in amplitude.
2. The buffer amplifier acts as a constant high-impedance load on the oscillator to
help stabilize the oscillator frequency. The buffer amplifier may have a small gain.
3. The modulator acts to change the carrier oscillator frequency by application of
the message signal. The positive peak of the message signal generally lowers the
oscillator's frequency to a point below the rest frequency, and the negative
message peak raises the oscillator frequency to a value above the rest frequency.
The greater the peak-to-peak message signal, the larger the oscillator deviation.

o Frequency multipliers are tuned-input, tuned-output RF amplifiers in which the

output resonant circuit is tuned to a multiple of the input frequency. Common
frequency multipliers are 2x, 3x and 4x multiplication. A 5x Frequency
 multiplier is sometimes seen, but its extreme low efficiency forbids widespread
usage. Note that multiplication is by whole numbers only. There can not a 1.5x

 multiplier, for instance.

o The final power section develops the carrier power, to be transmitted and often
has a low-power amplifier driven the final power amplifier. The impedance
matching network is the same as for the AM transmitter and matches the antenna

impedance to the correct load on the final over amplifier.

Figure 3.5: Block Diagram of Frequency Multiplier – 1

Figure 3.6: Block Diagram of Frequency Multiplier - 2

In many applications a multiplication factor greater than that achievable with a single multiplier
stage is required. In such cases two or more multipliers are cascaded to produce an overall
multiplication of 6. In the second example, three multipliers provide an overall multiplication of
30. The total multiplication factor is simply the product of individual stage multiplication
factors.
Indirect Method

This method is called as Indirect Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
indirectly. This means, first we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of frequency
multipliers we will get WBFM wave. The block diagram of generation of WBFM wave is shown
in the following figure 3.7.
 Figure 3.7: Block diagram of indirect (Armstrong) method of WBFM Generation
The Armstrong method uses the phase modulator to generate a frequency modulated wave.
Working Principle
The working operation of this system can be divided into two parts as follows:
Part I: Generate a narrow band FM wave using a phase modulator.
Part II: Use the frequency multipliers and mixer to obtain the required values of frequency
deviation, carrier and modulation index.

 The crystal oscillator generates the carrier at low frequency typically at 1MHz. This is
applied to the combining network and a 90° phase shifter.
 The modulating signal is passed through an audio equalizer to boost the low modulating
frequencies. The modulating signal is then applied to a balanced modulator.
 The balanced modulator produced two side bands such that their resultant is 90° phase
shifted with respect to the unmodulated carrier.
 The unmodulated carrier and 90° phase shifted sidebands are added in the combining
network.
 At the output of the combining network we get FM wave. This wave has a low carrier
frequency fc and low value of the modulation index mf.
 The carrier frequency and the modulation index are then raised by passing the FM wave
through the first group of multipliers. The carrier frequency is then raised by using a
mixer and then the fc and mf both are raised to required high values using the second
group of multipliers.
 The FM signal with high fc and high mf is then passed through a class C power amplifier
to raise the power level of the FM signal.
 The Armstrong method uses the phase modulation to generate frequency modulation.
3.8. FM Demodulation by a Frequency Discriminator:
A frequency discriminator is a device that converts a received FM signal into a voltage that
is proportional to the instantaneous frequency of its input without using a local oscillator
and, consequently, in a non-coherent manner.
 When the instantaneous frequency changes slowly relative to the time-constants of the
filter, a quasi-static analysis can be used.
  In quasi-static operation the filter output has the same instantaneous frequency as the
input but
 With an envelope that varies according to the amplitude response of the filter at the
instantaneous frequency.
 The amplitude variations are then detected with an envelope detector like the ones used
for AM demodulation.
3.9 An FM Discriminator Using the Phase-Locked Loop:
A device called a phase-locked loop (PLL) can be used to demodulate an FM signal with
better performance in a noisy environment than a frequency discriminator. The block
diagram of a basic PLL is shown in the figure below

Figure 3.8: PLL Block diagram

It is basically a flip flop consisting of a phase detector, a low pass filter (LPF),and a Voltage
Controlled Oscillator (VCO) The input signal Vi with an input frequency fi is passed through a
phase detector. A phase detector basically a comparator which compares the input frequency fi
with the feedback frequency fo .The phase detector provides an output error voltage Ver
(=fi+fo), which is a DC Voltage. This DC voltage is then passed on to an LPF. The LPF
removes the high frequency noise and produces a steady DC level, Vf (=Fi-Fo). Vf also
represents the dynamic characteristics of the PLL. The DC level is then passed on to a VCO.
The output frequency of the VCO (fo) is directly proportional to the input signal. Both the input
frequency and output frequency are compared and adjusted through feedback loops until the
output frequency equals the input frequency. Thus the PLL works in these stages – free-running,
capture and phase lock. Table 3.1: Comparisons of Various Modulations:

Amplitude modulation Frequency modulation Phase modulation

1. Amplitude of the carrier 1. Frequency of the carrier 1. Phase of the carrier wave
wave is varied in accordance wave is varied in accordance is varied in accordance with
With the message signal. With the message signal. The message signal.

2. Much affected by noise. 2. More immune to the noise. 2. Noise voltage is constant.

3. System fidelity is poor. 3. Improved system fidelity. Improved system fidelity.

4.Linear modulation 4.Non Linear modulation 4.Non Linear modulation

 
Table 3.2: Comparisons of Narrowband and Wideband FM:

Narrowband FM Wideband FM

1. Modulation index > 1. 1. Modulation index < 1.

2. Bandwidth B = 2 f 2. Bandwidth, B = 2( f  f ).
m

3. Occupies more bandwidth. 3. Occupies less bandwidth.

4.Used in entertainment 4.Used in FM Mobile

broadcastings Communication services.

3.10. Application & Its Uses:

 Magnetic Tape Storage.

 Sound

 Noise Fm Reduction

 Frequency Modulation (FM) stereo decoders, FM
Demodulation networks for FM operation.

 Frequency synthesis that provides multiple of a reference signal frequency.
 CHAPTER 5 - DIGITAL MODULATION
Forms of Digital Modulation
amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced if the information signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal.
frequency shift keying(FSK) is produced if the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal.
phase shift keying (PSK) is produced if the phase of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal.
quadrature amplitude modulation(QAM) results if both the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the
information signal.
Mathematical Expression

A simplified block diagram for a digitalmodulation system

In the transmitter, the precoderperforms level conversion andthen encodes the incoming data into groups of bits
thatmodulate an analog carrier.
The modulated carrier is shaped (filtered), amplified, andthen transmitted through the transmission medium to
thereceiver.
The transmission medium can be a metallic cable, optical fibercable, Earth's atmosphere, or a combination of two or
moretypes of transmission systems.
In the receiver, the incoming signals are filtered, amplified,and then applied to the demodulator and decoder
circuits,which extracts the original source information from themodulated carrier.
The clock and carrier recovery circuits recover the analogcarrier and digital timing (clock) signals from the
incomingmodulated wave since they are necessary to perform the de-modulation process.

Information Capacity, Bits, and Bit Rate

IαBxt
where I= information capacity (bits per second)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
t = transmission time (seconds)

Shannon limit for information capacity

where I = information capacity (bps)

B = bandwidth (hertz)
S/N = signal-to-noise power ratio

Ex.For a standard telephone circuit with a signal-to-noise power ratio of 1000 (30 dB) and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, the
Shannon limit for information capacity is?
M-ary Encoding
M-ary is a term derived from the word binary N = log2 M 2 N =M
Where N = number of bits necessary
M = number of conditions, levels, or combinations
Baud and Minimum Bandwidth
Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred.

Baud = 1/Ts where baud = symbol rate (baud per second)

Ts = time of one signaling element (seconds)

Minimum NyquistBandwidth - the minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal

fb = B log2 M where fb = channel capacity (bps)

B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
The Baud andthe ideal minimum Nyquist bandwidth have the same valueand are equal to the bit rate divided by the
number of bitsencoded.

AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING
The simplest digital modulation technique where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog
carrier.Sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM).
Mathematically:

Where vask(t) =amplitude-shift keying wave

vm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
ωc = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2πfct

The modulating signal [vm(t)] is a normalized binary waveform;

where + 1 V = logic 1
-1 V = logic 0.
Therefore, for a logic 1 input, vm(t) = + 1 V, substituting

and for a logic 0 input, vm(t) = - 1 V, substituting

Thus, the modulated wavevask(t), is either A cos(ωc t) = “on” or 0 = “off”

The waveform Digital Amplitude Modulation

-for every change in the input binary data stream, there is one change in the
ASK waveform
- The rate of change of the ASK waveform (baud) is the same as the rate of
change of the binary input (bps)
B = fb /1 = fb baud = fb /1 = fb

Ex. Determine the baud and minimum nyquist bandwidth necessary to pass
a10kbps binary signal using ASK, for ASK, N = 1?
FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING
- is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency modulation (FM) except
themodulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels. Sometimes called binary
FSK (BFSK)
Mathematically:
Where vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform
Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
fc = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
∆f = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency (hertz)
vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)
The modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform
where logic 1 = + 1 V
logic 0 = -1 V.
Thus, for a logic l input, vm(t) = + 1
for a logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1

- the carrier center frequency (fc) is shifted (deviated) up and down in

the frequency domain
Frequency deviation is expressed mathematically:
∆f = |fm – fs| / 2 Where: ∆f = frequency deviation (hertz)
|fm – fs| = absolute difference between the mark
and space frequencies (hertz)
fm=fUSB; fs= fLSB

FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

The baud for binary FSK can also be determined

bysubstituting N = 1
baud = fb / 1 = fb
The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
B = |(fs – fb) – (fm – fb)|
= |(fs– fm)| + 2fb
B = 2(∆f + f b)

FSK in the time domain: (a) waveform: (b) truth table

Example:
Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimumbandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK signal with a
markfrequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51 kHz, and an input bitrate of 2 kbps.

fa = fb / 2 where fa = highest fundamental frequency of the binary input signal(hertz)

fb = input bit rate (bps)
The formula used for modulation index in FM is also valid forFSK, so
mf = ∆f / f a
substituting:
mf = | (fm-fs)/2 | / fb/2
mf = | fm-fs| / fb
Using a Bessel table, determine the minimum bandwidth for thesame FSK signal with a mark frequency of49 kHz, a space
frequency of 51 kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.
PHASE-SHIFT KEYING - another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation.
Types: a) BPSK b) QPSK c) 8PSK d) 16PSK

A) The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N = 1 and M = 2. Therefore, with BPSK, two
phases (21 = 2) are possible for the carrier.
There are two possible phases, Logic 1 and logic 0, the phase of the output carrier shifts between two angles that are
separated by 180°.
BPSK TRANSMITTER:
The balanced modulator acts as
a phase reversing switch. Depending on
the logic condition of the digital input, the
carrier is transferred to the output either
in phase or 180° out of phase with the
reference carrier oscillator.

(a)Balanced ring modulator;

For the balanced modulator to operate
properly, the digital input voltage must be much
greater than the peak carrier voltage (Vc).

(b) logic 1 input;

If the binary input is a logic 1(positive voltage), diodes
D 1 and D2 are forward biased and on, while diodes
D3 and D4 are reverse biased and off. With the
polarities shown, the carrier voltage is developed
across transformer T2 in phase with the carrier voltage
across T1. Consequently, the output signal is in phase
with the reference oscillator.

(c) logic 0 input

If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative voltage),
diodes Dl and D2 are reverse biased and off, while
diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and on. As a
result, the carrier voltage is developed across
transformer T2 180° out of phase with the carrier
voltage across T 1.

BPSK modulator: (a) truth table; (b) phasor diagram; (c) constellation diagram
Mathematically, BPSK modulator output:
BPSK output = [sin (2πfat)] x [sin (2πfct)]
Where: fa = maximum fundamental
frequency of binary input (hertz)
fc = reference carrier frequency (hertz)

Solving for the trig identity for the product of two sine
functions, 0.5 cos[2π(fc – fa)t] – 0.5cos[2π(fc + fa)t]
Bandwidth of BPSK:
Example: For a BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bit rate of 10 Mbps, determine the
maximum and minimum upper and lower side frequencies, draw the output spectrum, determine the minimum Nyquist
bandwidth, and calculate the baud.

BPSK RECEIVER
- The input signal maybe + sin ωct or - sin ωct.
- The balanced modulator is a product detector;
the output is the product of the two inputs (the
BPSK signal and the recovered carrier)
Quaternary Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK) is an M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M= 4.
Produce four different input combinations,: 00, 01, 10, and 11. The binary input data are combined
into groups of two bits, called dibits. Each dibit code generates one of the four possible output
phases (+45°,+135°, -45°, and -135°).

QPSK transmitter
where logic 1 = + 1 V
logic 0 = -1 V
I balanced modulator (+sin ωct, - sin ωct)
Q balanced modulator (+cos ωct, -cos ωct)
The output of the linear summer:
QI@00
I = -1 sin ωct
Q = -1 cos ωct
QI@01
I = +1 sin ωct
Q = -1 cos ωct
QI@10
I = -1 sin ωct Binary Input Amplitude Output
Q = +1 cos ωct Q I Phase
QI@11 0 0 1.414
I = +1 sin ωct
0 1 1.414
Q = +1 cos ωct
1 0 1.414
1 1 1.414

QPSK receiver
Four possible input signal
-1 sin ωct -1 cos ωct
+1 sin ωct -1 cos ωct
-1 sin ωct +1 cos ωct
+1 sin ωct +1 cos ωct

@I channel

@Q channel
8-PSK
With 8-PSK, the incoming bits are encoded in groups of three, called tribits (2 3 = 8), producing eight
different input combinations: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111 and producing eight different
output phase (±22.5°, ±67.5, ±112.5, ±157.5).
8-PSK transmitter

The I or Q bit determines the polarity

of the output analog
Signal: logic 1=+V and logic 0 = -V
The C determines the magnitude
logic 1= 1.307 V and logic 0 =0.541 V
The output of the linear summer:
QIC@000 QIC@001 QIC@010 QIC@011
IC = -0.541 sin ωct IC = -1.307 sin ωct IC = +0.541 sin ωct IC = +1.307 sin ωct
QC = -1.307 cos ωct QC = -0.541 cos ωct QC = -1.307 cos ωct QC = -0.541 cos ωct

Output
Q I C phase

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

8-PSK receiver
QUADRATURE – AMPLITUDE MODULATION

8-QAM is an M-ary encoding technique where M = 8. Unlike 8-PSK, the output signal from an 8-
QAM modulator is not a constant-amplitude signal. There are two output amplitudes, and only four
phases are possible (+45°,+135°, -45°, and -135°)
8-QAM transmitter

amplitude Output
Q I C phase

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

An 8-QAM receiver is almost identical to the 8-PSK receiver

16-QAM

16-QAM is an M-ary system where M =16. The input data are acted on in groups of four (24 = 16).
Both the phase and the amplitude of the transmit carrier are varied. Listed are possible output
phases (±15°,±45°,±75°, ±105, ±135°,±165°)

The I and Q bits determine the

polarity logic 1 = positive
logic 0 = negative

The I' and Q' determine the

magnitude logic 1 = 0.821V
logic 0 = 0.22 V

ASK, FSK, PSK and QAM summary

Digital Transmission
Digital transmission is the transmittal of digital
signal between two or more points. The signal can be
binary or any other form of discrete level digital pulses.

Pulse Modulation – consist essentially of sampling

analog information signals and then converting those
samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses
from a source to a destination over physical medium.

Methods of Pulse Modulation

1. Pulse Width Modulation 4. Pulse code Modulation
2. Pulse Position Modulation 5. Pulse Frequency Modulation
3. Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PCM - Pulse Code Modulation is the only digitally encoded modulation technique that is commonly used in digital
transmission.
Modulator
Analogue PCM
Input Parallel Digital Output
A to D Binary
Sampler to Serial Pulse
Converter Coder
Converter Generator

Demodulator
PCM Analogue
Serial to
Input D to A Output
Parallel LPF
Converter
Converter

BPF – limits the frequency of the analog input signal to standard voice band frequency range of 300Hz-3KHz.
Sample and Hold – periodically sample the analog input signal and converts those samples to multilevel PAM signal.
Analog to Digital – convert the PAM samples to parallel PCM codes
Parallel to Serial – convert the parallel PCM codes to serial binary data.

Sample and Hold Circuit

Q1 (FET) – act as a simple analog switch.
- When Q1 is on, it provides a low impedance
path to deposit analog sample voltage across C. The
time the Q1 is on is called aperture or acquisition
time.
When Q1 is off, C does not leave complete path to
discharge through and therefore store the sampled
voltage. During this time the ADC convert the sample
voltage to a PCM code.
The charge time constant where Q is on: t = RC c
Where t = one charge time constant
R = output impedance of Z, pulse resistance of Q
C = capacitance value of C (farads) Where:
Accuracy % Charge Time C – max. capacitance (f)
10 2.3 t i – max. output current from Z
1 4.6 t dv – max. change in voltage
0.1 6.9 t dt – charge time or acquisition time
0.01 9.2 t
Example:
For the sample and hold circuit, determine the largest value capacitor that can be used. Use an output impedance for Z
of 10Ω, an ON resistance for Q of 10Ω, an acquisition time of 10µs, a max. peak to peak input voltage of 10V, a
maximum output current from Z of 10mA and an accuracy of 1%.

Sampling Rate – the nyquist sampling rate (fs) that can be used for a given PCM system.
fs ≥2fa where: fs = minimum nyquist sample rate (Hz)
fa = maximum analog input freq.
fs = 2 * fa is called the Nyquist sampling rate.
a. No Aliasing (fold over distortion) b. With aliasing distortion

Example:
For a PCM system with a max. audio input freq of 4KHz, determine the minimum sample rate and alias freq. produce if a
5KHz audio signal were allowed to enter the sample and hold circuit.

Example: For the PCM coding Scheme, determine the

THREE BIT PCM CODE quantized voltage (Qv), quantization error (Qe) and PCM
sign magnitude decimal Quantization range code for analog sample voltage of 1.07 V.
1 11 +3 +2.5 V to 3.5 V
1 10 +2 +1.5 V to 2.5 V
1 01 +1 +0.5 V to 1.5 V
1 00 +0 +0 V to 0.5 V
0 00 -0 0 to -0.5 V
0 01 -1 -0.5 V to -1.5 V
0 10 -2 -1.5 V to -2.5 V
0 11 -3 -2.5 V to -3.5 V

Dynamic Range (DR)

- the number of PCM bits transmitted per sample is determined by several variables including maximum
allowable input amplitude, resolution and dynamic range.
- it is the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude (other than 0) that can be
decoded by DAC in the receiver.
Where: DR = dynamic range (unitless)
Vmin = the quantum value (resolution)
Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude

Expressed in dB: ; ( ) ; where n = number of PCM bits

Coding Efficiency – is numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is utilized.

( )
n log 2 = log (DR + 1) Coding Efficiency = [min. # of bits (include sign bit) / actual # of bit (include sign bit)] x 100
( )

Example: For a minimum line speed with an 8-bit PCM for speech
signal ranging to 1 volt,
a) calculate the resolution and quantization Error
b) Dynamic range for 0.01 V resolution, minimum number of
bits required to achieve DR and coding efficiency
MULTITPLEXING PRINCIPLES
Multiplexing - is the process of simultaneously transmitting two or more individual signals over a single communication
channel, cable or wireless.
- Accomplished by an electronic circuit known as multiplexer.
Applications of Multiplexing:
1. Telephone System
2. Telemetry
3. Satellites
4. Modern Radio and TV broadcasting
Spatial Multiplexing or Frequency Reuse
-The transmission of multiple wireless signals on a common frequency in such
a way that they do not interfere with one another
Applications of Spatial Multiplexing:
1. Satellite
2. Cellular Telephone System
Two most common types of Multiplexing:
1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
-used for analog information
- multiple signals share the bandwidth of a common communication channel
- Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
FDM Applications:
- Telemetry-sensors generate electric signals that change in some way in response to changes in
physical characteristics.
- Telephone system-used to send multiple telephone conversations over a minimum number of cables
- Cable TV- multiple TV signals, each in its own 6-MHz channel are multiplexed on a common coaxial
cable or fiber-optic cable sent to nearby homes.
- FM stereo Broadcasting

2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

-used for digital information
- Multiple signals are transmitted in different time slots on a single
channel
- Multiple signals take turns transmitting over a single channel
- Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
- transmission of digital data is straightforward in that the
incremental data is already broken up into chunks which can easily
be assigned to different time slots.
- can also be used to transmit continuous analog signal by sampling
the analog signal repeatedly at a high rate and converting samples
to produce proportional binary numbers and transmitting tem
serially.
- sampling an analog signal produces PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM).
- most popular form of TDM uses PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) – highly resistant to noise,
reliable and inexpensive to implement.

CODE-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA) –widely used in cellphone system to allow many cell phone subscribers
to use a common bandwidth at the same time. It uses a technique called spread spectrum to make this type if
multiplexing.

PAM Multiplexers – samples multiple analog signal sources, the resulting pulses are interleaved and then
transmitted over a single channel.

PCM Multiplexers – used to transmit analog signals, these signals are sampled with multiplexer, then converted by
an A/D converter into a series of binary numbers and are converted from parallel to serial format.

DUPLEXING – the method by which two-way communications are handled.

Full Duplexing – two stations can send and receive simultaneously.
Two ways of Duplexing:
1. Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) – more widely used but requires more spectrum space.
2. Time Division Duplexing (TDD) – more economical of spectrum space but harder to implement as precise timing
and synchronization is required.