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Valentine Roux
In collaboration with Marie-Agnès Courty
Ceramics
and Society
A Technological Approach to
Archaeological Assemblages
Ceramics and Society
Valentine Roux
Ceramics and Society
A Technological Approach to Archaeological
Assemblages
In collaboration with Marie-Agnès Courty
Valentine Roux
Préhistoire & Technologie, UMR 7055
French National Centre for Scientific Research
Nanterre, France
With thanks to Carole Duval (UMR 7055, CNRS) for preparation of infographics.
ISBN 978-3-030-03972-1    ISBN 978-3-030-03973-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03973-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964910
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2016, 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In memory of Jean-Claude Gardin, for his
invaluable epistemological contribution, his
visionary concept of human sciences, his
concern for the cumulativity of knowledge
and his taste for well-formed and well-
founded scientific constructs.
To Jacques Tixier, for establishing the bases
of technological analysis and promoting
technological studies to their current rank in
archaeology.
Acknowledgements
This handbook is a translation of the French manual “Des céramiques et des
hommes. Décoder les assemblages archéologiques.” (2016, Presses Universitaires
de Paris Ouest, Nanterre). It has benefitted from many encounters and experiences,
beginning with my arrival in the “Prehistory & Technology” laboratory in 1990,
marked by immediate and productive exchanges: lithic technology had made
considerable advances and had become at that time an approach adopted by the
majority of researchers. Those exchanges never ceased and were driven by a
common preoccupation, an anthropological approach to material culture based on
technology.
   As a faithful disciple of the principles of empirical verification advocated by the
logicism of Jean-Claude Gardin, one of my main concerns was to elaborate reference
frameworks in order to enhance the interpretation of archaeological pottery. These
references have been built up during constant interactions between archaeology,
experimentation and ethnoarchaeology. The experimental section benefitted greatly
from several stays in Denmark at the Archaeological and Experimental Centre and
inestimable help from two remarkable potters, Lizbeth Tvede-Jensen and Inger
Hildebrandt. Ethnoarchaeological research took place in the north of India, in
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, where I met with many potters who provided
the references proposed in this volume. Their contribution has also been invaluable,
in the same way as the time we spent together and our countless exchanges on
subjects extending beyond the scope of strict ethnographic investigations. The
archaeological component took place in the Levant, thanks to successive invitations
from Geneviève Dollfus, Pierre de Miroshedji and Jean-Paul Thalmann.† During
repeated field trips to Israel, funded by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, I received
a warm reception at the CRFJ (Centre de Recherche Français in Jerusalem) and
from many Israeli colleagues who made their collections available to me, enabling
me to progressively build up a history of pottery techniques in the Levant.
   Pottery is a complex field necessitating pluridisciplinary collaboration.
Collaboration with Marie-Agnès Courty, researcher in soil sciences, is present
throughout this volume. She has made a major contribution to the development of
the methodology proposed here. I sincerely thank her, all the more so as I am aware
                                                                                   vii
viii                                                                Acknowledgements
that pottery is not her area of predilection. Our collaboration is above all, based on
a long-term friendship.
   The writing up of certain chapters was enhanced by rereading and productive and
instructive discussions. I wish to thank, in particular, Blanche Barthélemy de
Saizieu, Bernard Bombeau, Blandine Bril, Jessie Cauliez, Alain Gallay, Catherine
Louboutin, Nava Panitz-Cohen, Patrick Pion and Yves Porter. I also thank the
C.R.E.P., UMR 7055 and CRFJ (USR 3132) for their financial support, with the
assistance of M.-L. Inizan, H. Roche, I. Sidéra and J. Loiseau. Lastly, thanks to
Aude Favereau, Alain Gallay, Agnès Gelbert and Sébastien Manem for passing on
indispensable photos for the illustration of certain themes, and thanks to Eloïse
Bombeau for editing the illustrations (e.g. translating the French text into English).
   This volume came to fruition while I was teaching ceramic technology in Paris
Nanterre and while I was directing several PhD theses on ethnoarchaeological or
archaeological subjects relating to extremely diverse chrono-cultural periods. These
theses presented the opportunity to test the solidity of the approach developed in
this book. I wish to extend sincere thanks to the authors of these dissertations for
trusting me when I suggested new methodologies or a new approach to their
assemblages: Vincent Ard, Phaedra Bouvet, Claude Coutet, Laure Degoy, Agnès
Gelbert, Aude Favereau, Sokhna Gueye,† Sébastien Manem, Freda Nkirote
M’Mbogori, Marion Silvain, Hsiu-Chi Wu.
   The translation was done by Louise Byrne.
Contents
1	Introduction to Ceramic Technology������������������������������������������������������    1
   References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   11
2	Description of the Chaînes Opératoires��������������������������������������������������   15
   2.1	Collection and Transformation of Clay Materials����������������������������   16
         Required Properties of the Clay Materials����������������������������������������   17
         Characteristics of Clay Materials������������������������������������������������������   20
         Preparation of the Paste: Modification of the Clay Materials����������   30
         Preparation of the Paste: Homogenization of the Paste��������������������   39
   2.2	Fashioning����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   41
         Terminology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   41
         Fashioning Techniques���������������������������������������������������������������������   54
         Fashioning Chaînes Opératoires������������������������������������������������������   91
   2.3	Finishing ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   92
         Finishing Wet Paste��������������������������������������������������������������������������   93
         Finishing Leather-Hard Paste ����������������������������������������������������������   94
   2.4	Surface Treatments����������������������������������������������������������������������������   96
         Surface Treatments by Friction��������������������������������������������������������   96
         Surface Treatment by Coating����������������������������������������������������������   98
   2.5	Decoration���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 102
         Surface Decorative Techniques�������������������������������������������������������� 102
         Decorative Hollow and Relief Techniques �������������������������������������� 104
   2.6	Drying ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110
   2.7	Firing������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110
         Firing Parameters������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110
         Firing Techniques ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
   References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
                                                                                                                  ix
x                                                                                                           Contents
3	Identification of the Chaînes Opératoires ����������������������������������������������                       129
   3.1	Technological Interpretation of the Pastes����������������������������������������                       130
         Methodology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������          130
         Descriptive Framework��������������������������������������������������������������������                130
         Characterization of the Petrofabrics ������������������������������������������������                    134
         Characterization of the Petrofacies ��������������������������������������������������                   137
   3.2	From Fashioning to Firing����������������������������������������������������������������                140
         Methodology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������          140
         Descriptive Grids������������������������������������������������������������������������������          141
         Diagnostic Features of Fashioning Techniques and Methods����������                                       158
         Diagnostic Features of Finishing Operations ����������������������������������                           195
         Diagnostic Features of Surface Treatments��������������������������������������                          199
         Diagnostic Features of Decorative Techniques��������������������������������                             204
         Diagnostic Features of Firing Techniques����������������������������������������                         207
         Reconstruction of the Chaînes Opératoires��������������������������������������                          209
   References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   212
4	Classification of Archaeological Assemblages According
   to the Chaîne opératoire Concept: Functional
   and Sociological Characterization����������������������������������������������������������                    217
   4.1	Classification by Technical Groups��������������������������������������������������                     218
   4.2	Classification by Techno-Petrographic Groups��������������������������������                             222
         Sampling Procedure��������������������������������������������������������������������������             222
   4.3	Classification by Morpho-Stylistic Group����������������������������������������                         226
         Morphological Classification������������������������������������������������������������                 226
         Classification of Decoration ������������������������������������������������������������                229
   4.4	Techno-Stylistic Trees����������������������������������������������������������������������             230
   4.5	Functional Versus Sociological Variability ��������������������������������������                        230
         Function of the Vessels ��������������������������������������������������������������������             233
   4.6	Simple Variability Versus Complex Sociological Variability������������                                   245
         Homogeneous Assemblages ������������������������������������������������������������                     245
         Heterogeneous Assemblages������������������������������������������������������������                    247
   4.7	Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������       249
   References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   250
5	Technical Skills����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������       259
   5.1	The Nature of Skills��������������������������������������������������������������������������           259
         The Skills Involved in Wheel Throwing ������������������������������������������                         261
         The Skills Involved in Modeling and Molding��������������������������������                              267
   5.2	Expertise ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     269
         Mechanical Constraints and Expertise����������������������������������������������                       269
         Skill Variability and Degrees of Skill ����������������������������������������������                    272
         Skill Variability and Individual Signatures ��������������������������������������                       275
         Motor Habits and Standardization����������������������������������������������������                     276
   5.3	Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������       279
   References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   279
Contents                                                                                                                  xi
6	Anthropological Interpretation of Chaînes Opératoires ����������������������                                       283
   6.1	The Socioeconomic Context ������������������������������������������������������������                       283
         The Organization of Production ������������������������������������������������������                        284
         Distribution and Circulation of Productions������������������������������������                              289
   6.2	Cultural Histories������������������������������������������������������������������������������             293
         Cultural Lineages and Evolutionary Trajectories ����������������������������                                 294
         Historical Scenarios: Innovation and Diffusion��������������������������������                               303
   6.3	Evolutionary Forces��������������������������������������������������������������������������                308
         The Order of Development of Techniques����������������������������������������                               308
         Conditions for Technical Change ����������������������������������������������������                         309
         Explanatory Mechanisms������������������������������������������������������������������                     313
   6.4	Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������           315
   References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������       316
Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 325
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1   Schematic chart of the interpretation process by analogy
           (after Gardin 1980) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   9
Fig. 1.2   Schematic chart of the archaeological reasoning
           (after Gallay 2011). The regularity linking technical tradition
           to social group can be explained under universal learning
           and transmission principles. Hence it can be used
           in archaeology whatever the cultural context ��������������������������������   10
Fig. 2.1   Examples of clay sources and of the raw clay
           material characters: (a) subsurface pedogenized clay,
           Chennai region, South India; (b) soil profile showing
           the mottled deep horizon facies expressing an iron-leached
           pattern along fine fissures and the more homogeneous facies
           toward the surface; (c) upper horizon microfacies in plane
           analyzed light showing the dense packing of the clay domains
           mixed with angular quartz sands and rare micaceous flakes;
           (d) view of (c) in polarized analyzed light showing the
           juxtaposition of randomly organized, microdivided clay
           zones expressing an intense turbation by shrink-swell
           and oriented clay domains resulting from clay translocation
           along to soil development (illuviation); (e) endoreic basin
           with saline accumulation, semiarid Sebkha, Egypt; (f) surface
           view showing the clay deposit by natural settling; (g) microfacies
           of the upper horizon in plane analyzed light showing a compact
           silty-clay facies with angular fine quartz sands, with abundant
           silty-clay intercalations and papules (fragments of surface crusts)
           integrated by the natural mechanical turnover (shrink-swell cycles);
           (h) alluvial floodplain, Western Africa; (i) microfacies of subsurface
           deposits in plane analyzed light showing a bedded facies formed
           of silty and sandy silt with abundant micaceous silt; (j) view of
           (i) in polarized analyzed light; (k) floodplain of the Euphrates upper
                                                                                                          xiii
xiv                                                                                               List of Figures
           basin (Northern Syria) modified by a recent dam; (l) upper horizon,
           view in plane analyzed light showing an aggregated microfacies
           marked by the dense packing of biogenic aggregates issued
           from earthworm galleries; (m) profile bottom, view in plane
           analyzed light showing a homogeneous silty-clay microfacies
           marked by the juxtaposition of domains cemented by carbonates
           and organic matter and of carbonate-leached clay domains;
           (n) middle part of the profile, view in plane analyzed light
           showing a heterogeneous microfacies marked by the juxtaposition
           of domains cemented by carbonates and organic matter and of
           carbonate-leached clay domains; (o) profile showing a sequence
           of strongly pedogenized silty-clay materials sealed by a layer of
           archaeological construction������������������������������������������������������������   21
Fig. 2.2   Examples of selective exploitation of clay sources: (a) surface
           extraction of salted clay materials (Rohat, Rajasthan, India);
           (b) profile showing a mottled clay paleosoil sealed by layers
           formed of collapsed archaeological constructions, Niasangoni
           region, Burkina Faso; (c) gray kaolinitic clay from the deep
           horizons showing a compact structured facies – clay material
           predominantly used for the ceramic production; (d) composite
           clay from the upper profile formed of illite/kaolinite composite
           clay with iron oxide impregnation – materials used for the
           ceramic decoration by mixing with the gray kaolinitic clay����������   24
Fig. 2.3   Schematic representation of the atomic structure of clay minerals:
           (a) elementary unit, the silica tetrahedron; (b) elementary unit,
           the alumina octahedron; (c) bilayer unit of 1:1 clay minerals;
           (d) multilayer Si/Al assemblage of a kaolinite; (e) trilayer unit
           of a 2:1 clay mineral; (f) multilayer Si/Al/Si assemblage
           of a montmorillonite; (g) multilayer Si/Al/Si assemblage
           of an illite����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   26
Fig. 2.4   Views at different scales of textural and structural states
           of raw clay materials: (a) gently settled clay; (b) view of settled
           clay with quartz sands (cf. Fig. 2.1a) in plane analyzed light
           showing the regular fine bedding and the diffuse organic
           impregnations – the lack of microaggregated structure is
           noticeable; (c) open granular, microaggregated structure
           formed by intense mechanical turbation of the soil fauna
           (earthworms) occurring in the subsurface soil horizon developed
           on silty-clay materials in a low-lying depression; (d) dense
           aggregated structure of a deep soil horizon with a mottled facies
           developed on composite clay materials; (e) detailed view
           of (d) showing the juxtaposition of dark brown, gray, and
           reddish-brown domains; (f) view of (e) in plane analyzed
           light showing the fine imbrication of brownish-red sandy-clay
           domains, organo-clay domains with oxide and hydroxide
List of Figures                                                                                                  xv
              impregnations and of reddish-brown fine clay domains; (g) view in
              plane analyzed light of a dense homogeneous microaggregated
              clay assemblage with iron oxides typical of an argillic horizon
              (accumulation by clay translocation) of a red Mediterranean soil
              developed on smectite/illite composite clay; (h) view in plane
              analyzed light of an argillic horizon microfacies typical of a brown
              soil developed on aeolian sandy-clay silt which developed under a
              temperate forest vegetation – the accumulation of translocated
              fine clays along the fissures and the voids which formed during
              development of the forested soil has to be noticed; (i) view in plane
              analyzed light of a homogeneous dense assemblage of iron-leached,
              sandy-clay domains; (j) view in scanning electron microscope
              (SEM) of a fine mass showing the dense imbrication of silty-clay
              domains; (k) view in transmission electron microscope (TEM)
              of a smectite tactoïde formed of finely imbricated clay
              platelets – note their deformation expressing their plasticity;
              (l) view in transmission electron microscope (TEM) of
              superimposed illite clay platelets����������������������������������������������������   28
Fig. 2.5      Schematic representation of electric charges on sides and
              surfaces of clay platelets and assemblage modes of the clay
              platelets: (a) clay platelet; (b) positive and negative charges
              on clay platelet; (c) and (d) assemblage modes of the
              clay platelets ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   29
Fig. 2.6      Preparation of the paste: (a) fragmentation of the clay material
              with a stick (Rajasthan, India); (b) granulometric sorting by
              sieving (Uttar Pradesh, India); (c) hydration of the coarse
              fraction by humectation (Uttar Pradesh, India); (d) hydration
              of the coarse fraction by humectation and hydration of the
              fine fraction by impregnation (Rajasthan, India); (e) hydration
              of the dry fine fraction by impregnation by mixing it with the
              moistened coarse fraction (Uttar Pradesh, India); (f) liquid
              sieving of a previously sieved clay material hydrated by
              immersion (Uttam Nagar, India)����������������������������������������������������   31
Fig. 2.7      Removing coarse elements: (a) by hand during the course
              of fragmentation; (b) with a sieve on liquid clay; (c) by hand
              during kneading������������������������������������������������������������������������������   34
Fig. 2.8      Adding tempers: (a) adding granite grains and sawdust to
              hydrated paste during kneading (Salawas, Rajasthan, India);
              (b) adding salt to the coarse fraction before hydration in order
              to get “hydroceramic” paste (Salawas, Rajasthan, India)��������������   35
Fig. 2.9      Wedging and kneading: (a) wedging using the foot
              (Uttar Pradesh, India); (b) wedging using a pestle
              (Leyte Island, Philippines); (c) kneading before wheel
              throwing (Rajasthan, India)������������������������������������������������������������   40
xvi                                                                                         List of Figures
Fig. 2.10   Examples of active tools: (a) wooden scraper (Experimental
            Centre of Lejre, Denmark); (b) wooden forming tool (Experimental
            Center of Lejre); (c) iron shaving tool (Michoacan, Mexico);
            (d) stone pusher (Experimental Centre of Lejre, Denmark);
            (e) ceramic tenon hammer (Uttar Pradeh, India); (f) wooden
            paddles and ceramic tenon anvils (Uttar Pradesh, India)����������������   45
Fig. 2.11   Examples of passive tools: (a) removable wooden work plan
            (Experimental Center of Lejre, Denmark); (b) concave working
            plan covered with a mat (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (c) ceramic forming
            support (Uttar Pradesh, India); (d) ceramic anvil support
            (Uttar Pradesh, India); (e) ceramic concave molds
            (Uttar Pradesh, India); (f) reuse of a jar base as a convex
            mold (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert)����������������������������������������������������������   47
Fig. 2.12   Examples of rotary instruments: (a) rotary device
            (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (b) turntable fixed on a wooden plank
            (Leyte Island, Philippines); (c) simple wheel launched with
            a stick (Uttar Pradesh, India); (d) double wheel
            (Uttar Pradesh, India)����������������������������������������������������������������������   49
Fig. 2.13   Examples of archaeological turntables: (a) and (b) Palestinian
            basalt turntable made of two wheels whose rotation is facilitated
            by the slurry spread on the lower wheel; the maximum speed
            is of 80 rounds per minute when activated with help
            (experiment with an EBIII turntable found at Tel Yarmouth;
            Roux and de Miroschedji 2009); (c) Mesopotamian basalt tenon
            turntable (experiment by Powell 1995, 325, Fig. 10);
            (d) Middle Bronze Age basalt tenon turntable from Jericho
            (Rockfeller museum, Jerusalem); (e) Reconstruction
            of a Mesopotamian tenon turntable (with the upper wheel
            in wood) by Amiran and Shenhav (1984, 111, Fig. 3)��������������������   51
Fig. 2.14   Different ways to rotate the wheel in China: (a) with assistant’s
            foot; (b) with assistant’s hand; (c) with a rope wrapped around the
            wheel and operated by the assistant in a reciprocating movement
            (Brongniart 1977 (1877), PL. XLIII)����������������������������������������������   53
Fig. 2.15   Classification chart of roughout techniques without RKE from
            assembled elements������������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Fig. 2.16   Coiling techniques: (a) and (b) forming coils by rolling
            an elementary volume of paste on a flat surface (Uttam Nagar,
            northern India); (c) coiling by pinching (Uttam Nagar, northern
            India); (d) coiling by drawing (Uttam Nagar, northern India);
            (e) and (f) coiling by spreading (Mali, ©A. Gallay)����������������������   56
Fig. 2.17   Coil forming procedures: (a) spiral procedure; (b) ring procedure;
            (c) segment procedure (Ajlun region, Jordan)��������������������������������   57
Fig. 2.18   Slab technique: (a) and (b) rectangular slab placed on its side,
            vertically, on a wooden block and joined as to form a cylinder;
            the neck and the rim are thinned and shaped by continuous
List of Figures                                                                                                 xvii
              pressures, while the body and the bottom will be paddled once
              the clay paste will reach a leather-hard state (Nagaland, India);
              (c), (d), and (e) manufacture of a tandur; a rectangular slab
              fashioned by alternate tapping is placed vertically on its side
              as to form a cylinder; it is then thinned by vertical pressures,
              bottom to top; the rest of the body will be fashioned from big
              drawn coils (Uttam Nagar, India); (f) fashioning of a disc by
              alternate tapping with feet (Vietnam, ©A. Favereau)��������������������   59
Fig. 2.19     Classification chart of roughout techniques without RKE on
              clay mass����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   60
Fig. 2.20     Examples of roughout techniques without RKE on clay mass:
              (a) hammering with the fist; the palm of the passive hand is used
              as a forming support (Cebu island, Philippines); (b) hammering
              with the fist a clay mass placed in a concave forming support
              (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (c) hammering with a hammer a clay mass
              placed in a concave work plan covered with a matt
              (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (d) modeling by drawing a clay mass placed
              on a concave forming support (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert); (e) modeling
              by drawing a clay mass placed on the flat bottom of a jar
              (Vietnam, ©A. Favereau); (f) molding on a convex mold
              (Mali, ©A. Gallay)�������������������������������������������������������������������������   62
Fig. 2.21     Concave molding in northern India (Uttar Pradesh): (a) a clay
              disc is fashioned by alternate tapping; (b) the disc is pressed
              in a ceramic concave mold and smoothed with a wet cloth;
              (c) a coil is placed on the edge of the lower part along a convergent
              orientation in order to stretch it later by discontinuous pressures
              on the upper part; (d) once the clay is leather-hard, the two parts
              are assembled; (e) the upper part is demolded; (f) the neck is
              formed from a coil and shaped by continuous pressures����������������   63
Fig. 2.22     Classification chart of preforming techniques without RKE����������   65
Fig. 2.23     Examples of shaping wet paste by pressure: (a) shaping
              and regularizing the topography by scraping (Mali, ©A. Gallay);
              (b) profiling the upper part of the jar by scraping
              (Mali, ©A. Gallay)�������������������������������������������������������������������������   65
Fig. 2.24     Examples of preforming wet paste by pressure and
              percussion: (a) shaping a neck with continuous pressures
              (Experimental Center of Lejre, Denmark); (b) shaping by
              percussion (Uttam Nagar, India)����������������������������������������������������   66
Fig. 2.25     Examples of preforming leather-hard paste by pressure:
              (a) pushing walls with a pebble (Experimental Center
              of Lejre, Denmark); (b) shaving outer walls with a knife
              (Rudakali, Jodhpur dist., India)������������������������������������������������������   67
Fig. 2.26     Examples of shaping by percussion leather-hard paste:
              (a) beating with a wooden paddle and a stone anvil; the recipient
              is placed on potter’s thighs covered with a jute cloth bag
xviii                                                                                            List of Figures
            (Banar, Jodhpur dist., India); (b) beating of recipients placed
            on a jute cloth bag kept pulled by a rope attached to a pole; the
            legs are folded and the knees rest on ceramic pots (Mokalsar,
            Barmer dist., India); (c) closing the bottom of the recipient by
            beating with a wooden paddle and a stone anvil (Manipur, India);
            (d) paddling without counter-paddle (Mali, ©A. Gallay)��������������   69
Fig. 2.27   Hammering in a concave terracota support: (a–c) creating the
            missing base by the progressive thinning of the lower walls;
            (d–f) hammering with a terracota tenon anvil. Hammering on a
            concave anvil makes the bottom round (Uttar Pradesh, India) ������   70
Fig. 2.28   Hammering on a horizontal work plan: (a) wheel-thrown roughout
            without bottom; (b) placing the roughout on the work plan and
            removal of the clay surplus around the orifice; (c) sprinkling
            anti-adhesives (ashes) on the work plan; (d) humidification of
            the lower inner walls; (e) hammering with a terracota tenon anvil;
            (f) shaving with an iron tool. Hammering on a horizontal work
            plan makes the bottom flat (Uttar Pradesh, India)��������������������������   71
Fig. 2.29   The different stages of wheel throwing: (a) centering;
            (b) hollowing; (c) and (d) thinning; (e) and (f) shaping
            (foot wheel, Uttar Pradesh, India)��������������������������������������������������   73
Fig. 2.30   Wheel throwing off the hump (fly wheel, Uttar Pradesh, India)����   75
Fig. 2.31   Representation of the forces applied to                the lump of clay during
            wheel throwing:
                                the   manual       forces     ( F M ),
                                                                       the weight of the lump
            of clay ( P ), and the centrifugal force ( FC ). When the potter
            fashions the clay toward the outside and the top, the centrifugal
            force is added to the radial component of the manual forces.
            Depending on the rotation speed, the centrifugal force contributes
            more or less to the forces of deformation ��������������������������������������   77
Fig. 2.32   Cross-sectional 2D profile of a 2.25 kg bowl mechanical modeling.
            The Von Mises norm synthesizes the matrix of mechanical stresses
            ( σ ), and the maximum value of this norm is an overall index
            of the mechanical state of the pot. This bowl reaches a Von Mises
            maximum value of 7.13 kPa. The color scale (from dark blue
            to dark red) represents the increasing values of mechanical stresses.
            The color mapping shows the distribution of the mechanical
            stresses inside the walls������������������������������������������������������������������   79
Fig. 2.33   The Von Mises maximum values for the eight reproductions
            depending on the rotation speed ranging from 0 to 200 rotations/min.
            The threshold of collapse (18 ± 2.7 kPa) is showed by a
            dotted line ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   80
Fig. 2.34   Repartition of the mechanical stresses inside the walls of
            the cylinder, bowl, and sphere, for the 2.25 kg pots.
            From left to right, the rotation speed is 0, 120, 160, and
            200 rotations/min. The change in stresses distribution observed
            here (on the 2.25 kg pots) is qualitatively similar to that of the
List of Figures                                                                                             xix
              0.75 kg pots. The geometry of the vase being very close to that
              of the sphere, we have not presented it here ����������������������������������   81
Fig. 2.35     Increase of the maximum Von Mises values, for the eight
              reproductions, from the static situation (zero speed) to the situation
              where the wheel is activated at 152 rotations/min (for the 0.75 kg
              pots) and 125 rotations/min (for the 2.25 kg pots). The four forms
              (cylinder, bowl, sphere, and vase) are represented on the x-axis;
              the pots of 0.75 kg are in gray and those of 2.25 kg in black ��������   82
Fig. 2.36     Examples of wheel coiling: (a) and (b) wheel coiling on electric
              wheel (New Delhi, India); (c) and (d) wheel coiling on a turntable
              activated by the helper’s foot (Vietnam, ©A. Favereau)����������������   85
Fig. 2.37     Illustration of the four wheel coiling methods. (After Roux
              and Courty 1998)����������������������������������������������������������������������������   86
Fig. 2.38     Egyptian potter workshop, Beni Hassan, tomb of Amenemhet,
              XII dynasty (end of the reign of Senwosret I) (Arnold and
              Bourriau 1993, 48)��������������������������������������������������������������������������   86
Fig. 2.39     Wheel molding of the lower and upper parts of a water jar
              (Pakistan, after Rye and Evans 1976, 222–223): (a) making a
              clay disc; (b) placing the disc inside the mold of the lower part
              of the recipient; (c) thinning the walls with RKE and leaving clay
              surplus from above the thinned walls; (d) and (e) thinning
              with RKE the walls of the upper part of the recipient whose
              opening has been cut; (f) turning the upper mold onto the
              lower mold and joining both parts with RKE; (g) demolding the
              lower mold; (h) and (i) demolding the upper mold; (j), (k) and
              (l) shaping with RKE the neck of the recipient placed on the
              wheel in the lower mold������������������������������������������������������������������   88
Fig. 2.40     Examples of trimming: (a) trimming the rim of a large open
              recipient (New Delhi, India); (b) trimming the base of a water pipe
              (Uttar Pradesh, India)����������������������������������������������������������������������   89
Fig. 2.41     Fixing a handle: (a) double perforation of the wet body with
              the finger; (b) and (c) inserting the handle in the perforations;
              (d) application of two small coils for affixing the handle to the
              body (Michoacán, Mexico)������������������������������������������������������������   91
Fig. 2.42     Classification chart of the roughing-out and shaping techniques.
              Their possible combinations reflect the diversity of the chaînes
              opératoires observed nowadays in the world����������������������������������   92
Fig. 2.43     Classification chart of the finishing techniques������������������������������   93
Fig. 2.44     Examples of finishing wet paste: (a) smoothing with fingers
              (Experimental Center of Lejre); (b) smoothing the inner face of a
              recipient with continuous pressures; the rotation is provided by a
              hand-operated rotary device (Mali, ©A. Gallay)����������������������������   94
Fig. 2.45     Examples of finishing leather-hard paste: (a) brushing with a corn
              cob (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert); (b) smoothing shaved outer face
              with a wet piece of cloth (Uttar Pradesh, India) ����������������������������   95
xx                                                                                         List of Figures
Fig. 2.46   Examples of surface treatments: (a) and (c) burnishing with a
            pebble (Manipur, India; Experimental Center of Lejre, Denmark);
            (b) softening with a piece of wood (Udaipur, Gujarat, India)��������   97
Fig. 2.47   Example of surface treatments: (a) slipping by soaking
            (Uttar Pradesh, India); (b) coating with organic material before
            firing (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert); (c) coating with clay slurry by wiping
            it on (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (d) coating with glaze on dry slipped and
            painted cooking pots, before firing (Uttar Pradesh, India) ������������   99
Fig. 2.48   Examples of surface decoration: (a) and (b) painting applied
            in continuous movement with a horsehair paintbrush
            (Uttar Pradesh, India)���������������������������������������������������������������������� 103
Fig. 2.49   Examples of decor by impression: (a) tilted impression
            (Uttar Pradesh, India); (b) simple impression (Uttar Pradesh,
            India); (c) rolled impression (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (d) stamped
            impression (Uttar Pradesh, India); (e) paddled impression
            (Myanmar, ©A. Favereau)�������������������������������������������������������������� 105
Fig. 2.50   Examples of decor by incision, excision, and the application
            of separate elements: (a) simple incision (Mali, ©A. Gallay);
            (b) excision and incrustation with chalk (Mali, ©A. Gallay);
            (c) application of a clay band (Mali, ©A. Gallay); (d) openwork
            pottery (Mali, ©A. Gallay) ������������������������������������������������������������ 108
Fig. 2.51   Surface treatments and decoration (Michoacán, Mexico):
            (a) incising a flower design on a red slip area; (b) shaping relief
            flower design by excision; (c) painting an openwork pottery;
            (d) reserve decoration obtained by both application of pastilles
            made out of clay and wax and smudging; once removed, the
            circular motifs appear in a pale color, contrasting with the
            dark aspect of the background�������������������������������������������������������� 109
Fig. 2.52   Open firing in depression: (a) and (b) dung patties and wooden
            dust are laid down in a depression covered by a plastic sheet;
            (c) recipients are piled to form a chimney; (d) the recipients
            are covered with cow dung patties; (e) the fuel placed at the
            bottom of the chimney is lighted; (f–h) the open firing is
            covered successively with dung patties, straw, and wet clay
            (Dibai, Uttar Pradesh, India)���������������������������������������������������������� 113
Fig. 2.53   Firing on bamboo wattle (Leyte island, Philippines). After their
            pre-firing (b), the potteries are laid on racks made of bamboo poles
            against which bamboo poles are placed vertically (a). The firing
            lasts less than 20 min. The potteries are removed from ashes
            with long bamboo poles (c)������������������������������������������������������������ 114
Fig. 2.54   Pre-heating and open firing: (a) pre-heating recipients placed on
            a layer of ashes; (b) after the recipients have been covered with cow
            dung patties, pine bark, and wood, the structure is covered with long
            dried herbs; (c) the firing is refueled after 7 min; (d) the pots are
            removed from the firing after 2 h (Michoacán, Mexico)���������������� 115
List of Figures                                                                                        xxi
Fig. 2.55      Enclosed firing: (a) a semicircular wall made of fired bricks block
               a slope; (b) the recipients are placed on a bed of straw and then
               covered successively with straw and branches; (c) the structure
               is coated with wet clay; (d) the firing starts from an opening
               made in the middle of the semicircular wall and is fueled with
               branches; it lasts around 5 h and the cooling lasts around 12 h
               (Andhra Pradesh, India); (e) enclosed firing with multiple openings
               (Pachpadra, Rajasthan, India) �������������������������������������������������������� 117
Fig. 2.56     Vertical updraft kiln (Rajasthan, India). The kilns are in fire bricks
              coated with clay material. They are circular in shape and consist
              of two chambers, the combustion and the firing chambers, separated
              by a floor made of metallic bars (a) or a perforated floor (b) resting
              on a central pillar. In the firing chamber, the bigger recipients
              are placed below and the smaller pieces above. The potter, helped by
              family’s members, loads them from the opening of the firing
              chamber (c) and (d). The recipients are covered with shards (e).
               The fuel is loaded by an opening situated at the bottom of the
               firebox (e). The number of pots fired at the same time depends
               on the dimensions of the structure. The firing time is 5 h, the cooling
               time, around 12–24 h. The maximum temperature is 850–900°.
               The life duration of a kiln is around 10 years�������������������������������� 119
Fig. 2.57      Open firing in depression and firing accident due to gusts of wind
               (Dibai, Uttar Pradesh, India)���������������������������������������������������������� 121
Fig. 3.1      Schematic illustration of the methodology used for the
              technological interpretation of the clay paste �������������������������������� 131
Fig. 3.2      Illustration of the criteria used for the technological study of the
              clay paste: (a) view at low magnification, fine color mass in plane
              analyzed light, morphology and abundance of large cavities and fine
              pores, abundance of the coarse fraction; (b) view in plane analyzed
              light, fissures and vesicles, bimodal coarse fraction (rounded
              calcareous coarse sands and subangular quartz fine sands),
              homogeneous dense fine fraction; (c) plane analyzed light,
              carbonate-rich fine fraction showing an asepic birefringence fabric;
              the clay domains are not clearly expressed due to firing
              transformation of the carbonates in the fine mass; (d) cracks and
              fissures, coarse fraction showing a strongly contrasted bimodal
              distribution with cm-sized sandstone inclusions and fine quartz
              sands, yellowish brown to grayish brown fine mass; (e) view at high
              magnification in polarized analyzed light showing the fine fissures
              and the elongated vesicles and the abundance of dark brown domains
              within the dense yellowish brown fine mass which are organic matter
              inclusions impregnated by iron oxides; (f) view in polarized analyzed
              light showing a well-expressed birefringence assemblage linked to a
              subparallel orientation of the clay domains along with the stretching
xxii                                                                                          List of Figures
           direction; (g) view at low magnification in polarized analyzed light
           showing the cracks and the stretched fine cavities with plant
           residues, associated with a dense, homogeneous, yellowish brown
           fine mass; (h) view in polarized analyzed light showing the calcitic
           fine mass which were partly amorphized during firing and the
           ash-transformed plant residues in cracks and cavities; (i) view in
           plane analyzed light showing a porosity formed of fine fissures,
           stretched cavities and vesicles, a fine mass with stretched, compacted
           clay domains, and a well-sorted coarse fraction formed of dense
           carbonaceous grains (tar) and rounded quartz�������������������������������� 132
Fig. 3.3   Quantification charts (after Courty et al. 1989): (a) chart used to
           estimate the abundance of the coarse fraction in the fine mass;
           (b) chart used to estimate the degree of roundness of the
           coarse fraction in the fine mass������������������������������������������������������ 134
Fig. 3.4   Illustration of the different petrofabric types: (a) well-expressed
           organization of weakly transformed clay domains, clearly visible
           at this magnification; (b) dense fine mass with closed cavities
           showing an organization of strongly coalescent clay domains,
           weakly visible at this magnification ���������������������������������������������� 135
Fig. 3.5   Example of petrofacies classification: (a) distinct petrofacies
           showing coarse inclusions formed of crushed calcite within a
           homogeneous dense, brown, fine mass with abundant quartz
           fine sands; (b) example of a weakly differentiated petrofacies
           showing a size continuum from calcareous sands to
           quartz sands������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 136
Fig. 3.6   Example of a correlation established between ceramic petrofacies
           and raw material provenance: (a) field view of loess deposit in the
           Upper Negev (Israel); (b) view at low magnification in plane
           analyzed light of a ceramic thin section (late Chalcolithic layer,
           Abu Hamid site, Jordan Valley) showing a dense reddish brown
           fine mass and bimodal coarse inclusions (rounded calcareous
           coarse sands and quartz fine sands); (c) detailed view in plane
           analyzed light showing a weakly pedogenized loessic petrofacies.
           The correlation established here implies a transport of the raw clay
           materials on more than 100 km from the Negev to the ceramic
           production center in the Jordan Valley�������������������������������������������� 138
Fig. 3.7   Examples of particle-size continuity and discontinuity: (a) example
           of a sharp particle-size discontinuity revealing the intentional
           incorporation of temper formed of basalt, calcareous grains, and
           ferruginized sandstones in the form of rounded, coarse grains; the
           lack of a basaltic component in the fine mass indicates distinctive
           provenance of the coarse and fine components; (b) examples
           of particle-size and mineralogical continuities between the coarse
           and fine fraction revealing the identical source for the two
           component classes�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
List of Figures                                                                                                xxiii
Fig. 3.8      Wall topography: (a) regular topography; (b) discontinuous
              topography; (c) irregular topography marked by protrusions
              and hollows; (d) irregular topography marked by concentric
              undulations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Fig. 3.9      Examples of hollows: (a) vertical depressions; (b) crevices;
              (c) horizontal concentric fissure; (d) finger imprints left during
              thinning the bottom of the recipient������������������������������������������������ 144
Fig. 3.10     Examples of cracks and crevices: (a) drying cracks;
              (b) crevices�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145
Fig. 3.11     Examples of overthicknesses: (a) overthickness created during
              joining of coils; (b) compression folds obtained with RKE ���������� 146
Fig. 3.12     Examples of overthicknesses obtained during surface treatments:
              (a) thin vertical parallel overthicknesses delimitating compact
              bands and creating facets; (b) overthickness due to clay coating; (
              c) crests due to an accumulation of clay slurry������������������������������ 147
Fig. 3.13     Types of fracture: (a) U-shaped fracture; (b) rounded fracture;
              (c) beveled fracture ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 148
Fig. 3.14     Examples of shine: (a–c) shiny bands alternating with matt
              surface (b: ©S. Oboukoff); (d) covering shine ������������������������������ 149
Fig. 3.15     Granularity: (a) protruding grains; (b) totally covered grains;
              (c) partially covered grains; (d) floating grains; (e) inserted grains;
              (f) micro-pull-outs�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150
Fig. 3.16     Surface microtopography: (a) smooth, fluidified; (b) smooth,
              compact; (c) irregular��������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
Fig. 3.17     Edges of striations: (a) threaded; (b) ribbed; (c) thickened;
              (d) scalloped������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 152
Fig. 3.18     Edges of striations: (a, b) scaled; (c) irregular; (d) regular������������ 153
Fig. 3.19     Simplified view of the deformation of an elementary volume
              of clay paste (after Pierret 2001). This representation is at
              a mesoscale and does not take account of the deformations
              of the clay domains������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Fig. 3.20     Theoretical classification of the mechanical stresses associated
              with the different fashioning techniques (after Pierret 2001):
              (a) planar anisotropy (flattening along the plane perpendicular to
              the axis of maximal stress); (b) linear anisotropy (drawing along
              the axis of minimal stress); (c, d) plano-linear anisotropy
              (drawing along the axis of minimal stress and flattening along
              the plane perpendicular to the axis of maximal stress)������������������ 156
Fig. 3.21     Illustration of the types of pores often present in ceramic
              petrofabrics: (a) cracks and cavities; (b) fissures and cavities;
              (c) cavities and fine fissures; (d) vesicles���������������������������������������� 158
Fig. 3.22     Illustration of birefringence assemblages characteristic of ceramic
              petrofabrics: (a) birefringence assemblages non-obliterated by firing;
              the arrangement of the clay domains is visible; (b) birefringence
              assemblages obliterated by the firing of the clay mass given the
xxiv                                                                                           List of Figures
            transformation of iron oxides and the ensuing amorphization
            of the clay mass; the arrangement of the clay domains is not
            visible anymore������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 159
Fig. 3.23   Diagnostic features of the coiling technique: (a) irregular profile
            marked by rhythmic undulations; (b) concentric fissures;
            (c) concentric overthicknesses; (d, e) fissures in the form
            of a lying down Y���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Fig. 3.24   Diagnostic features of coiled bases: (a) concentric parallel
            fissures; (b, c) concentric overthicknesses; (d) concentric fissure
            indicating the addition of an external coil around a clay disc�������� 162
Fig. 3.25   Preferential horizontal fracture indicating a drying phase aimed
            at avoiding the collapse of the recipient under its own weight
            (©S. Manem)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Fig. 3.26   Examples of joints of coils on experimental material:
            (a) horizontal and U-shaped joints obtained with coiling by
            pinching according to non-systematic gestures; (b) beveled joints
            obtained with coiling by spreading; (c) alternate beveled joints���� 164
Fig. 3.27   Examples of joints of coils on archaeological material: (a) oblique
            fissure; (b) rounded fissure (convex); (c) double curvilinear fissures
            indicating the placing of two coils at the junction between the base
            and the body; (d) curvilinear fissure indicating the placing of a coil
            at the junction between the base and the body ������������������������������ 165
Fig. 3.28   Examples of microstructures associated with the coiling technique
            and observed with a stereomicroscope: (a, c) poorly deformed coils
            with a mesostructure in an S-shape; (b) microstructures contrasting
            subparallel fine fissures and a microstructure with random orientation
            (ethnographic Cushitic shard, Kenya; coiling by pinching,
            ©N. F. M’Mbogori)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 166
Fig. 3.29   Examples of microstructure associated with the coiling technique
            observed under the petrographic microscope: (a) fine mass, in
            non-polarized analyzed light, at a coil joint, underlined by a residual
            cavity orthogonal to the stretching axis; (b) microstructure typical
            of the weakly transformed internal part of the coil showing a random
            organization of clay domains; (c) microstructure typical of the
            elongated part of the coil, modified by discontinuous pressures,
            and showing fine fissures with a subparallel orientation associated
            with a microstructure formed of dense, elongated, imbricated clay
            domains������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 167
Fig. 3.30   Macroscopic diagnostic attributes of modeling by drawing:
            (a) small concavity formed when the clay is hollowed;
            (b) concentric horizontal depression created by the forming support;
            (c) irregular profile of the body; (d) irregular profile of the base
            (©A. Gelbert)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 169
List of Figures                                                                                                  xxv
Fig. 3.31     Diagnostic microstructures of modeling by drawing – networks
              of elongated fissures and subparallel orientation of the asymmetric
              coarse fraction: (a) Bantu modeled ceramic; (b) Danish modeled
              ceramic�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 170
Fig. 3.32     Diagnostic features of fashioning by percussion: (a) regular profile;
              (b) imprint of the forming support; (c) anti-adhesive on the face in
              contact with the forming support���������������������������������������������������� 171
Fig. 3.33     Diagnostic features of fashioning by percussion: (a) imprint of
              the mold on the outer face; (b) percussion cupules; (c) connection
              between the lower and the upper part �������������������������������������������� 172
Fig. 3.34     Microstructures of pastes fashioned by percussion: (a) compressed
              paste by molding; (b) compressed paste by hammering
              (ethnographic series)���������������������������������������������������������������������� 173
Fig. 3.35     Diagnostic features of preforming wet paste without RKE:
              (a) digital depressions on the inner face; (b) scraping striations;
              (c) marks of the cutting edge of the scraping tool;
              (d) compression folds �������������������������������������������������������������������� 175
Fig. 3.36     Diagnostic features of percussion on wet paste without
              counter-paddle: (a) outer face, surface with inserted grains
              and with a microtopography alternating compact and irregular
              zones; (b) inner face, joints of coils weakly deformed and
              surface with prominent grains and irregular microtopography
              (©S. Oboukoff) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 176
Fig. 3.37     Diagnostic features of preforming by pressure on
              leather-hard paste: (a) pushing, grainy surface with a compact
              microtopography; (b) shaving, compact microtopography,
              crevices, and erratic striations�������������������������������������������������������� 177
Fig. 3.38     Diagnostic features of shaving: (a, b) shaved surfaces
              characterized by pulled out and dragged inclusions creating
              deep striations �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 178
Fig. 3.39     Diagnostic features of beating: (a) micro-pull-outs; (b) surface
              with inserted grains, compact microtopography, and
              micro-pull-outs; (c) percussion cupule traces with irregular
              contours; (d) fissure due to vertical external percussion blows
              on a heterogeneous base (made from patches of clay)
              and presence of ash as anti-adhesive���������������������������������������������� 179
Fig. 3.40     Similar surface features produced by wheel coiling and wheel
              throwing: (a) parallel concentric striations on the inner and
              outer faces; (b) undulating relief from the base to the top;
              (c) oblique compression folds; (d) ellipsoidal striations
              on the outer base ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
Fig. 3.41     Diagnostic traits of wheel coiling (experimental series):
              (a) fissure located on a compression zone; (b) slightly
              curvilinear short fissures; (c) undulations in the shape of
              bands produced during thinning coils with RKE; (d) undulations
              in the shape of bands produced during wheel throwing ���������������� 181
xxvi                                                                                              List of Figures
Fig. 3.42   Diagnostic traits of wheel coiling (archaeological series):
            (a) fissure located on a compression zone; (b) slightly curvilinear
            short fissures; (c) undulations in the shape of bands produced
            during thinning coils with RKE������������������������������������������������������ 182
Fig. 3.43   Diagnostic meso-structures of wheel throwing: (a, b) dense
            homogeneous meso-structure, random orientation and distribution
            of the coarse fraction; (c, d) tears due to a too fast rising of
            the interdigital pressures and abundance of the elongated vesicles
            parallel to the walls ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 183
Fig. 3.44   Diagnostic meso-structures of wheel coiling: (a–d) elongated
            voids (vesicles, fissures) subparallel to the walls��������������������������� 184
Fig. 3.45   Diagnostic microstructures of fashioning techniques with RKE:
            (a) wheel-thrown paste showing a homogeneous birefringence
            assemblage along the entire section, characterized by a close
            imbrication of clay domains, a random orientation and distribution
            of the coarse fraction; (b) wheel coiling of a very fine illite
            clay paste almost without coarse fraction; birefringence
            assemblage at a coil join underlined by an organization of
            micaceous flakes orthogonal to the clay domain walls; the
            microstructure of the adjacent clay domains shows a strongly
            compressed, dense organization ���������������������������������������������������� 185
Fig. 3.46   Wheel-thrown and paddled paste presenting both a subparallel
            alignment of the constituents and a random meso-structural
            pattern �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Fig. 3.47   Diagnostic features of the four wheel-coiling methods
            (experimental series): (a) method 1; (b) method 2; (c) method 3;
            (d) method 4������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 187
Fig. 3.48   Examples of deformation of wheel-coiled pastes: (a) weakly
            compressed paste with conservation of the coil microstructure
            (visible on the right); (b) strongly compressed paste with elongated
            voids subparallel to the walls���������������������������������������������������������� 190
Fig. 3.49   Diagnostic features of trimming: (a–d) trimmed recipients with
            compact surfaces, concentric parallel deep striations created
            by pulling out the coarse fraction with RKE���������������������������������� 191
Fig. 3.50   Calibrated data for wheel-coiled vessel obtained from combining
            X-radiography with digital techniques of image processing:
            (a) perspective view of wall thickness. The long arrow above
            the plot indicates the sherd orientation (from base toward the top);
            the short arrows correspond to the discontinuities between the coils,
            after their wheel shaping; (b) porosity image of the same specimen.
            The arrow alongside porosity image indicates the sherd orientation
            (after Pierret et al. 1996)���������������������������������������������������������������� 193
Fig. 3.51   High-resolution X-ray microtomography (μ-CT): (a) reconstructed
            image of a Neolithic pottery fragment from northern Germany;
            (b) example of quantitative analysis of four Neolithic shards from
List of Figures                                                                                            xxvii
              northern Germany – abundance of rock fragment temper in
              different size classes in the Neolithic pottery sherds
              (after Kahl and Ramminger 2012)�������������������������������������������������� 195
Fig. 3.52     Examples of surfaces smoothed without RKE: (a) wet clay
              smoothed with fingers without water; (b) wet clay smoothed with a
              pebble without water; (c) wet clay smoothed with a wooden tool;
              overthicknesses are linked to the movement of the clay during the
              passage of the tool; (d) reticulated threaded striations formed during
              smoothing with fingers laden with water on wet clay; (e) wet paste
              smoothed with water resulting in a surface with partially covered
              protruding grains, a fluidified microtopography, and partly ribbed
              striations; (f) lumpy surface of a paste smoothed without water, but
              with high shrinkage during drying making the coarse grains
              sticking out but nonetheless covered with a thin clay film ������������ 197
Fig. 3.53     Examples of surfaces smoothed with RKE: (a, b) surfaces
              smoothed with RKE characterized by concentric parallel ribbed
              striations and a fluidified microtopography������������������������������������ 198
Fig. 3.54     Examples of finishing operations on leather-hard surfaces:
              (a) lumpy surface brushed with a corn cob and smoothed with the
              fingers laden with water (Senegal, ©A. Gelbert); (b) leather-hard
              paste smoothed with a piece of leather laden with water;
              the microtopography is compact and the striations
              are partly ribbed������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 200
Fig. 3.55     Examples of surface treatment by friction: (a) previously
              shaved surface softened with a wooden stick loaded with
              water; (b) burnished strips on previously wet smoothed surface;
              (c) burnished strips on leather-hard hammered paste; (d) facets
              with scalloped edges formed during burnishing ���������������������������� 201
Fig. 3.56     Examples of burnishing: (a) covering burnishing whose
              gloss indicates friction on dry paste; (b) partial burnishing
              whose weak gloss and overthicknesses indicate friction on
              leather-hard paste���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 202
Fig. 3.57     Examples of surface treatments by coating: (a) cooking pot
              coated with clay slurry in order to protect the outer face from
              thermal shocks; (b) slipped surface with a piece of cloth;
              it is characterized by floating grains and traits similar to the
              ones of a smoothing with water on leather-hard paste�������������������� 203
Fig. 3.58     Examples of clay-coated surfaces: (a, b) overthicknesses
              and floating grains; (c) clay coating applied with a wooden tool
              on wet paste; (d) clay coating applied with a piece of leather on
              leather-hard paste���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Fig. 3.59     Examples of incised and impressed decors: (a, b) incised decors
              on wet paste; (c, d) incised decor on leather-hard paste;
              (e, f) paddled decor on leather-hard paste (e: photo ©H. Wu;
              f: ©A. Favereau) ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
xxviii                                                                                     List of Figures
Fig. 3.60   Examples of colors linked to firing techniques and atmospheres:
            (a) water jar with firing stains fired in oxidizing atmosphere in a
            vertical updraft kiln whose floor is made up of metallic blades
            (Jodhpur dist., Rajasthan); (b) recipients fired in open firing
            (Nagada, Uttar Pradesh, India); (c) in the forefront, recipients
            fired in reducing atmosphere, in the background, recipients fired
            in oxidizing atmosphere (Jodhpur dist., Rajasthan); (d) recipient
            with bicolored outer surface due to stacking the recipients
            on top of each other in the firing chamber (Tell Arqa,
            phase N, Lebanon)�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 208
Fig. 3.61   Diagnostic traits of the ceramic chaîne opératoire of Tell Arqa
            (phase S): (a) basalt working plan imprint on the outer base;
            (b) concentric overthickness on the inner base linked to the
            placing of a coil above the disc; (c) view of the coil placed
            on the disc; (d) finger imprints on the inner base at the
            junction base/body; (e, f) bumpy body and concentric fissures
            indicating discontinuous pressures on assembled elements;
            (g) oblique fissures visible in radial section; (h) fashioning
            of the neck with the help of a rotary movement after the fashioning
            of the body; (i) combing the outer face on wet paste after the
            shaping of the neck; (j) cross-combed pattern; (k) subparallel
            vertical depressions corresponding to the imprints of the passive
            hand supporting the wall while the active hand works on the
            outer face; (l) folding of the leather-hard disc on the lower body
            (overthickness over the combing)�������������������������������������������������� 211
Fig. 4.1    Classification procedure of ceramic assemblages according
            to the concept of chaîne opératoire������������������������������������������������ 218
Fig. 4.2    Example of technical tree. The diagram distinguishes four
            technical groups which are the “visible” part of four distinct
            chaînes opératoires ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 220
Fig. 4.3    (a) Example of open classification by techno-petrographic group
            (no classification of distinctive groups was possible because
            of a strong variability of the clay materials for the total clay
            assemblage): (a, f, and k) scan photos of thin sections illustrating
            the groups identified under the binocular microscope from fresh
            sections of fine chips; (b–e and g–m) photos of thin sections in plane
            analyzed light under the petrographic microscope illustrating here
            the petrographic variability for identified each group; the
            mineralogical characters show that this variability is distinctive
            of different sources; the identified techno-petrographic groups
            do not correspond to clearly identified clay sources. (b) Example
            of closed classification by techno-petrographic groups
            (the recognition of distinctive groups was possible): (a, d, f, and h)
            photos of thin-section scans illustrating the groups identified under
List of Figures                                                                                               xxix
              the binocular microscope from fresh sections of fine chips;
              (b, c, e, g, i, and j) photos of thin sections in plane analyzed
              light under the petrographic microscope illustrating here the
              petrographic homogeneity of each group identified; the
              mineralogical characters show a distinctive provenance source
              for each techno-petrographic group; and each group corresponds
              to a distinctive raw material source������������������������������������������������ 223
Fig. 4.4      Techno-petrographic classification of ceramic assemblages���������� 225
Fig. 4.5      Geometric description of the vessel profiles.
              (After Gardin 1976, 81)������������������������������������������������������������������ 227
Fig. 4.6      Example of hierarchical classification based on different
              morphological attributes. (After Lyonnet 1997, Table VI, 59) ������ 228
Fig. 4.7      Example of classification of decor in units, motifs, and themes.
              (After Shepard 1965, 272)�������������������������������������������������������������� 230
Fig. 4.8      Example of techno-stylistic trees. The tree on the left gathers
              molded ceramics made up with the same clay materials.
              The preforming techniques vary depending on the function
              of ceramics (functional variability). The tree on the right gathers
              coiled ceramics whose preforming and finishing techniques
              covary with clay sources and relate to different functional
              categories (functional variability). Now the molding and the
              coiling techniques apply to the same functional categories,
              signaling therefore two technical traditions corresponding
              to two social groups������������������������������������������������������������������������ 231
Fig. 4.9      Organic residues trapped into the porous walls of archaeological
              pottery: (a) and (b) food carbonized crusts; (c) birch tar adhesive;
              (d) incrusted pottery with birch tar; (e) birch bark glued using
              organic adhesive; (f) birch tar used for waterproofing the inner
              surface of pottery; (g, h, and i) adhesives used for repairing pottery.
              (Infography, A. Pasqualini; a, b, e, and i, photo ©P.-A. Gillioz;
              d, g, and h, photo ©D. Bosquet; c and f, photo ©M. Regert)�������� 239
Fig. 5.1      Structural and functional organization of the gestures: (a) symmetric
              forearm movement and bimanual undifferentiated activity of the
              hands; (b) symmetric forearm movement and bimanual combined
              activity: one hand is active and the other one is passive, acting as
              a support; (c) asymmetric forearm movement, and bimanual
              combined activity of the two hands, one active and the other
              one acting as a support; (d) asymmetric forearm movement
              and bimanual combined activity of the two hands which are
              both active�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 263
Fig. 5.2      Learning stages 1 and 2 are characterized by the implementation
              of bimanual complementarity in relation to the respective roles
              of each hand; the stage 3 is characterized by the implementation
              of an asymmetrical movement of the forearms in relation
              to the wheel axis (after Roux and Corbetta 1989, Fig. 1, p.16)������ 264
xxx                                                                                               List of Figures
Fig. 5.3   Perceptual motor tests designed to assess the specificity
           of the motor abilities developed during the course of wheel
           throwing apprenticeship������������������������������������������������������������������ 264
Fig. 5.4   Example of the results obtained with the perceptual tests: evolution
           of the steadiness of each pointing hand (means and standard
           deviations) as a function of learning stage for potters (panel A)
           and as a function of age for non-potters (panel B) (after Roux
           and Corbetta 1989, Fig. 7, p.64) ���������������������������������������������������� 265
Fig. 5.5   Teenagers learning how to make earths (Haryana, India)�������������� 266
Fig. 5.6   Roughing-out techniques in the Senegal River valley:
           (a) modeling by drawing; (b) convex molding (Senegal,
           ©A. Gelbert 2003)�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 268
Fig. 5.7   Graphical representation, with scale in m (1/1 m), of model
           (gray) and average thrown vessels (black) for each of the
           four forms and two clay masses (after Gandon et al. 2011,
           Fig. 4)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271
Fig. 5.8   Mass production of vessels in northern India (Uttar Pradesh)������� 277
Fig. 5.9   Coefficients of variation (CV) of ceramic assemblages made
           up of less than ten production events. In archaeological
           situations, the cumulative effect of the intra- and intergroup
           variability should not be underestimated, and the CVs have
           to be weighted (after Roux 2003, Fig. 8, p.780)���������������������������� 277
Fig. 6.1   Schematic chart of the principles of the analysis of
           activities for describing a techno-system (after Matarasso
           and Roux 2000)������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 285
Fig. 6.2   Schematic chart of the modalities of distribution (after Gallay
           forthcoming). This is based on the opposition between commercial
           and noncommercial exchanges and, for commercial exchanges,
           on the opposition between direct and indirect transactions,
           with or without money, and in villages or in markets.
           These oppositions enable Gallay to define seven classes
           distributed between three types of exchange: noncommercial
           exchanges, barter, and commercial exchanges strictly speaking.
           The noncommercial exchanges include client relationships
           between casts and farming communities���������������������������������������� 290
Fig. 6.3   Cladistic diagram (S. Manem)�������������������������������������������������������� 300
Fig. 6.4   Evolutionary trajectory of the wheel fashioning technique
           in the Southern Levant (after Roux 2010, Fig. 13.3, p.222) ���������� 303
List of Tables
Table 2.1   The eight experimental conditions: four different forms
            (cylinder, bowl, sphere, and vase) with two clay masses
            (0.75 and 2.25 kg)������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 78
Table 2.2   Average dimensions of the experimental vessels
            (four forms and two clay masses)������������������������������������������������������ 78
Table 2.3   Average thicknesses of the experimental vessels
            (four forms and two clay masses)������������������������������������������������������ 78
Table 2.4   Comparative data on open firing and kilns�������������������������������������� 120
Table 3.1   Descriptive grid of the markers observable with the
            naked eye or with low magnification������������������������������������������������ 142
Table 4.1   Stabilization principles of ceramic classification. During the
            course of time tn, the relative proportion of sherds per class
            stabilizes and can be considered as representative �������������������������� 225
Table 4.2   Main natural substances identified up until now in
            archaeological ceramics and several of the molecular
            criteria used to determine them�������������������������������������������������������� 242
Table 5.1   Twelve key technological variables for examination
            of skill variability (after Budden 2008)�������������������������������������������� 273
Table 6.1   Construction of a table defining the elementary technical
            operations and consumed and produced goods�������������������������������� 286
Table 6.2   Example of a form where the goods consumed and produced
            by the activity “wheel-coiling bowls” are quantified ���������������������� 287
                                                                                                          xxxi
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