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Ceramics and Society A Technological Approach To Archaeological Assemblages Valentine Roux PDF Download

The document is a comprehensive overview of the book 'Ceramics and Society: A Technological Approach to Archaeological Assemblages' by Valentine Roux, which explores the relationship between ceramics and societal development through technological analysis. It includes acknowledgments, a detailed table of contents, and highlights the interdisciplinary nature of pottery research, emphasizing collaboration with various experts. The book aims to enhance the understanding of archaeological pottery through empirical methodologies and interpretations.

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56 views126 pages

Ceramics and Society A Technological Approach To Archaeological Assemblages Valentine Roux PDF Download

The document is a comprehensive overview of the book 'Ceramics and Society: A Technological Approach to Archaeological Assemblages' by Valentine Roux, which explores the relationship between ceramics and societal development through technological analysis. It includes acknowledgments, a detailed table of contents, and highlights the interdisciplinary nature of pottery research, emphasizing collaboration with various experts. The book aims to enhance the understanding of archaeological pottery through empirical methodologies and interpretations.

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Valentine Roux
In collaboration with Marie-Agnès Courty

Ceramics
and Society
A Technological Approach to
Archaeological Assemblages
Ceramics and Society
Valentine Roux

Ceramics and Society


A Technological Approach to Archaeological
Assemblages

In collaboration with Marie-Agnès Courty


Valentine Roux
Préhistoire & Technologie, UMR 7055
French National Centre for Scientific Research
Nanterre, France

With thanks to Carole Duval (UMR 7055, CNRS) for preparation of infographics.

ISBN 978-3-030-03972-1    ISBN 978-3-030-03973-8 (eBook)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03973-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964910

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2016, 2019


This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
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in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In memory of Jean-Claude Gardin, for his
invaluable epistemological contribution, his
visionary concept of human sciences, his
concern for the cumulativity of knowledge
and his taste for well-formed and well-­
founded scientific constructs.

To Jacques Tixier, for establishing the bases


of technological analysis and promoting
technological studies to their current rank in
archaeology.
Acknowledgements

This handbook is a translation of the French manual “Des céramiques et des


hommes. Décoder les assemblages archéologiques.” (2016, Presses Universitaires
de Paris Ouest, Nanterre). It has benefitted from many encounters and experiences,
beginning with my arrival in the “Prehistory & Technology” laboratory in 1990,
marked by immediate and productive exchanges: lithic technology had made
considerable advances and had become at that time an approach adopted by the
majority of researchers. Those exchanges never ceased and were driven by a
common preoccupation, an anthropological approach to material culture based on
technology.
As a faithful disciple of the principles of empirical verification advocated by the
logicism of Jean-Claude Gardin, one of my main concerns was to elaborate reference
frameworks in order to enhance the interpretation of archaeological pottery. These
references have been built up during constant interactions between archaeology,
experimentation and ethnoarchaeology. The experimental section benefitted greatly
from several stays in Denmark at the Archaeological and Experimental Centre and
inestimable help from two remarkable potters, Lizbeth Tvede-Jensen and Inger
Hildebrandt. Ethnoarchaeological research took place in the north of India, in
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, where I met with many potters who provided
the references proposed in this volume. Their contribution has also been invaluable,
in the same way as the time we spent together and our countless exchanges on
subjects extending beyond the scope of strict ethnographic investigations. The
archaeological component took place in the Levant, thanks to successive invitations
from Geneviève Dollfus, Pierre de Miroshedji and Jean-Paul Thalmann.† During
repeated field trips to Israel, funded by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, I received
a warm reception at the CRFJ (Centre de Recherche Français in Jerusalem) and
from many Israeli colleagues who made their collections available to me, enabling
me to progressively build up a history of pottery techniques in the Levant.
Pottery is a complex field necessitating pluridisciplinary collaboration.
Collaboration with Marie-Agnès Courty, researcher in soil sciences, is present
throughout this volume. She has made a major contribution to the development of
the methodology proposed here. I sincerely thank her, all the more so as I am aware

vii
viii Acknowledgements

that pottery is not her area of predilection. Our collaboration is above all, based on
a long-term friendship.
The writing up of certain chapters was enhanced by rereading and productive and
instructive discussions. I wish to thank, in particular, Blanche Barthélemy de
Saizieu, Bernard Bombeau, Blandine Bril, Jessie Cauliez, Alain Gallay, Catherine
Louboutin, Nava Panitz-Cohen, Patrick Pion and Yves Porter. I also thank the
C.R.E.P., UMR 7055 and CRFJ (USR 3132) for their financial support, with the
assistance of M.-L. Inizan, H. Roche, I. Sidéra and J. Loiseau. Lastly, thanks to
Aude Favereau, Alain Gallay, Agnès Gelbert and Sébastien Manem for passing on
indispensable photos for the illustration of certain themes, and thanks to Eloïse
Bombeau for editing the illustrations (e.g. translating the French text into English).
This volume came to fruition while I was teaching ceramic technology in Paris
Nanterre and while I was directing several PhD theses on ethnoarchaeological or
archaeological subjects relating to extremely diverse chrono-cultural periods. These
theses presented the opportunity to test the solidity of the approach developed in
this book. I wish to extend sincere thanks to the authors of these dissertations for
trusting me when I suggested new methodologies or a new approach to their
assemblages: Vincent Ard, Phaedra Bouvet, Claude Coutet, Laure Degoy, Agnès
Gelbert, Aude Favereau, Sokhna Gueye,† Sébastien Manem, Freda Nkirote
M’Mbogori, Marion Silvain, Hsiu-Chi Wu.
The translation was done by Louise Byrne.
Contents

1 Introduction to Ceramic Technology������������������������������������������������������    1


References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   11
2 Description of the Chaînes Opératoires��������������������������������������������������   15
2.1 Collection and Transformation of Clay Materials����������������������������   16
Required Properties of the Clay Materials����������������������������������������   17
Characteristics of Clay Materials������������������������������������������������������   20
Preparation of the Paste: Modification of the Clay Materials����������   30
Preparation of the Paste: Homogenization of the Paste��������������������   39
2.2 Fashioning����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Terminology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Fashioning Techniques���������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Fashioning Chaînes Opératoires������������������������������������������������������   91
2.3 Finishing ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   92
Finishing Wet Paste��������������������������������������������������������������������������   93
Finishing Leather-Hard Paste ����������������������������������������������������������   94
2.4 Surface Treatments����������������������������������������������������������������������������   96
Surface Treatments by Friction��������������������������������������������������������   96
Surface Treatment by Coating����������������������������������������������������������   98
2.5 Decoration���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 102
Surface Decorative Techniques�������������������������������������������������������� 102
Decorative Hollow and Relief Techniques �������������������������������������� 104
2.6 Drying ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110
2.7 Firing������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110
Firing Parameters������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110
Firing Techniques ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121

ix
x Contents

3 Identification of the Chaînes Opératoires ���������������������������������������������� 129


3.1 Technological Interpretation of the Pastes���������������������������������������� 130
Methodology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 130
Descriptive Framework�������������������������������������������������������������������� 130
Characterization of the Petrofabrics ������������������������������������������������ 134
Characterization of the Petrofacies �������������������������������������������������� 137
3.2 From Fashioning to Firing���������������������������������������������������������������� 140
Methodology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 140
Descriptive Grids������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 141
Diagnostic Features of Fashioning Techniques and Methods���������� 158
Diagnostic Features of Finishing Operations ���������������������������������� 195
Diagnostic Features of Surface Treatments�������������������������������������� 199
Diagnostic Features of Decorative Techniques�������������������������������� 204
Diagnostic Features of Firing Techniques���������������������������������������� 207
Reconstruction of the Chaînes Opératoires�������������������������������������� 209
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 212
4 Classification of Archaeological Assemblages According
to the Chaîne opératoire Concept: Functional
and Sociological Characterization���������������������������������������������������������� 217
4.1 Classification by Technical Groups�������������������������������������������������� 218
4.2 Classification by Techno-Petrographic Groups�������������������������������� 222
Sampling Procedure�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222
4.3 Classification by Morpho-Stylistic Group���������������������������������������� 226
Morphological Classification������������������������������������������������������������ 226
Classification of Decoration ������������������������������������������������������������ 229
4.4 Techno-Stylistic Trees���������������������������������������������������������������������� 230
4.5 Functional Versus Sociological Variability �������������������������������������� 230
Function of the Vessels �������������������������������������������������������������������� 233
4.6 Simple Variability Versus Complex Sociological Variability������������ 245
Homogeneous Assemblages ������������������������������������������������������������ 245
Heterogeneous Assemblages������������������������������������������������������������ 247
4.7 Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 249
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 250
5 Technical Skills���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 259
5.1 The Nature of Skills�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 259
The Skills Involved in Wheel Throwing ������������������������������������������ 261
The Skills Involved in Modeling and Molding�������������������������������� 267
5.2 Expertise ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 269
Mechanical Constraints and Expertise���������������������������������������������� 269
Skill Variability and Degrees of Skill ���������������������������������������������� 272
Skill Variability and Individual Signatures �������������������������������������� 275
Motor Habits and Standardization���������������������������������������������������� 276
5.3 Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 279
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 279
Contents xi

6 Anthropological Interpretation of Chaînes Opératoires ���������������������� 283


6.1 The Socioeconomic Context ������������������������������������������������������������ 283
The Organization of Production ������������������������������������������������������ 284
Distribution and Circulation of Productions������������������������������������ 289
6.2 Cultural Histories������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 293
Cultural Lineages and Evolutionary Trajectories ���������������������������� 294
Historical Scenarios: Innovation and Diffusion�������������������������������� 303
6.3 Evolutionary Forces�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 308
The Order of Development of Techniques���������������������������������������� 308
Conditions for Technical Change ���������������������������������������������������� 309
Explanatory Mechanisms������������������������������������������������������������������ 313
6.4 Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 315
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 316

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 325
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Schematic chart of the interpretation process by analogy


(after Gardin 1980) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   9
Fig. 1.2 Schematic chart of the archaeological reasoning
(after Gallay 2011). The regularity linking technical tradition
to social group can be explained under universal learning
and transmission principles. Hence it can be used
in archaeology whatever the cultural context ��������������������������������   10
Fig. 2.1 Examples of clay sources and of the raw clay
material characters: (a) subsurface pedogenized clay,
Chennai region, South India; (b) soil profile showing
the mottled deep horizon facies expressing an iron-leached
pattern along fine fissures and the more homogeneous facies
toward the surface; (c) upper horizon microfacies in plane
analyzed light showing the dense packing of the clay domains
mixed with angular quartz sands and rare micaceous flakes;
(d) view of (c) in polarized analyzed light showing the
juxtaposition of randomly organized, microdivided clay
zones expressing an intense turbation by shrink-swell
and oriented clay domains resulting from clay translocation
along to soil development (illuviation); (e) endoreic basin
with saline accumulation, semiarid Sebkha, Egypt; (f) surface
view showing the clay deposit by natural settling; (g) microfacies
of the upper horizon in plane analyzed light showing a compact
silty-clay facies with angular fine quartz sands, with abundant
silty-clay intercalations and papules (fragments of surface crusts)
integrated by the natural mechanical turnover (shrink-swell cycles);
(h) alluvial floodplain, Western Africa; (i) microfacies of subsurface
deposits in plane analyzed light showing a bedded facies formed
of silty and sandy silt with abundant micaceous silt; (j) view of
(i) in polarized analyzed light; (k) floodplain of the Euphrates upper

xiii
xiv List of Figures

basin (Northern Syria) modified by a recent dam; (l) upper horizon,


view in plane analyzed light showing an aggregated microfacies
marked by the dense packing of biogenic aggregates issued
from earthworm galleries; (m) profile bottom, view in plane
analyzed light showing a homogeneous silty-clay microfacies
marked by the juxtaposition of domains cemented by carbonates
and organic matter and of carbonate-leached clay domains;
(n) middle part of the profile, view in plane analyzed light
showing a heterogeneous microfacies marked by the juxtaposition
of domains cemented by carbonates and organic matter and of
carbonate-leached clay domains; (o) profile showing a sequence
of strongly pedogenized silty-clay materials sealed by a layer of
archaeological construction������������������������������������������������������������   21
Fig. 2.2 Examples of selective exploitation of clay sources: (a) surface
extraction of salted clay materials (Rohat, Rajasthan, India);
(b) profile showing a mottled clay paleosoil sealed by layers
formed of collapsed archaeological constructions, Niasangoni
region, Burkina Faso; (c) gray kaolinitic clay from the deep
horizons showing a compact structured facies – clay material
predominantly used for the ceramic production; (d) composite
clay from the upper profile formed of illite/kaolinite composite
clay with iron oxide impregnation – materials used for the
ceramic decoration by mixing with the gray kaolinitic clay����������   24
Fig. 2.3 Schematic representation of the atomic structure of clay minerals:
(a) elementary unit, the silica tetrahedron; (b) elementary unit,
the alumina octahedron; (c) bilayer unit of 1:1 clay minerals;
(d) multilayer Si/Al assemblage of a kaolinite; (e) trilayer unit
of a 2:1 clay mineral; (f) multilayer Si/Al/Si assemblage
of a montmorillonite; (g) multilayer Si/Al/Si assemblage
of an illite����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   26
Fig. 2.4 Views at different scales of textural and structural states
of raw clay materials: (a) gently settled clay; (b) view of settled
clay with quartz sands (cf. Fig. 2.1a) in plane analyzed light
showing the regular fine bedding and the diffuse organic
impregnations – the lack of microaggregated structure is
noticeable; (c) open granular, microaggregated structure
formed by intense mechanical turbation of the soil fauna
(earthworms) occurring in the subsurface soil horizon developed
on silty-clay materials in a low-lying depression; (d) dense
aggregated structure of a deep soil horizon with a mottled facies
developed on composite clay materials; (e) detailed view
of (d) showing the juxtaposition of dark brown, gray, and
reddish-brown domains; (f) view of (e) in plane analyzed
light showing the fine imbrication of brownish-red sandy-clay
domains, organo-clay domains with oxide and hydroxide
List of Figures xv

impregnations and of reddish-brown fine clay domains; (g) view in


plane analyzed light of a dense homogeneous microaggregated
clay assemblage with iron oxides typical of an argillic horizon
(accumulation by clay translocation) of a red Mediterranean soil
developed on smectite/illite composite clay; (h) view in plane
analyzed light of an argillic horizon microfacies typical of a brown
soil developed on aeolian sandy-clay silt which developed under a
temperate forest vegetation – the accumulation of translocated
fine clays along the fissures and the voids which formed during
development of the forested soil has to be noticed; (i) view in plane
analyzed light of a homogeneous dense assemblage of iron-leached,
sandy-clay domains; (j) view in scanning electron microscope
(SEM) of a fine mass showing the dense imbrication of silty-clay
domains; (k) view in transmission electron microscope (TEM)
of a smectite tactoïde formed of finely imbricated clay
platelets – note their deformation expressing their plasticity;
(l) view in transmission electron microscope (TEM) of
superimposed illite clay platelets����������������������������������������������������   28
Fig. 2.5 Schematic representation of electric charges on sides and
surfaces of clay platelets and assemblage modes of the clay
platelets: (a) clay platelet; (b) positive and negative charges
on clay platelet; (c) and (d) assemblage modes of the
clay platelets ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   29
Fig. 2.6 Preparation of the paste: (a) fragmentation of the clay material
with a stick (Rajasthan, India); (b) granulometric sorting by
sieving (Uttar Pradesh, India); (c) hydration of the coarse
fraction by humectation (Uttar Pradesh, India); (d) hydration
of the coarse fraction by humectation and hydration of the
fine fraction by impregnation (Rajasthan, India); (e) hydration
of the dry fine fraction by impregnation by mixing it with the
moistened coarse fraction (Uttar Pradesh, India); (f) liquid
sieving of a previously sieved clay material hydrated by
immersion (Uttam Nagar, India)����������������������������������������������������   31
Fig. 2.7 Removing coarse elements: (a) by hand during the course
of fragmentation; (b) with a sieve on liquid clay; (c) by hand
during kneading������������������������������������������������������������������������������   34
Fig. 2.8 Adding tempers: (a) adding granite grains and sawdust to
hydrated paste during kneading (Salawas, Rajasthan, India);
(b) adding salt to the coarse fraction before hydration in order
to get “hydroceramic” paste (Salawas, Rajasthan, India)��������������   35
Fig. 2.9 Wedging and kneading: (a) wedging using the foot
(Uttar Pradesh, India); (b) wedging using a pestle
(Leyte Island, Philippines); (c) kneading before wheel
throwing (Rajasthan, India)������������������������������������������������������������   40
xvi List of Figures

Fig. 2.10 Examples of active tools: (a) wooden scraper (Experimental


Centre of Lejre, Denmark); (b) wooden forming tool (Experimental
Center of Lejre); (c) iron shaving tool (Michoacan, Mexico);
(d) stone pusher (Experimental Centre of Lejre, Denmark);
(e) ceramic tenon hammer (Uttar Pradeh, India); (f) wooden
paddles and ceramic tenon anvils (Uttar Pradesh, India)����������������   45
Fig. 2.11 Examples of passive tools: (a) removable wooden work plan
(Experimental Center of Lejre, Denmark); (b) concave working
plan covered with a mat (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (c) ceramic forming
support (Uttar Pradesh, India); (d) ceramic anvil support
(Uttar Pradesh, India); (e) ceramic concave molds
(Uttar Pradesh, India); (f) reuse of a jar base as a convex
mold (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert)����������������������������������������������������������   47
Fig. 2.12 Examples of rotary instruments: (a) rotary device
(Mali, ©A. Gallay); (b) turntable fixed on a wooden plank
(Leyte Island, Philippines); (c) simple wheel launched with
a stick (Uttar Pradesh, India); (d) double wheel
(Uttar Pradesh, India)����������������������������������������������������������������������   49
Fig. 2.13 Examples of archaeological turntables: (a) and (b) Palestinian
basalt turntable made of two wheels whose rotation is facilitated
by the slurry spread on the lower wheel; the maximum speed
is of 80 rounds per minute when activated with help
(experiment with an EBIII turntable found at Tel Yarmouth;
Roux and de Miroschedji 2009); (c) Mesopotamian basalt tenon
turntable (experiment by Powell 1995, 325, Fig. 10);
(d) Middle Bronze Age basalt tenon turntable from Jericho
(Rockfeller museum, Jerusalem); (e) Reconstruction
of a Mesopotamian tenon turntable (with the upper wheel
in wood) by Amiran and Shenhav (1984, 111, Fig. 3)��������������������   51
Fig. 2.14 Different ways to rotate the wheel in China: (a) with assistant’s
foot; (b) with assistant’s hand; (c) with a rope wrapped around the
wheel and operated by the assistant in a reciprocating movement
(Brongniart 1977 (1877), PL. XLIII)����������������������������������������������   53
Fig. 2.15 Classification chart of roughout techniques without RKE from
assembled elements������������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Fig. 2.16 Coiling techniques: (a) and (b) forming coils by rolling
an elementary volume of paste on a flat surface (Uttam Nagar,
northern India); (c) coiling by pinching (Uttam Nagar, northern
India); (d) coiling by drawing (Uttam Nagar, northern India);
(e) and (f) coiling by spreading (Mali, ©A. Gallay)����������������������   56
Fig. 2.17 Coil forming procedures: (a) spiral procedure; (b) ring procedure;
(c) segment procedure (Ajlun region, Jordan)��������������������������������   57
Fig. 2.18 Slab technique: (a) and (b) rectangular slab placed on its side,
vertically, on a wooden block and joined as to form a cylinder;
the neck and the rim are thinned and shaped by continuous
List of Figures xvii

pressures, while the body and the bottom will be paddled once
the clay paste will reach a leather-­hard state (Nagaland, India);
(c), (d), and (e) manufacture of a tandur; a rectangular slab
fashioned by alternate tapping is placed vertically on its side
as to form a cylinder; it is then thinned by vertical pressures,
bottom to top; the rest of the body will be fashioned from big
drawn coils (Uttam Nagar, India); (f) fashioning of a disc by
alternate tapping with feet (Vietnam, ©A. Favereau)��������������������   59
Fig. 2.19 Classification chart of roughout techniques without RKE on
clay mass����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   60
Fig. 2.20 Examples of roughout techniques without RKE on clay mass:
(a) hammering with the fist; the palm of the passive hand is used
as a forming support (Cebu island, Philippines); (b) hammering
with the fist a clay mass placed in a concave forming support
(Mali, ©A. Gallay); (c) hammering with a hammer a clay mass
placed in a concave work plan covered with a matt
(Mali, ©A. Gallay); (d) modeling by drawing a clay mass placed
on a concave forming support (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert); (e) modeling
by drawing a clay mass placed on the flat bottom of a jar
(Vietnam, ©A. Favereau); (f) molding on a convex mold
(Mali, ©A. Gallay)�������������������������������������������������������������������������   62
Fig. 2.21 Concave molding in northern India (Uttar Pradesh): (a) a clay
disc is fashioned by alternate tapping; (b) the disc is pressed
in a ceramic concave mold and smoothed with a wet cloth;
(c) a coil is placed on the edge of the lower part along a convergent
orientation in order to stretch it later by discontinuous pressures
on the upper part; (d) once the clay is leather-hard, the two parts
are assembled; (e) the upper part is demolded; (f) the neck is
formed from a coil and shaped by continuous pressures����������������   63
Fig. 2.22 Classification chart of preforming techniques without RKE����������   65
Fig. 2.23 Examples of shaping wet paste by pressure: (a) shaping
and regularizing the topography by scraping (Mali, ©A. Gallay);
(b) profiling the upper part of the jar by scraping
(Mali, ©A. Gallay)�������������������������������������������������������������������������   65
Fig. 2.24 Examples of preforming wet paste by pressure and
percussion: (a) shaping a neck with continuous pressures
(Experimental Center of Lejre, Denmark); (b) shaping by
percussion (Uttam Nagar, India)����������������������������������������������������   66
Fig. 2.25 Examples of preforming leather-hard paste by pressure:
(a) pushing walls with a pebble (Experimental Center
of Lejre, Denmark); (b) shaving outer walls with a knife
(Rudakali, Jodhpur dist., India)������������������������������������������������������   67
Fig. 2.26 Examples of shaping by percussion leather-hard paste:
(a) beating with a wooden paddle and a stone anvil; the recipient
is placed on potter’s thighs covered with a jute cloth bag
xviii List of Figures

(Banar, Jodhpur dist., India); (b) beating of recipients placed


on a jute cloth bag kept pulled by a rope attached to a pole; the
legs are folded and the knees rest on ceramic pots (Mokalsar,
Barmer dist., India); (c) closing the bottom of the recipient by
beating with a wooden paddle and a stone anvil (Manipur, India);
(d) paddling without counter-paddle (Mali, ©A. Gallay)��������������   69
Fig. 2.27 Hammering in a concave terracota support: (a–c) creating the
missing base by the progressive thinning of the lower walls;
(d–f) hammering with a terracota tenon anvil. Hammering on a
concave anvil makes the bottom round (Uttar Pradesh, India) ������   70
Fig. 2.28 Hammering on a horizontal work plan: (a) wheel-thrown roughout
without bottom; (b) placing the roughout on the work plan and
removal of the clay surplus around the orifice; (c) sprinkling
anti-adhesives (ashes) on the work plan; (d) humidification of
the lower inner walls; (e) hammering with a terracota tenon anvil;
(f) shaving with an iron tool. Hammering on a horizontal work
plan makes the bottom flat (Uttar Pradesh, India)��������������������������   71
Fig. 2.29 The different stages of wheel throwing: (a) centering;
(b) hollowing; (c) and (d) thinning; (e) and (f) shaping
(foot wheel, Uttar Pradesh, India)��������������������������������������������������   73
Fig. 2.30 Wheel throwing off the hump (fly wheel, Uttar Pradesh, India)����   75
Fig. 2.31 Representation of the forces applied to  the lump of clay during
wheel throwing:
 the manual forces ( F M ),
 the weight of the lump
of clay ( P ), and the centrifugal force ( FC ). When the potter
fashions the clay toward the outside and the top, the centrifugal
force is added to the radial component of the manual forces.
Depending on the rotation speed, the centrifugal force contributes
more or less to the forces of deformation ��������������������������������������   77
Fig. 2.32 Cross-sectional 2D profile of a 2.25 kg bowl mechanical modeling.
The Von Mises norm synthesizes the matrix of mechanical stresses
( σ ), and the maximum value of this norm is an overall index
of the mechanical state of the pot. This bowl reaches a Von Mises
maximum value of 7.13 kPa. The color scale (from dark blue
to dark red) represents the increasing values of mechanical stresses.
The color mapping shows the distribution of the mechanical
stresses inside the walls������������������������������������������������������������������   79
Fig. 2.33 The Von Mises maximum values for the eight reproductions
depending on the rotation speed ranging from 0 to 200 rotations/min.
The threshold of collapse (18 ± 2.7 kPa) is showed by a
dotted line ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   80
Fig. 2.34 Repartition of the mechanical stresses inside the walls of
the cylinder, bowl, and sphere, for the 2.25 kg pots.
From left to right, the rotation speed is 0, 120, 160, and
200 rotations/min. The change in stresses distribution observed
here (on the 2.25 kg pots) is qualitatively similar to that of the
List of Figures xix

0.75 kg pots. The geometry of the vase being very close to that
of the sphere, we have not presented it here ����������������������������������   81
Fig. 2.35 Increase of the maximum Von Mises values, for the eight
reproductions, from the static situation (zero speed) to the situation
where the wheel is activated at 152 rotations/min (for the 0.75 kg
pots) and 125 rotations/min (for the 2.25 kg pots). The four forms
(cylinder, bowl, sphere, and vase) are represented on the x-axis;
the pots of 0.75 kg are in gray and those of 2.25 kg in black ��������   82
Fig. 2.36 Examples of wheel coiling: (a) and (b) wheel coiling on electric
wheel (New Delhi, India); (c) and (d) wheel coiling on a turntable
activated by the helper’s foot (Vietnam, ©A. Favereau)����������������   85
Fig. 2.37 Illustration of the four wheel coiling methods. (After Roux
and Courty 1998)����������������������������������������������������������������������������   86
Fig. 2.38 Egyptian potter workshop, Beni Hassan, tomb of Amenemhet,
XII dynasty (end of the reign of Senwosret I) (Arnold and
Bourriau 1993, 48)��������������������������������������������������������������������������   86
Fig. 2.39 Wheel molding of the lower and upper parts of a water jar
(Pakistan, after Rye and Evans 1976, 222–223): (a) making a
clay disc; (b) placing the disc inside the mold of the lower part
of the recipient; (c) thinning the walls with RKE and leaving clay
surplus from above the thinned walls; (d) and (e) thinning
with RKE the walls of the upper part of the recipient whose
opening has been cut; (f) turning the upper mold onto the
lower mold and joining both parts with RKE; (g) demolding the
lower mold; (h) and (i) demolding the upper mold; (j), (k) and
(l) shaping with RKE the neck of the recipient placed on the
wheel in the lower mold������������������������������������������������������������������   88
Fig. 2.40 Examples of trimming: (a) trimming the rim of a large open
recipient (New Delhi, India); (b) trimming the base of a water pipe
(Uttar Pradesh, India)����������������������������������������������������������������������   89
Fig. 2.41 Fixing a handle: (a) double perforation of the wet body with
the finger; (b) and (c) inserting the handle in the perforations;
(d) application of two small coils for affixing the handle to the
body (Michoacán, Mexico)������������������������������������������������������������   91
Fig. 2.42 Classification chart of the roughing-out and shaping techniques.
Their possible combinations reflect the diversity of the chaînes
opératoires observed nowadays in the world����������������������������������   92
Fig. 2.43 Classification chart of the finishing techniques������������������������������   93
Fig. 2.44 Examples of finishing wet paste: (a) smoothing with fingers
(Experimental Center of Lejre); (b) smoothing the inner face of a
recipient with continuous pressures; the rotation is provided by a
hand-operated rotary device (Mali, ©A. Gallay)����������������������������   94
Fig. 2.45 Examples of finishing leather-hard paste: (a) brushing with a corn
cob (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert); (b) smoothing shaved outer face
with a wet piece of cloth (Uttar Pradesh, India) ����������������������������   95
xx List of Figures

Fig. 2.46 Examples of surface treatments: (a) and (c) burnishing with a
pebble (Manipur, India; Experimental Center of Lejre, Denmark);
(b) softening with a piece of wood (Udaipur, Gujarat, India)��������   97
Fig. 2.47 Example of surface treatments: (a) slipping by soaking
(Uttar Pradesh, India); (b) coating with organic material before
firing (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert); (c) coating with clay slurry by wiping
it on (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (d) coating with glaze on dry slipped and
painted cooking pots, before firing (Uttar Pradesh, India) ������������   99
Fig. 2.48 Examples of surface decoration: (a) and (b) painting applied
in continuous movement with a horsehair paintbrush
(Uttar Pradesh, India)���������������������������������������������������������������������� 103
Fig. 2.49 Examples of decor by impression: (a) tilted impression
(Uttar Pradesh, India); (b) simple impression (Uttar Pradesh,
India); (c) rolled impression (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (d) stamped
impression (Uttar Pradesh, India); (e) paddled impression
(Myanmar, ©A. Favereau)�������������������������������������������������������������� 105
Fig. 2.50 Examples of decor by incision, excision, and the application
of separate elements: (a) simple incision (Mali, ©A. Gallay);
(b) excision and incrustation with chalk (Mali, ©A. Gallay);
(c) application of a clay band (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (d) openwork
pottery (Mali, ©A. Gallay) ������������������������������������������������������������ 108
Fig. 2.51 Surface treatments and decoration (Michoacán, Mexico):
(a) incising a flower design on a red slip area; (b) shaping relief
flower design by excision; (c) painting an openwork pottery;
(d) reserve decoration obtained by both application of pastilles
made out of clay and wax and smudging; once removed, the
circular motifs appear in a pale color, contrasting with the
dark aspect of the background�������������������������������������������������������� 109
Fig. 2.52 Open firing in depression: (a) and (b) dung patties and wooden
dust are laid down in a depression covered by a plastic sheet;
(c) recipients are piled to form a chimney; (d) the recipients
are covered with cow dung patties; (e) the fuel placed at the
bottom of the chimney is lighted; (f–h) the open firing is
covered successively with dung patties, straw, and wet clay
(Dibai, Uttar Pradesh, India)���������������������������������������������������������� 113
Fig. 2.53 Firing on bamboo wattle (Leyte island, Philippines). After their
pre-firing (b), the potteries are laid on racks made of bamboo poles
against which bamboo poles are placed vertically (a). The firing
lasts less than 20 min. The potteries are removed from ashes
with long bamboo poles (c)������������������������������������������������������������ 114
Fig. 2.54 Pre-heating and open firing: (a) pre-heating recipients placed on
a layer of ashes; (b) after the recipients have been covered with cow
dung patties, pine bark, and wood, the structure is covered with long
dried herbs; (c) the firing is refueled after 7 min; (d) the pots are
removed from the firing after 2 h (Michoacán, Mexico)���������������� 115
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 2.55 Enclosed firing: (a) a semicircular wall made of fired bricks block
a slope; (b) the recipients are placed on a bed of straw and then
covered successively with straw and branches; (c) the structure
is coated with wet clay; (d) the firing starts from an opening
made in the middle of the semicircular wall and is fueled with
branches; it lasts around 5 h and the cooling lasts around 12 h
(Andhra Pradesh, India); (e) enclosed firing with multiple openings
(Pachpadra, Rajasthan, India) �������������������������������������������������������� 117
Fig. 2.56 Vertical updraft kiln (Rajasthan, India). The kilns are in fire bricks
coated with clay material. They are circular in shape and consist
of two chambers, the combustion and the firing chambers, separated
by a floor made of metallic bars (a) or a perforated floor (b) resting
on a central pillar. In the firing chamber, the bigger recipients
are placed below and the smaller pieces above. The potter, helped by
family’s members, loads them from the opening of the firing
­chamber (c) and (d). The recipients are covered with shards (e).
The fuel is loaded by an opening situated at the bottom of the
firebox (e). The number of pots fired at the same time depends
on the dimensions of the structure. The firing time is 5 h, the cooling
time, around 12–24 h. The maximum temperature is 850–900°.
The life duration of a kiln is around 10 years�������������������������������� 119
Fig. 2.57 Open firing in depression and firing accident due to gusts of wind
(Dibai, Uttar Pradesh, India)���������������������������������������������������������� 121
Fig. 3.1 Schematic illustration of the methodology used for the
technological interpretation of the clay paste �������������������������������� 131
Fig. 3.2 Illustration of the criteria used for the technological study of the
clay paste: (a) view at low magnification, fine color mass in plane
analyzed light, morphology and abundance of large cavities and fine
pores, abundance of the coarse fraction; (b) view in plane analyzed
light, fissures and vesicles, bimodal coarse fraction (rounded
calcareous coarse sands and subangular quartz fine sands),
homogeneous dense fine fraction; (c) plane analyzed light,
carbonate-rich fine fraction showing an asepic birefringence fabric;
the clay domains are not clearly expressed due to firing
transformation of the carbonates in the fine mass; (d) cracks and
fissures, coarse fraction showing a strongly contrasted bimodal
distribution with cm-sized sandstone inclusions and fine quartz
sands, yellowish brown to grayish brown fine mass; (e) view at high
magnification in polarized analyzed light showing the fine fissures
and the elongated vesicles and the abundance of dark brown domains
within the dense yellowish brown fine mass which are organic matter
inclusions impregnated by iron oxides; (f) view in polarized analyzed
light showing a well-expressed birefringence assemblage linked to a
subparallel orientation of the clay domains along with the stretching
xxii List of Figures

direction; (g) view at low magnification in polarized analyzed light


showing the cracks and the stretched fine cavities with plant
residues, associated with a dense, homogeneous, yellowish brown
fine mass; (h) view in polarized analyzed light showing the calcitic
fine mass which were partly amorphized during firing and the
ash-transformed plant residues in cracks and cavities; (i) view in
plane analyzed light showing a porosity formed of fine fissures,
stretched cavities and vesicles, a fine mass with stretched, compacted
clay domains, and a well-sorted coarse fraction formed of dense
carbonaceous grains (tar) and rounded quartz�������������������������������� 132
Fig. 3.3 Quantification charts (after Courty et al. 1989): (a) chart used to
estimate the abundance of the coarse fraction in the fine mass;
(b) chart used to estimate the degree of roundness of the
coarse fraction in the fine mass������������������������������������������������������ 134
Fig. 3.4 Illustration of the different petrofabric types: (a) well-expressed
organization of weakly transformed clay domains, clearly visible
at this magnification; (b) dense fine mass with closed cavities
showing an organization of strongly coalescent clay domains,
weakly visible at this magnification ���������������������������������������������� 135
Fig. 3.5 Example of petrofacies classification: (a) distinct petrofacies
showing coarse inclusions formed of crushed calcite within a
homogeneous dense, brown, fine mass with abundant quartz
fine sands; (b) example of a weakly differentiated petrofacies
showing a size continuum from calcareous sands to
quartz sands������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 136
Fig. 3.6 Example of a correlation established between ceramic petrofacies
and raw material provenance: (a) field view of loess deposit in the
Upper Negev (Israel); (b) view at low magnification in plane
analyzed light of a ceramic thin section (late Chalcolithic layer,
Abu Hamid site, Jordan Valley) showing a dense reddish brown
fine mass and bimodal coarse inclusions (rounded calcareous
coarse sands and quartz fine sands); (c) detailed view in plane
analyzed light showing a weakly pedogenized loessic petrofacies.
The correlation established here implies a transport of the raw clay
materials on more than 100 km from the Negev to the ceramic
production center in the Jordan Valley�������������������������������������������� 138
Fig. 3.7 Examples of particle-size continuity and discontinuity: (a) example
of a sharp particle-­size discontinuity revealing the intentional
incorporation of temper formed of basalt, calcareous grains, and
ferruginized sandstones in the form of rounded, coarse grains; the
lack of a basaltic component in the fine mass indicates distinctive
provenance of the coarse and fine components; (b) examples
of particle-size and mineralogical continuities between the coarse
and fine fraction revealing the identical source for the two
component classes�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
List of Figures xxiii

Fig. 3.8 Wall topography: (a) regular topography; (b) discontinuous


topography; (c) irregular topography marked by protrusions
and hollows; (d) irregular topography marked by concentric
undulations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Fig. 3.9 Examples of hollows: (a) vertical depressions; (b) crevices;
(c) horizontal concentric fissure; (d) finger imprints left during
thinning the bottom of the recipient������������������������������������������������ 144
Fig. 3.10 Examples of cracks and crevices: (a) drying cracks;
(b) crevices�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145
Fig. 3.11 Examples of overthicknesses: (a) overthickness created during
joining of coils; (b) compression folds obtained with RKE ���������� 146
Fig. 3.12 Examples of overthicknesses obtained during surface treatments:
(a) thin vertical parallel overthicknesses delimitating compact
bands and creating facets; (b) overthickness due to clay coating; (
c) crests due to an accumulation of clay slurry������������������������������ 147
Fig. 3.13 Types of fracture: (a) U-shaped fracture; (b) rounded fracture;
(c) beveled fracture ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 148
Fig. 3.14 Examples of shine: (a–c) shiny bands alternating with matt
surface (b: ©S. Oboukoff); (d) covering shine ������������������������������ 149
Fig. 3.15 Granularity: (a) protruding grains; (b) totally covered grains;
(c) partially covered grains; (d) floating grains; (e) inserted grains;
(f) micro-pull-outs�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150
Fig. 3.16 Surface microtopography: (a) smooth, fluidified; (b) smooth,
compact; (c) irregular��������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
Fig. 3.17 Edges of striations: (a) threaded; (b) ribbed; (c) thickened;
(d) scalloped������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 152
Fig. 3.18 Edges of striations: (a, b) scaled; (c) irregular; (d) regular������������ 153
Fig. 3.19 Simplified view of the deformation of an elementary volume
of clay paste (after Pierret 2001). This representation is at
a mesoscale and does not take account of the deformations
of the clay domains������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Fig. 3.20 Theoretical classification of the mechanical stresses associated
with the different fashioning techniques (after Pierret 2001):
(a) planar anisotropy (flattening along the plane perpendicular to
the axis of maximal stress); (b) linear anisotropy (drawing along
the axis of minimal stress); (c, d) plano-linear anisotropy
(drawing along the axis of minimal stress and flattening along
the plane perpendicular to the axis of maximal stress)������������������ 156
Fig. 3.21 Illustration of the types of pores often present in ceramic
petrofabrics: (a) cracks and cavities; (b) fissures and cavities;
(c) cavities and fine fissures; (d) vesicles���������������������������������������� 158
Fig. 3.22 Illustration of birefringence assemblages characteristic of ceramic
petrofabrics: (a) birefringence assemblages non-obliterated by firing;
the arrangement of the clay domains is visible; (b) birefringence
assemblages obliterated by the firing of the clay mass given the
xxiv List of Figures

transformation of iron oxides and the ensuing amorphization


of the clay mass; the arrangement of the clay domains is not
visible anymore������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 159
Fig. 3.23 Diagnostic features of the coiling technique: (a) irregular profile
marked by rhythmic undulations; (b) concentric fissures;
(c) concentric overthicknesses; (d, e) fissures in the form
of a lying down Y���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Fig. 3.24 Diagnostic features of coiled bases: (a) concentric parallel
fissures; (b, c) concentric overthicknesses; (d) concentric fissure
indicating the addition of an external coil around a clay disc�������� 162
Fig. 3.25 Preferential horizontal fracture indicating a drying phase aimed
at avoiding the collapse of the recipient under its own weight
(©S. Manem)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Fig. 3.26 Examples of joints of coils on experimental material:
(a) horizontal and U-shaped joints obtained with coiling by
pinching according to non-systematic gestures; (b) beveled joints
obtained with coiling by spreading; (c) alternate beveled joints���� 164
Fig. 3.27 Examples of joints of coils on archaeological material: (a) oblique
fissure; (b) rounded fissure (convex); (c) double curvilinear fissures
indicating the placing of two coils at the junction between the base
and the body; (d) curvilinear fissure indicating the placing of a coil
at the junction between the base and the body ������������������������������ 165
Fig. 3.28 Examples of microstructures associated with the coiling technique
and observed with a stereomicroscope: (a, c) poorly deformed coils
with a mesostructure in an S-shape; (b) microstructures contrasting
subparallel fine fissures and a microstructure with random orientation
(ethnographic Cushitic shard, Kenya; coiling by pinching,
©N. F. M’Mbogori)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 166
Fig. 3.29 Examples of microstructure associated with the coiling technique
observed under the petrographic microscope: (a) fine mass, in
non-polarized analyzed light, at a coil joint, underlined by a residual
cavity orthogonal to the stretching axis; (b) microstructure typical
of the weakly transformed internal part of the coil showing a random
organization of clay domains; (c) microstructure typical of the
elongated part of the coil, modified by discontinuous pressures,
and showing fine fissures with a subparallel orientation associated
with a microstructure formed of dense, elongated, imbricated clay
domains������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 167
Fig. 3.30 Macroscopic diagnostic attributes of modeling by drawing:
(a) small concavity formed when the clay is hollowed;
(b) concentric horizontal depression created by the forming support;
(c) irregular profile of the body; (d) irregular profile of the base
(©A. Gelbert)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 169
List of Figures xxv

Fig. 3.31 Diagnostic microstructures of modeling by drawing – networks


of elongated fissures and subparallel orientation of the asymmetric
coarse fraction: (a) Bantu modeled ceramic; (b) Danish modeled
ceramic�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 170
Fig. 3.32 Diagnostic features of fashioning by percussion: (a) regular profile;
(b) imprint of the forming support; (c) anti-adhesive on the face in
contact with the forming support���������������������������������������������������� 171
Fig. 3.33 Diagnostic features of fashioning by percussion: (a) imprint of
the mold on the outer face; (b) percussion cupules; (c) connection
between the lower and the upper part �������������������������������������������� 172
Fig. 3.34 Microstructures of pastes fashioned by percussion: (a) compressed
paste by molding; (b) compressed paste by hammering
(ethnographic series)���������������������������������������������������������������������� 173
Fig. 3.35 Diagnostic features of preforming wet paste without RKE:
(a) digital depressions on the inner face; (b) scraping striations;
(c) marks of the cutting edge of the scraping tool;
(d) compression folds �������������������������������������������������������������������� 175
Fig. 3.36 Diagnostic features of percussion on wet paste without
counter-paddle: (a) outer face, surface with inserted grains
and with a microtopography alternating compact and irregular
zones; (b) inner face, joints of coils weakly deformed and
surface with prominent grains and irregular microtopography
(©S. Oboukoff) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 176
Fig. 3.37 Diagnostic features of preforming by pressure on
leather-hard paste: (a) pushing, grainy surface with a compact
microtopography; (b) shaving, compact microtopography,
crevices, and erratic striations�������������������������������������������������������� 177
Fig. 3.38 Diagnostic features of shaving: (a, b) shaved surfaces
characterized by pulled out and dragged inclusions creating
deep striations �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 178
Fig. 3.39 Diagnostic features of beating: (a) micro-pull-outs; (b) surface
with inserted grains, compact microtopography, and
micro-pull-outs; (c) percussion cupule traces with irregular
contours; (d) fissure due to vertical external percussion blows
on a heterogeneous base (made from patches of clay)
and presence of ash as anti-adhesive���������������������������������������������� 179
Fig. 3.40 Similar surface features produced by wheel coiling and wheel
throwing: (a) parallel concentric striations on the inner and
outer faces; (b) undulating relief from the base to the top;
(c) oblique compression folds; (d) ellipsoidal striations
on the outer base ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
Fig. 3.41 Diagnostic traits of wheel coiling (experimental series):
(a) fissure located on a compression zone; (b) slightly
curvilinear short fissures; (c) undulations in the shape of
bands produced during thinning coils with RKE; (d) undulations
in the shape of bands produced during wheel throwing ���������������� 181
xxvi List of Figures

Fig. 3.42 Diagnostic traits of wheel coiling (archaeological series):


(a) fissure located on a compression zone; (b) slightly curvilinear
short fissures; (c) undulations in the shape of bands produced
during thinning coils with RKE������������������������������������������������������ 182
Fig. 3.43 Diagnostic meso-structures of wheel throwing: (a, b) dense
homogeneous meso-­structure, random orientation and distribution
of the coarse fraction; (c, d) tears due to a too fast rising of
the interdigital pressures and abundance of the elongated vesicles
parallel to the walls ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 183
Fig. 3.44 Diagnostic meso-structures of wheel coiling: (a–d) elongated
voids (vesicles, fissures) subparallel to the walls��������������������������� 184
Fig. 3.45 Diagnostic microstructures of fashioning techniques with RKE:
(a) wheel-thrown paste showing a homogeneous birefringence
assemblage along the entire section, characterized by a close
imbrication of clay domains, a random orientation and distribution
of the coarse fraction; (b) wheel coiling of a very fine illite
clay paste almost without coarse fraction; birefringence
assemblage at a coil join underlined by an organization of
micaceous flakes orthogonal to the clay domain walls; the
microstructure of the adjacent clay domains shows a strongly
compressed, dense organization ���������������������������������������������������� 185
Fig. 3.46 Wheel-thrown and paddled paste presenting both a subparallel
alignment of the constituents and a random meso-structural
pattern �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Fig. 3.47 Diagnostic features of the four wheel-coiling methods
(experimental series): (a) method 1; (b) method 2; (c) method 3;
(d) method 4������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 187
Fig. 3.48 Examples of deformation of wheel-coiled pastes: (a) weakly
compressed paste with conservation of the coil microstructure
(visible on the right); (b) strongly compressed paste with elongated
voids subparallel to the walls���������������������������������������������������������� 190
Fig. 3.49 Diagnostic features of trimming: (a–d) trimmed recipients with
compact surfaces, concentric parallel deep striations created
by pulling out the coarse fraction with RKE���������������������������������� 191
Fig. 3.50 Calibrated data for wheel-coiled vessel obtained from combining
X-radiography with digital techniques of image processing:
(a) perspective view of wall thickness. The long arrow above
the plot indicates the sherd orientation (from base toward the top);
the short arrows correspond to the discontinuities between the coils,
after their wheel shaping; (b) porosity image of the same specimen.
The arrow alongside porosity image indicates the sherd orientation
(after Pierret et al. 1996)���������������������������������������������������������������� 193
Fig. 3.51 High-resolution X-ray microtomography (μ-CT): (a) reconstructed
image of a Neolithic pottery fragment from northern Germany;
(b) example of quantitative analysis of four Neolithic shards from
List of Figures xxvii

northern Germany – abundance of rock fragment temper in


different size classes in the Neolithic pottery sherds
(after Kahl and Ramminger 2012)�������������������������������������������������� 195
Fig. 3.52 Examples of surfaces smoothed without RKE: (a) wet clay
smoothed with fingers without water; (b) wet clay smoothed with a
pebble without water; (c) wet clay smoothed with a wooden tool;
overthicknesses are linked to the movement of the clay during the
passage of the tool; (d) reticulated threaded striations formed during
smoothing with fingers laden with water on wet clay; (e) wet paste
smoothed with water resulting in a surface with partially covered
protruding grains, a fluidified microtopography, and partly ribbed
striations; (f) lumpy surface of a paste smoothed without water, but
with high shrinkage during drying making the coarse grains
sticking out but nonetheless covered with a thin clay film ������������ 197
Fig. 3.53 Examples of surfaces smoothed with RKE: (a, b) surfaces
smoothed with RKE characterized by concentric parallel ribbed
striations and a fluidified microtopography������������������������������������ 198
Fig. 3.54 Examples of finishing operations on leather-hard surfaces:
(a) lumpy surface brushed with a corn cob and smoothed with the
fingers laden with water (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert); (b) leather-hard
paste smoothed with a piece of leather laden with water;
the microtopography is compact and the striations
are partly ribbed������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 200
Fig. 3.55 Examples of surface treatment by friction: (a) previously
shaved surface softened with a wooden stick loaded with
water; (b) burnished strips on previously wet smoothed surface;
(c) burnished strips on leather-hard hammered paste; (d) facets
with scalloped edges formed during burnishing ���������������������������� 201
Fig. 3.56 Examples of burnishing: (a) covering burnishing whose
gloss indicates friction on dry paste; (b) partial burnishing
whose weak gloss and overthicknesses indicate friction on
leather-­hard paste���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 202
Fig. 3.57 Examples of surface treatments by coating: (a) cooking pot
coated with clay slurry in order to protect the outer face from
thermal shocks; (b) slipped surface with a piece of cloth;
it is characterized by floating grains and traits similar to the
ones of a smoothing with water on leather-­hard paste�������������������� 203
Fig. 3.58 Examples of clay-coated surfaces: (a, b) overthicknesses
and floating grains; (c) clay coating applied with a wooden tool
on wet paste; (d) clay coating applied with a piece of leather on
leather-hard paste���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Fig. 3.59 Examples of incised and impressed decors: (a, b) incised decors
on wet paste; (c, d) incised decor on leather-hard paste;
(e, f) paddled decor on leather-hard paste (e: photo ©H. Wu;
f: ©A. Favereau) ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
xxviii List of Figures

Fig. 3.60 Examples of colors linked to firing techniques and atmospheres:


(a) water jar with firing stains fired in oxidizing atmosphere in a
vertical updraft kiln whose floor is made up of metallic blades
(Jodhpur dist., Rajasthan); (b) recipients fired in open firing
(Nagada, Uttar Pradesh, India); (c) in the forefront, recipients
fired in reducing atmosphere, in the background, recipients fired
in oxidizing atmosphere (Jodhpur dist., Rajasthan); (d) recipient
with bicolored outer surface due to stacking the recipients
on top of each other in the firing chamber (Tell Arqa,
phase N, Lebanon)�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 208
Fig. 3.61 Diagnostic traits of the ceramic chaîne opératoire of Tell Arqa
(phase S): (a) basalt working plan imprint on the outer base;
(b) concentric overthickness on the inner base linked to the
placing of a coil above the disc; (c) view of the coil placed
on the disc; (d) finger imprints on the inner base at the
junction base/body; (e, f) bumpy body and concentric fissures
indicating discontinuous pressures on assembled elements;
(g) oblique fissures visible in radial section; (h) fashioning
of the neck with the help of a rotary movement after the fashioning
of the body; (i) combing the outer face on wet paste after the
shaping of the neck; (j) cross-combed pattern; (k) subparallel
vertical depressions corresponding to the imprints of the passive
hand supporting the wall while the active hand works on the
outer face; (l) folding of the leather-hard disc on the lower body
(overthickness over the combing)�������������������������������������������������� 211
Fig. 4.1 Classification procedure of ceramic assemblages according
to the concept of chaîne opératoire������������������������������������������������ 218
Fig. 4.2 Example of technical tree. The diagram distinguishes four
technical groups which are the “visible” part of four distinct
chaînes opératoires ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 220
Fig. 4.3 (a) Example of open classification by techno-petrographic group
(no classification of distinctive groups was possible because
of a strong variability of the clay materials for the total clay
assemblage): (a, f, and k) scan photos of thin sections illustrating
the groups identified under the binocular microscope from fresh
sections of fine chips; (b–e and g–m) photos of thin sections in plane
analyzed light under the petrographic microscope illustrating here
the petrographic variability for identified each group; the
mineralogical characters show that this variability is distinctive
of different sources; the identified techno-petrographic groups
do not correspond to clearly identified clay sources. (b) Example
of closed classification by techno-petrographic groups
(the recognition of distinctive groups was possible): (a, d, f, and h)
photos of thin-section scans illustrating the groups identified under
List of Figures xxix

the binocular microscope from fresh sections of fine chips;


(b, c, e, g, i, and j) photos of thin sections in plane analyzed
light under the petrographic microscope illustrating here the
petrographic homogeneity of each group identified; the
mineralogical characters show a distinctive provenance source
for each techno-petrographic group; and each group corresponds
to a distinctive raw material source������������������������������������������������ 223
Fig. 4.4 Techno-petrographic classification of ceramic assemblages���������� 225
Fig. 4.5 Geometric description of the vessel profiles.
(After Gardin 1976, 81)������������������������������������������������������������������ 227
Fig. 4.6 Example of hierarchical classification based on different
morphological attributes. (After Lyonnet 1997, Table VI, 59) ������ 228
Fig. 4.7 Example of classification of decor in units, motifs, and themes.
(After Shepard 1965, 272)�������������������������������������������������������������� 230
Fig. 4.8 Example of techno-stylistic trees. The tree on the left gathers
molded ceramics made up with the same clay materials.
The preforming techniques vary depending on the function
of ceramics (functional variability). The tree on the right gathers
coiled ceramics whose preforming and finishing techniques
covary with clay sources and relate to different functional
categories (functional variability). Now the molding and the
coiling techniques apply to the same functional categories,
signaling therefore two technical traditions corresponding
to two social groups������������������������������������������������������������������������ 231
Fig. 4.9 Organic residues trapped into the porous walls of archaeological
pottery: (a) and (b) food carbonized crusts; (c) birch tar adhesive;
(d) incrusted pottery with birch tar; (e) birch bark glued using
organic adhesive; (f) birch tar used for waterproofing the inner
surface of pottery; (g, h, and i) adhesives used for repairing pottery.
(Infography, A. Pasqualini; a, b, e, and i, photo ©P.-A. Gillioz;
d, g, and h, photo ©D. Bosquet; c and f, photo ©M. Regert)�������� 239
Fig. 5.1 Structural and functional organization of the gestures: (a) symmetric
forearm movement and bimanual undifferentiated activity of the
hands; (b) symmetric forearm movement and bimanual combined
activity: one hand is active and the other one is passive, acting as
a support; (c) asymmetric forearm movement, and bimanual
combined activity of the two hands, one active and the other
one acting as a support; (d) asymmetric forearm movement
and bimanual combined activity of the two hands which are
both active�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 263
Fig. 5.2 Learning stages 1 and 2 are characterized by the implementation
of bimanual complementarity in relation to the respective roles
of each hand; the stage 3 is characterized by the implementation
of an asymmetrical movement of the forearms in relation
to the wheel axis (after Roux and Corbetta 1989, Fig. 1, p.16)������ 264
xxx List of Figures

Fig. 5.3 Perceptual motor tests designed to assess the specificity


of the motor abilities developed during the course of wheel
throwing apprenticeship������������������������������������������������������������������ 264
Fig. 5.4 Example of the results obtained with the perceptual tests: evolution
of the steadiness of each pointing hand (means and standard
deviations) as a function of learning stage for potters (panel A)
and as a function of age for non-potters (panel B) (after Roux
and Corbetta 1989, Fig. 7, p.64) ���������������������������������������������������� 265
Fig. 5.5 Teenagers learning how to make earths (Haryana, India)�������������� 266
Fig. 5.6 Roughing-out techniques in the Senegal River valley:
(a) modeling by drawing; (b) convex molding (Senegal,
©A. Gelbert 2003)�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 268
Fig. 5.7 Graphical representation, with scale in m (1/1 m), of model
(gray) and average thrown vessels (black) for each of the
four forms and two clay masses (after Gandon et al. 2011,
Fig. 4)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271
Fig. 5.8 Mass production of vessels in northern India (Uttar Pradesh)������� 277
Fig. 5.9 Coefficients of variation (CV) of ceramic assemblages made
up of less than ten production events. In archaeological
situations, the cumulative effect of the intra- and intergroup
variability should not be underestimated, and the CVs have
to be weighted (after Roux 2003, Fig. 8, p.780)���������������������������� 277
Fig. 6.1 Schematic chart of the principles of the analysis of
activities for describing a techno-­system (after Matarasso
and Roux 2000)������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 285
Fig. 6.2 Schematic chart of the modalities of distribution (after Gallay
forthcoming). This is based on the opposition between commercial
and noncommercial exchanges and, for commercial exchanges,
on the opposition between direct and indirect transactions,
with or without money, and in villages or in markets.
These oppositions enable Gallay to define seven classes
distributed between three types of exchange: noncommercial
exchanges, barter, and commercial exchanges strictly speaking.
The noncommercial exchanges include client relationships
between casts and farming communities���������������������������������������� 290
Fig. 6.3 Cladistic diagram (S. Manem)�������������������������������������������������������� 300
Fig. 6.4 Evolutionary trajectory of the wheel fashioning technique
in the Southern Levant (after Roux 2010, Fig. 13.3, p.222) ���������� 303
List of Tables

Table 2.1 The eight experimental conditions: four different forms


(cylinder, bowl, sphere, and vase) with two clay masses
(0.75 and 2.25 kg)������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 78
Table 2.2 Average dimensions of the experimental vessels
(four forms and two clay masses)������������������������������������������������������ 78
Table 2.3 Average thicknesses of the experimental vessels
(four forms and two clay masses)������������������������������������������������������ 78
Table 2.4 Comparative data on open firing and kilns�������������������������������������� 120
Table 3.1 Descriptive grid of the markers observable with the
naked eye or with low magnification������������������������������������������������ 142
Table 4.1 Stabilization principles of ceramic classification. During the
course of time tn, the relative proportion of sherds per class
stabilizes and can be considered as representative �������������������������� 225
Table 4.2 Main natural substances identified up until now in
archaeological ceramics and several of the molecular
criteria used to determine them�������������������������������������������������������� 242
Table 5.1 Twelve key technological variables for examination
of skill variability (after Budden 2008)�������������������������������������������� 273
Table 6.1 Construction of a table defining the elementary technical
operations and consumed and produced goods�������������������������������� 286
Table 6.2 Example of a form where the goods consumed and produced
by the activity “wheel-coiling bowls” are quantified ���������������������� 287

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