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Food, Culture and
Identity in Germany’s
Century of War

Edited by
Heather Merle Benbow · Heather R. Perry
Food, Culture and Identity in Germany’s
Century of War
Heather Merle Benbow · Heather R. Perry
Editors

Food, Culture
and Identity
in Germany’s
Century of War
Editors
Heather Merle Benbow Heather R. Perry
University of Melbourne University of North Carolina
Melbourne, VIC, Australia at Charlotte
Charlotte, NC, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-27137-4 ISBN 978-3-030-27138-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27138-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Amoret Tanner/Alamy Stock Photo

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Acknowledgements

Co-editing a book in different hemispheres is a challenging task. As

much as the editors were able to find scholarly common ground in a
passion for understanding the role of food in the German experience
of war, advancing the conversation in disparate time zones was never
easy. We are therefore particularly grateful for the support of both the
University of Melbourne and the University of North Carolina at
Charlotte that enabled us to work together for a sustained period on the
first draft of the volume in 2018. Specifically, we acknowledge the sup-
port provided by the Dyason Fellowship scheme and the McCoy Seed
Fund. Heather Perry would like to thank the Department of History,
the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and the Faculty Research Grants
program at UNC Charlotte for continued research funding and support.
Heather Benbow would also like to thank the School of Languages and
Linguistics and the Faculty of Arts at the University of Melbourne for
support for this research.
The editors would also like to thank the following people who have
supported the project. Firstly, thanks to those who conceived, organized
and above all participated in the international meeting which inspired
this volume. The three-day seminar “Nourishing the Volk: Food and
Foodways in Central Europe” which met at the 2016 meeting of the
German Studies Association in San Diego would not have materialized
without the initial efforts of the co-organizers Gesine Gerhard, Andrew
Kloiber and Heather Perry. And it would not have been a success with-
out the participation of Heather Benbow, Michael Bryant, Mark Cole,

v
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Friederike Emonds, Christine Fojtik, Gesine Gerhard, Andrew Kloiber,

Melissa Kravetz, Heather Perry, Chad Ross, Uwe Spiekermann, Jenny
Sprenger-Syeffarth, Robert Terrell and Corinna Treitel. The sustained
conversations we enjoyed over those three days confirmed that there
was still much to research, learn and discuss with regard to food and
German identity—and we are grateful that organizations such as the
GSA exist and provide a forum for workshopping international, interdis-
ciplinary ideas. That seminar seeded the idea for this project and several
participants from that initial meeting eventually contributed chapters
for this volume. We also want to acknowledge Stefan Siemsen and Jana
Verhoeven at the University of Melbourne for helping us with the organ-
izing and editing of the manuscript. We could not have pulled it together
without your efforts.
At Palgrave, we are indebted to Christine Pardue and Megan
Laddusaw for their advice, patience and trust in us despite a number
of interruptions to the volume’s planned trajectory. We also thank the
anonymous reviewers of the book proposal and the initial manuscript for
taking time to make useful suggestions that have improved this book.
Finally, we thank our authors for their constructive engagement with our
feedback and their patience as we steered this project to completion. It
has been a pleasure to read and engage with your work.
 Contents

1 Hunger Pangs: The Contours of Violence and Food

Scarcity in Germany’s Twentieth-Century Wars 1
Heather Merle Benbow and Heather R. Perry

2 Onward Kitchen Soldiers! Gender, Food and Health

in Germany’s Long Great War 17
Heather R. Perry

3 Food, Drink and Hunger for World War I German

Soldiers 45
Heather Merle Benbow

4 Public Feeding in the First World War: Berlin’s First

Public Kitchen System 75
Jenny Sprenger-Seyffarth

5 Coping with Hunger in the Ghettos: The Impact

of Nazi Racialized Food Policy 103
Helene J. Sinnreich

6 Bee Stings and Beer: The Significance of Food

in Alabamian POW Newspapers 125
Christine Rinne

vii
viii CONTENTS

7 The Productive Heimat: Territorial Loss and Rurality

in German Identity at the Stunde Null 153
Christine Fojtik

8 Postwar Food Rumors: Security, Victimhood and Fear 177

Laura J. Hilton

9 The Taste of Defeat: Food, Peace and Power in

US-Occupied Germany 201
Kaete O’Connell

10 Cold (Beer) War: The German Volksgetränk in East

German Rhetoric (1945–1971) 227
John Gillespie

11 Brewing Global Relations During the Cold War:

Coffee, East Germans and Southeast Asia, 1978–1990 247
Andrew Kloiber

Index 271
 Notes on Contributors

Heather Merle Benbow is a scholar of German Studies at the

University of Melbourne, Australia. She received her Ph.D. from the
University of Melbourne in 2003. She has published widely on German
literature, film, food, the body and the history of ideas. Her most
recent book is Marriage in Turkish German Popular Culture: States of
Matrimony in the New Millennium (Lexington, 2015).
Christine Fojtik (Ph.D., University of Wisconsin 2013) is an assis-
tant professor of history at Saint Xavier University in Chicago. She is
interested in food, gender and agriculture in postwar Germany and is
currently working on an article about agricultural policy in occupied
Germany. She has served as the managing editor of H-German for the
past three years and is the director of the Digital Humanities program at
her university.
John Gillespie is a Ph.D. student at Vanderbilt University researching
questions of cultural nationalism in Central Europe during the Cold
War, with a particular focus on the cultural politics of beer in the divided
Germany and Czechoslovakia. He earned bachelor’s degrees in history
and English at Virginia Tech in 2013 and a master’s degree in European
history at Middle Tennessee State University in 2017. His master’s thesis
The People’s Drink: The Politics of Beer in East Germany 1945–1971
represents the initial work in his ongoing research.

ix
x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Laura J. Hilton is professor of history at Muskingum University in New

Concord, OH. She earned her Ph.D. in modern European history from
The Ohio State University. Her research focuses on the postwar period
of Germany, 1945–1951, in particular the interactions among Germans,
refugees, displaced persons and Allied occupiers. Recently, she has pub-
lished articles in German History, Jahrbuch des International Tracing
Service, Holocaust and Genocide Studies and The History Teacher. She is
co-editor of a forthcoming collection, Understanding and Teaching the
Holocaust (University of Wisconsin Press) and is currently working on a
monograph centered on the rumor culture in postwar Germany.
Andrew Kloiber earned his Ph.D. at McMaster University (Canada).
His work broadly examines the cultural history of modern Germany—
particularly the role of material culture in shaping identity, social norms
and power. His current work considers the changing landscapes of mem-
ory and commemoration surrounding the Peaceful Revolution of 1989.
His work has received generous support from the German Academic
Exchange Service (DAAD), the German Historical Institute, the
University of Exeter and McMaster University. He is currently revising a
manuscript for publication.
Kaete O’Connell is a postdoctoral fellow at the Center for Presidential
History at Southern Methodist University. She received her Ph.D. from
Temple University, where she wrote a dissertation that explored the
political, cultural and emotional impact of US food diplomacy in post-
war Germany. She is the author of “‘Uncle Wiggly Wings’: Children,
Chocolates, and the Berlin Airlift,” featured in a special issue of Food and
Foodways and an essay on food and memory in a forthcoming volume on
the Berlin Airlift and the making of the Cold War.
Heather R. Perry is associate professor of history at the University of
North Carolina at Charlotte. Her research focuses on the social, cul-
tural and medical history of the First World War, with special attention
to Germany and Europe. She earned her Ph.D. from Indiana University
in 2005, where she also worked at the American Historical Review.
She currently serves as editor of the international journal, First World
War Studies. Her book, Recycling the Disabled: Army, Medicine, and
Modernity in WWI Germany, was published in 2014 (Manchester UP)
and her current project examines gender, health and popular culture in
the First World War.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xi

Christine Rinne is associate professor of German at the University of

South Alabama. She has published on the literary formations of social
identity in turn of the twentieth-century writings by authors such as
Sigmund Freud, material consumption in East Germany and German
historical reality television. She is currently working on a manuscript that
analyzes German POW newspapers written at camps in Alabama during
the Second World War, of which this article is a part.
Helene J. Sinnreich is director of the Fern and Manfred Steinfeld
Program in Judaic Studies and associate professor of religious studies at
University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Dr. Sinnreich serves as editor in chief
of the Journal of Jewish Identities (Johns Hopkins University Press). She
has served as a fellow at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
in Washington, DC, and at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem. She is editor of A
Hidden Diary from the Lodz Ghetto: 1942–1944 (2015). Her forthcom-
ing monograph is a comparative study of hunger in the Lodz, Warsaw
and Krakow ghettos.
Jenny Sprenger-Seyffarth is doctoral candidate in modern history
at Freie Universität Berlin, Germany, and a scholarship holder of the
Friedrich Ebert Foundation. Her dissertation traces the development
of public feeding and the private family meal in Berlin and Vienna dur-
ing the First World War. Published articles include “Public Kitchens
(Germany),” in 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of
the First World War, edited by U. Daniel et al. Forthcoming is “‘Es ist
doch geradezu ein Skandal…!’—Die Berliner Volksspeisung im Ersten
Weltkrieg zwischen Qualität und sozialem Stigma,” in S. Steinberg and
F. Jacob (eds.) Semmeln aus Sägemehl. Lebensmittelskandale des 19.
und 20. Jahrhunderts als Orte des Wissens.
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 “The Hindenburg of German Housewives” 26

Fig. 2.2 Just’s War Cookbook for Women’s Relief:
50 Proven Recipes, 1915 31
Fig. 3.1 “Nem tu dom” 64
Fig. 4.1 Map of Berlin’s public feeding network during
the First World War 80
Fig. 4.2 Outdoor view of Red Cross dining hall in Berlin, 1914 81
Fig. 4.3 Feeding of army reservists’ children by the Verein
für Kindervolksküchen und Volkskinderhorte
(Postcard, August 1914) 82
Fig. 4.4 Chart comparing number of meals served by Berlin
Red Cross kitchens between November 1914 and March 1915 84
Fig. 4.5 Graph of weekly registration figures for meal passes
from the NFD, 1914–1919 85
Fig. 4.6 Relation of weekly registered meal passes and food coupons,
November 1914–December 1918 86
Fig. 6.1 “Why not? You constantly come to breakfast in this getup
too, dear!” cartoon from Der Zaungast, June 10, 1945
(Source Reproduced by permission of the Aliceville Museum) 133

xiii
 CHAPTER 1

Hunger Pangs: The Contours

of Violence and Food Scarcity
in Germany’s Twentieth-Century Wars

Heather Merle Benbow and Heather R. Perry

With the publication of his seminal works Sweetness and Power and
Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom, the widely acknowledged “father of food
anthropology” Sidney Mintz urged anthropologists and other scholars of
food culture to pay closer attention to how food—foodstuffs, food pref-
erences and food rituals—were deeply and historically rooted in struc-
tures of power, knowledge and location. The culture and meanings of
food were neither immutable nor timeless; and, even more importantly,
he demonstrated that with careful examination these complex food his-
tories could be uncovered and used to illuminate new aspects of human
culture and society.1

H. M. Benbow
University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
H. R. Perry (*)
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA

© The Author(s) 2019 1

H. M. Benbow and H. R. Perry (eds.), Food,
Culture and Identity in Germany’s Century of War,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27138-1_1
2 H. M. BENBOW AND H. R. PERRY

For Mintz, the “large-scale and general case” of war presented an

ideal opportunity for examining the different ways that power could
inform food choices and meanings.2 For instance, in one of his more
well-known examples, he revealed how military planning and organiza-
tional structures combined with wartime battle conditions and soldier
patriotism to fundamentally shape the emotional meanings of Coca-Cola
among US soldiers in the Second World War—and afterward. The “sin-
gle most powerful instrument of dietary change in human experience,”
Mintz argued, was war:

In time of war, both civilians and soldiers are regimented—in modern

times, more even than before. There can occur at the same time terri-
ble disorganization and (some would say) terrible organization. Food
resources are mobilized, along with other sorts of resources. Large num-
bers of persons are assembled to do things together—ultimately, to kill
together. While learning how, they must eat together.3

Nevertheless, despite the growth of food studies and the rise of schol-
arship focusing on the social and cultural significance of food in history,
historians of modern wars and conflict have been slow to embrace what
Sidney Mintz saw as both important and obvious: the analytical poten-
tial of food-centered research to shed new light on modern conflicts or
their aftermath. To be sure, scholars have examined the impact of food
insecurity on populations at war—most notably the role food plays in
international conflicts over natural resources or as the fulcrum around
which home-front morale fundamentally pivots. Yet, while scholars of
military strategy or wartime policy have included discussions of the ori-
gins, experiences and impacts of siege warfare on home-front food sup-
plies or political stability, significant research lacunae on the cultural,
social and emotional significance of food in warfare remain. This is even
more surprising given the turn in the late twentieth century from more
traditional, operational histories of war to newer research on wartime
gender, culture and economy—a trend more generally understood as the
study of War and Society.4 The essays collected in this volume represent a
significant step toward filling this scholarly gap through examinations of
the different cultural saliencies of food and their relationships to German
identity in the nation’s war-torn twentieth century.
Thanks to Mintz and other scholars, the field of food studies has
emerged from the ethnographic shadows of Anthropology and Folklore
 1 HUNGER PANGS: THE CONTOURS OF VIOLENCE AND FOOD SCARCITY … 3

programs to achieve widespread recognition as a fundamental lens

through which to study and understand religious, ethnic, gender and
cultural identities.5 Scholars from many disciplines have come to recog-
nize the centrality of food and foodways in the shaping of cultural prac-
tices and imaginaries and the sub-disciplines of Food Anthropology, the
Sociology of Food and Food History are well established. And, as one
might expect, scholars in the early decades of the twenty-first century
are increasingly heeding the call to examine how human relationships
with and emotions surrounding food have been transformed and
amplified—in both positive and negative ways—under conditions of
conflict and resource scarcity. However, few of these focus specifically on
wartime Germany.6 Indeed, somewhat ironically, in spite of the abun-
dance of research on Germany’s bellicose twentieth century, few scholars
have concentrated on developing a picture of the cultural significance or
historical meanings of food across the nation’s hot and cold global wars
of the modern era.7
Beginning in the 1990s, scholars began publishing cultural histories of
food in wartime with a particular focus on the First World War and a rel-
atively small amount of cultural history research on German experiences
of food and hunger.8 Even those studies which offer cultural analyses of
food experiences or meanings in Central Europe, focus rather on top-
down governmental policies during a single war or particular political
regime—or even gloss over the war, viewing it as a temporary disruption
and not a significant focal point.9 While Alice Weinreb looks at the geo-
politics of food in the short twentieth century, including the role of the
food system in the “making of war and peace,” only Corinna Treitel’s
monograph on the history of “natural eating” and vegetarianism in mod-
ern Germany offers a glimpse of what a study of food from the “bottom
up” looks like.10 And still none of these works offer readers the oppor-
tunity that this volume does: The occasion to examine the multi-valency
of Germany’s food experiences across the twentieth century within the
contextual pressures and changing dynamics of modern warfare.

Volume Aims and Thematic Constellations

The collection of essays in this volume examines the social, cultural
and emotional significance of food and hunger in Germany’s tumultu-
ous twentieth century—with especial attention to two key forces: war
and identity. The essays represent emerging research from new and
4 H. M. BENBOW AND H. R. PERRY

established scholars and concentrate on the three German-centered

conflicts which defined the twentieth century: the First and Second
World Wars and the ensuing global Cold War. All of the essays analyze
Germany’s modern wars through food-centered perspectives and expe-
riences “from below” that suggest broader and more significant politi-
cal, social and cultural consequences of these conflicts. We examine the
analytical saliency of food when studying Germany’s violent and turbu-
lent twentieth century while consciously pushing conventional temporal
frameworks and disciplinary boundaries. Through the essays gathered
here, our aim is to interrogate and reconsider the ways in which deeper
studies of food culture in Germany can shed new light on old wars. In
particular, we find that the research presented here makes the following
significant contributions:

1. it looks beyond the food experiences in “hot zones” of armed

conflict in order to include other important wartime food spaces
such as public kitchens, occupation zones, medical encounters and
reconstruction programs;
2. it considers not only “top-down” policies and practices around
food provision, but also individual experiences and histories of
food in wartime and postwar eras, thus yielding new syntheses of
the varied meanings of food in times of conflict;
3. it uses national, transnational and cross-cultural perspectives to
examine the experiences and effects of wartime eating, shortages
and hunger; and finally
4. in examining the different meanings and changing German expe-
riences of food across the three major conflicts of the twentieth
century, the volume enables us to see more easily the continui-
ties, changes—even significant ruptures—in German food culture
and history that more traditional military or political frameworks
obscure.

Moreover, in addition to these contributions in the study of German

history and culture, we find the volume brings important new scholarly
dimensions to the two broader research areas of food and culture studies
and war and society studies.
In putting together this volume, we have found that a number
of “thematic constellations” suffuse the experiences and practices of
all three conflicts. Because they recur throughout the volume more
 1 HUNGER PANGS: THE CONTOURS OF VIOLENCE AND FOOD SCARCITY … 5

explicitly in some places than others, we think they bear emphasizing at

the outset. The first, and most obvious, is the constellation of FOOD,
POWER AND AUTHORITY in wartime. The control of food resources
and access to food becomes critical during times of war and can cement,
disrupt, determine or challenge peacetime power relationships. This is
true at a transnational and at a personal level. It is also true of the power
of food as a symbolic object—hence its frequent deployment in wartime
propaganda. Food, in the pressurized context of conflict, is power—yet it
is often a power that poses a significant challenge or subversion of peace-
time authority.
The power exerted over food in war often manifests in an impor-
tant corollary to the above, which is our second thematic constellation:
HUNGER, DEPRIVATION AND SCARCITY. The devastating conse-
quences and enduring legacy of the Entente Blockade during the First
World War informed the food and population policies that underpinned
the Second and cemented itself in German cultural memory even after
that second devastating conflict that deployed mass civilian starvation on
an unthinkable scale. Even the lesser deprivations such as the “stretch-
ing” of basic foodstuffs caused corrosive civilian resentment with the
power to turn the tide of conflict from the First World War through to
the Cold War.
Analyzing Germany’s twentieth-century wars through the lens
of food draws our attention to its material role as an object of
CONSUMPTION, TRADE AND COMMERCE—our third the-
matic constellation. Germany’s rapid industrialization at the end of the
nineteenth century had created an empire that—in spite of its rich nat-
ural and industrial resources—was not “food independent” or self-suffi-
cient. Throughout the mechanized total wars of the twentieth century,
Germany’s defeat ultimately hinged more upon the nation’s agricultural
resources and food supplies than its military might or prowess. The focus
of much existing scholarship on the German home-front deprivation and
scarcity in the First and Second World Wars has also perhaps obscured
the experiences of both East and West Germans during the global Cold
War as they struggled to acquire land for agricultural development and
food production, to cement international trade agreements, and secure
steady access to the foodstuffs which could ensure the health and
well-being of their populations.
The mobilization of vast, hungry armies and especially their intru-
sion into foreign cities, villages and countryside occasioned countless
6 H. M. BENBOW AND H. R. PERRY

personal, often highly emotional, intimate encounters with “the other.”

Moreover, in the wake of the twentieth century’s total wars, the human-
itarian assistance and food aid that accompanied occupation armies and
state-sponsored programs of pacification in Germany was an intrinsically
transnational affair. Yet most studies of these phenomena (during and
after the conflict) have focused on the policies and bureaucracies that
implemented them—and ignored the experiences of the humans who
imposed, suffered or benefitted from them. Thus, the sharing of meals
in such INTERCULTURAL ENCOUNTERS, our fourth thematic
constellation, could scarcely be avoided. Whether within the regionally
and religiously diverse Imperial Army or socially stratified home front,
the German nation at war was still a highly decentralized and culturally
diverse nation struggling to maintain its fragile and still recent unity.
Brothers-in-arms from the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires fur-
ther added to the cultural mix within the fighting forces of the Central
Powers.
Interactions with civilians, POWs or enemy soldiers were frequently
driven by the need to secure nourishment and were characterized often
by the intimacy that can accompany commensality. Reflecting on these
unexpected and food-centered encounters—many times coerced, inva-
sive and unwelcome—offers the chance to engage our final thematic
constellation: FOOD, EMOTIONS AND IDENTITY. Every chapter
in this volume is alert to the personal, cultural and social meanings of
food in the wartime context. Unlike earlier histories of conflicts that have
too often seen food narrowly in operational terms, or at best in terms
of its impact on morale, the essays in this volume notice and interrogate
the layered experiences of food and hunger; they seek out lesser stud-
ied, personal accounts including diaries, correspondence, rumors, adver-
tising, POW newspapers and censors’ reports and listen to the voices
of individuals impacted by and participating in the tumultuous events
in which food played a pivotal political role. More often than not, the
authors in this volume uncover personal accounts that are surprising,
contrary or enlightening perspectives on well-studied conflicts. Food
is, after all, more than the administrative concern of feeding the Volk;
it is a material object that is incorporated into the quotidian aspects
of human life in ways that are both public and private, simultaneously
intimate and mundane. This personal experience is not only shaped by
war, but also “feeds back” to the body politic the subjective experience
of war.
 1 HUNGER PANGS: THE CONTOURS OF VIOLENCE AND FOOD SCARCITY … 7

Volume Structure and Chapter Outlines

The book begins with Heather Perry’s examination of how the Great
War reshaped German popular ideas about nutrition and bodily health.
Whereas other historians have focused on the failure of state authorities
and bureaucrats to effectively manage food resources on the German
home front, Perry focuses instead on how other “food authorities”—
physiologists, nutritionists and social reformers—sought to manage
information about the relationships between food, health and nutrition.
Here she outlines how efforts at reeducating the general public about
the relationships between food, health and nutrition ultimately created
new social and cultural alliances between laboratory researchers and
the nation’s housewives—ones that remained long after the war ended.
Through an analysis of wartime cookbooks, nutritional advice manu-
als, home economic schools, and public exhibits, Perry investigates the
attempt to “mobilize” German women on the home front as “kitchen
soldiers” whose daily choices could have significant impact on the health
and welfare of the nation. In doing so, her chapter reveals how this
“scientization of food” and the private kitchen that occurred during the
war ultimately shifted popular notions about the responsibility of citi-
zens—primarily the nation’s housewives—toward promoting national
health through food. Yet, at the same time, she reveals how regional
tastes and food preferences thwarted attempts at fostering a standardized
“national diet.”
Taking as her departure point the commonplace observation that
food plays a central role in the daily lives of soldiers and is critical for
morale, Heather Merle Benbow explores the importance of food, drink
and hunger in interpersonal interactions of various kinds for German
soldiers in the First World War. She argues that morale is not the only
story to be told about the significance of food for the German soldier,
and that food enables, shapes and disrupts interpersonal relationships
during the conflict. Drawing on sources including army newspapers, sol-
dier memoirs, letters and censorship reports, Benbow observes how food
(and especially drink) could be a comforting, consoling element in the
wartime experience. The experience of hunger and deprivation, how-
ever, threatened those same comradely bonds. Similarly, food and drink
could poignantly evoke the connections between home and fighting
fronts. However, dissatisfaction due to home-front hunger—expressed
forcefully in the so-called Jammerbriefe—made soldiers question why
8 H. M. BENBOW AND H. R. PERRY

they were fighting. While food frequently had the potential to forge and
disrupt interpersonal connections, culinary encounters are most ambig-
uous, Benbow suggests, when it comes to interactions between soldiers
and civilians. While some soldiers recall with affection restorative and
warm interactions with civilians, food and drink also attained new and
threatening meanings in the context of war.
In the third chapter to deal with food and hunger in the First World
War, Jenny Sprenger-Seyffarth examines the voluntary public kitchens
and municipal feeding programs (“Volksspeisung”) which were estab-
lished and run through mid-1916. She demonstrates how the city of
Berlin responded to the food emergency early in the war and how these
improvised kitchens worked until the state stepped in and tried to reor-
ganize and oversee these public programs in 1916. Sprenger-Seyffarth
analyzes popular responses to the public meal—and reveals how socio-
economic status, class and religion influenced and shaped the variegated
public attitudes toward food aid. As she points out, social standing and
cultural norms could at times override hunger and desperation when it
came to notions about what specifically one should eat and where specif-
ically one should eat it. In the end, German utilization of public kitch-
ens came down not just to hardship, but also social identity. As these
chapters show us, even amidst the desperate conditions of total war, food
constitutes more than simple nourishment.
Germany’s disastrous food shortages in the First World War were
determinative for the National Socialist regime’s approach in the Second.
As Helene J. Sinnreich discusses, Nazi food policy distributed food on
the basis of a calculus of perceived racial value. Sinnreich looks at the
ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe and describes how their Jewish inhab-
itants struggled to survive amid grave food shortages. Eschewing an
overarching theory of ghetto experience due to its diversity, Sinnreich
looks in granular detail at individual narratives via the lens of food and
hunger. Echoing a recurring theme of this volume, Sinnreich shows that
social, religious, gender and economic status play out in the quotidian
wartime struggles around food. Strategies employed in various ghettos
include ration systems, public feeding, trade and barter, theft, smuggling,
prostitution and—when food as a material substance is all but impossi-
ble to come by—“stretching” food with more-or-less inedible ingredi-
ents, “savoring” miniscule portions, food-themed art and elaborate food
fantasies. The responses to food crisis in the ghettos were as diverse as
their populations. Some went to extraordinary and detrimental lengths
 1 HUNGER PANGS: THE CONTOURS OF VIOLENCE AND FOOD SCARCITY … 9

to maintain a kosher diet, while others reportedly transgressed not just

religious rules but also a range of social injunctions, such as that against
cannibalism. Above all, Sinnreich observes, food in the ghetto held
great coercive power and was a significant element in the final stages
of the Nazi campaign against Jewish life; the genocidal food shortages
in the ghettos were an effective tool in persuading Jews to board the
deportation trains.
Captivity or confinement is a defining wartime experience, and one
in which the social, cultural, gendered or religious meanings of food are
placed under pressure. The multiple functions of food in German pris-
oner of war newspapers during the Second World War are the focus of
Christine Rinne’s chapter. The publications Der Zaungast and POW-
Oase emerged from two Alabama-based army bases: Camp Aliceville
and Fort McClellan. Food features in the fiction, cartoons and reports
on camp life within the newspapers. In these publications, writes Rinne,
food functioned as a way to form interpersonal bonds and find comfort
with fellow POWs as well as maintaining ties to a distant homeland. In
her close reading of the trope of food in the newspapers, Rinne uncovers
how the camp canteens, care packages from home and German commu-
nities elsewhere in the world, as well as the experience of growing food
in camp gardens or outside the camp on local farms are all occasions
for nostalgia and longing for the Heimat. As so often in wartime con-
texts, food was also a point of intercultural difference, however. While
deployed on work details in the agriculture industry and in hospital
kitchens, POWs experienced the local food culture. Contributors to the
POW newspapers are critical of American marketing of seemingly unnat-
ural foods like canned goods and cola. Their experience of American
food culture occasioned nostalgia for Germany and its unadulterated
beer. Despite shortages and alienation from their host culture, Rinne
argues that the German POWs of Alabama were able to use food in
various ways to create “oases” far from the conflict that helped the men
prepare for a return home and postwar life.
A number of chapters turn to this precarious postwar context and the
deepening food crisis that resulted. Just as shortages were most severe
after the Armistice, German civilians faced years of shortages and hun-
ger under occupation. The chapters in this volume highlight the social
and political dimensions of food, feeding and hunger in this postwar
context. Christine Fojtik examines how Germans struggling to rebuild
after 1945 used food as the nexus around which to reconstruct both
10 H. M. BENBOW AND H. R. PERRY

national and individual identities. After defeat in two global, industri-

alized wars, as well as Stalin’s blockade of Berlin, many Germans were
confronting a truth they had long evaded: The pastoral, German Heimat
of small farmers and peasants was more imagined than real. As refugees
and expellees from the East streamed across the Oder and back into the
fatherland, many Germans feared that food insecurity would continue to
plague the nation despite the war’s end. How would Germany rebuild,
they argued, if the government did not implement land distribution and
resettlement schemes? Moreover, what would become of farmers without
farmland? Fojtik demonstrates that questions about the nation’s future
turned uncomfortably on the tensions between the popular imaginary
of Germany as a nation of peasant-farmers and the cold reality of food
dependence under occupation. Thus, she argues, public conversations
about food—its production, distribution and consumption—were tied as
much to individual fears about dislocation and rebuilding as they were to
bigger questions of national security, economic independence and politi-
cal sovereignty during a period of massive change and uncertainty.
The postwar occupation is examined further from a personal and
political perspective by Laura J. Hilton in her analysis of post-Second
World War food rumors. The occupation powers sought to use food to
“rank the worthiness of populations, pegged to their wartime experi-
ences as victims, perpetrators or bystanders,” leading to the perception
by German citizens that postwar food shortages were the result of occu-
pier vindictiveness and that Germans were themselves being victimized.
Hilton’s analysis of the food rumors that proliferated thus gives us a
new perspective on postwar perpetrator/victim narratives that emerged
after the Second World War. Collective memories of the hunger endured
during the First World War under the blockade informed the sense of
victimhood felt by Germans after the end of the Second World War, a
feeling expressed in rumors that the Allies aimed to deliberately starve
the German population. Resentments of authorities, farmers and for-
eigners were also vociferously expressed again, as was the case during
the hunger of the First World War. Food was central to the alternative
discourses that Germans developed during the postwar, Hilton argues.
German civilians effectively rewrote the Second World War past through
the lens of their own hunger, an experience far more immediate for them
than the crimes of the Nazis.
Kaete O’Connell zooms in even further on personal interactions
around food in occupied Germany. She examines what she calls the
 1 HUNGER PANGS: THE CONTOURS OF VIOLENCE AND FOOD SCARCITY … 11

emotional and cultural consequences of food exchange in conquered

and early occupied post-Second World War Germany. She points to a
gap in research around the role of food in civilian–military interactions
in Germany. American soldiers witnessed firsthand the effects of starva-
tion as a weapon of war and played a part in its utilization as a tool of
peace. O’Connell is alert to the often ambiguous nature of gifts in an
occupation scenario in which the power differential vis-à-vis a hungry
population in receipt of food aid could not be more obvious. As well
as bringing to light the disdain often felt toward German civilians by
occupying US soldiers, O’Connell traces the administrative struggles to
understand local food and drink customs. Ignorance of the cultural and
nutritional importance of beer in Bavaria, or the widespread perception
of corn as mere cattle feed outside of Bavaria threatened the success of
postwar food diplomacy. Looking at both sides of the exchange of food
in occupied Germany, O’Connell argues that food can serve as an alter-
native measure of power and was “as important in the postwar as it was
during the conflict.”
The final two chapters of the volume look at the bifurcation of food
policy, politics and representation in divided Germany during the Cold
War. In a study of political discourse in the first two decades after the
Second World War, John Gillespie reveals the role of beer as a political
weapon in a cultural conflict that accompanied the Cold War. Much like
the wrangling over other parts of German cultural heritage, the East
German regime claimed to be the rightful heir to Germany’s beer herit-
age, portraying beer as a cultural commodity better suited to their new,
socialist vision of German life than to West German capitalism. Ironically,
however, it was the Federal Republic, with its adherence to the ancient
“purity law,” that upheld the connection to Germany’s beer traditions,
while the Democratic Republic followed international trends toward
industry consolidation and the use of non-traditional ingredients and
struggled to maintain even basic quality standards on a regular basis. The
GDR pursued dual aims of technological and social modernity in rela-
tion to beer, fashioned as the “worker’s drink.” The GDR press depicted
the beer culture of the FRG as by contrast characterized by capitalist
exploitation, excessive consumption and regressive social attitudes.
Andrew Kloiber looks at the German Democratic Republic’s cof-
fee crisis of 1977 and its attempt to solve it via a long-term develop-
ment project in Vietnam. Kloiber’s analysis looks at both the symbolic
and material value of coffee for GDR citizens and the state. Coffee
12 H. M. BENBOW AND H. R. PERRY

was incorporated into the ruling Socialist Unity Party’s messages

about the bright socialist future built on modernity, progress and cul-
ture. Hence, when shortages led to the provision of a product that
was comprised of almost half “surrogate” ingredients, the public reac-
tion was very negative. The product evoked among consumers mem-
ories of wartime deprivation. Just as during the “hot” conflicts of the
twentieth century, this Cold War austerity impacted morale among the
“troops,” in this case the workers of the socialist state. The critique of
the Ersatz coffee served up to workers was a threat to the political legit-
imacy of the GDR. The engagement with Vietnam and the develop-
ment of its fledgling coffee industry was for the GDR part of its Cold
War political strategy as well as a solution to a domestic problem. GDR
support for Vietnam came to be known as its “Vietnam bonus” as the
global tide of opinion turned against the war. The successful cultivation
of a coffee industry in Vietnam is indicative for Kloiber that the GDR
was not a passive pawn within a broader in twentieth-century game
of globalization.
Throughout Germany’s twentieth century of conflict, food was a
means by which Germany (and the Germanies) represented itself, not
only, as Kloiber shows us so deftly, in the Cold War. Food is at all times,
but especially under the pressurized conditions of transnational conflict,
a symbolic as well as a material substance. As a substance that does dou-
ble duty, it can connect and unite people or separate and divide them.11
The chapters in this volume bear out this important observation by
showing how on the one hand food cemented strong interpersonal con-
nections, while on the other hand could be a potent point of difference.
Food formed part of the social glue that bound communities or social
groups together in times of stress. But the personal experiences of food
in Germany’s twentieth century were refracted through its deployment
as a weapon of war. Beginning with the first “total” war and the “mobi-
lization of the kitchen” described by Perry, Germany’s food supply,
consumption and representation were inextricably entwined with its mis-
adventures in large-scale international conflict throughout the century.
As central to the making and enduring of war as to rebuilding and peace,
food, drink and hunger provide a lens through which to view Germany’s
wars anew, a visceral and potent perspective on personal, collective and
transnational experiences of conflict.
1 HUNGER PANGS: THE CONTOURS OF VIOLENCE AND FOOD SCARCITY … 13

Notes
1. The two canonical studies from Mintz are Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and
Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985);
and Sidney W. Mintz, Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions into
Eating, Culture, and the Past (Boston: Beacon Press, 1997).
2. Mintz, “Food and Its Relationship to Concepts of Power,” Tasting Food,
Tasting Freedom, 25.
3. Ibid.
4. For a brief introduction to this turn, see Robert M. Citino, “Military
Histories Old and New: A Reintroduction,” American Historical Review
112, no. 4: 1070–1090.
5. See for instance the journals Food & History (Brepols) and Food
and Foodways (Taylor and Francis) and the scholarly organizations:
Association for the Study of Food and Society; the Society for the
Anthropology of Food and Nutrition; the American Folklore Society;
and the Institut Europeen d’Histoire et des Cultures de l’Alimentation
(IEHCA).
6. See, for instance, Rachel Duffett, The Stomach for Fighting: Food and
the Soldiers of the Great War (Manchester: Manchester University
Press, 2012); Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Rachel Duffett, and Alain
Drouard, Food and War in Twentieth Century Europe (Farnham, MD:
Ashgate, 2011); Frank Trentmann and Flemming Just, Food and Conflict
in Europe in the Age of the Two World Wars (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2006); Bertrand M. Patenaude, The Big Show in Bololand:
The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002); Marcelle Cinq-Mars, La cui-
sine rationnée: nourrir un peuple et une armée, 1914–1918 (Outremont,
QC: Athéna éditions, 2011); Rudolf Kučera, Rationed Life: Science,
Everyday Life and Working-Class Politics in the Bohemian Lands, 1914–
1918 (New York: Berghahn, 2016); and Hilda Kean, The Great Cat
and Dog Massacre: The Real Story of World War Two’s Unknown Tragedy
(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2017).
7. Although Mintz and Du Bois noted the general neglect of the study of
food during times of war in their 2002 review of scholarship in food stud-
ies, a few notable studies of German wartime food management have since
emerged. For their review, see Sidney W. Mintz and Christine Du Bois,
“The Anthropology of Food and Eating,” Annual Review of Anthropology
31 (2002): 99–119, 105. Studies of food in wartime Germany pub-
lished since then include Belinda J. Davis, Home Fires Burning: Food,
Politics and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin (Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press, 2000); Gesine Gerhard, Nazi Hunger Politics:
14 H. M. BENBOW AND H. R. PERRY

A History of Food in the Third Reich (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield,

2015); Other important studies with significant chapters on food in war-
time Germany are Roger Chickering, The Great War and Urban Life in
Germany: Freiburg, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2007); Alice Weinreb, Modern Hungers: Food and Power in Twentieth-
Century Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017); and Tatjana
Tönsmeyer, Peter Haslinger, and Agnes Laba, eds., Coping with Hunger
and Shortage Under German Occupation in World War II (New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
8. Until the early twenty-first century, the leading studies on food in the
First World War Germany were those by Vincent and Offer. See C.
Paul Vincent, The Politics of Hunger: The Allied Blockade of Germany,
1915–1919 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1985); and Avner
Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1989). Subsequent studies include Zweiniger-
Bargielowska et al., Food and War in Twentieth Century Europe; Davis,
Home Fires Burning; and Maureen Healy, Vienna and the Fall of
the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
9. For cultural analyses of food in Germany, see Gerhard, Nazi Hunger
Politics; Weinreb, Modern Hungers; and Corinna Treitel, Eating Nature
in Modern Germany: Food, Agriculture, and Environment, c. 1870–2000
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017). Studies with a focus
on wartime food administration and/or policy include George Yaney,
The World of the Manager: Food Administration in Berlin During World
War I (New York: Peter Lang, 1994); Keith Allen, “Sharing Scarcity:
Bread Rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914–1923,”
Journal of Social History (Winter 1998): 371–393; as well as Davis, Home
Fires Burning; Healy, Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire; and
Gerhard, Nazi Hunger Politics.
10. See Weinreb, Modern Hungers, 5. Though Treitel’s recent book offers an
excellent examination of Germany’s natural food culture, it skims only
the surface of wartime experiences. See Treitel, Eating Nature in Modern
Germany.
11. See Liza Debevec and Blanka Tivadar, “Making Connections Through
Foodways: Contemporary Issues in Anthropological and Sociological
Studies of Food,” Anthropological Notebooks 12, no. 1 (2006): 5–16, 5.
 1 HUNGER PANGS: THE CONTOURS OF VIOLENCE AND FOOD SCARCITY … 15

Bibliography
Allen, Keith. “Sharing Scarcity: Bread Rationing and the First World War in
Berlin, 1914–1923.” Journal of Social History 32 (Winter 1998): 371–393.
Chickering, Roger. The Great War and Urban Life in Germany: Freiburg, 1914–1918.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Cinq-Mars, Marcelle. La cuisine rationnée: nourrir un peuple et une armée, 1914–1918.
Outremont, QC: Athéna éditions, 2011.
Citino, Robert M. “Military Histories Old and New: A Reintroduction.”
American Historical Review 112, no. 4 (2007): 1070–1090.
Davis, Belinda J. Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics and Everyday Life in World
War I Berlin. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
Debevec, Liza, and Blanka Tivadar. “Making Connections Through Foodways:
Contemporary Issues in Anthropological and Sociological Studies of Food.”
Anthropological Notebooks 12, no. 1 (2006): 5–16.
Duffett, Rachel. The Stomach for Fighting: Food and the Soldiers of the Great War.
Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012.
Gerhard, Gesine. Nazi Hunger Politics: A History of Food in the Third Reich.
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.
Healy, Maureen. Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and
Everyday Life in World War I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Kean, Hilda. The Great Cat and Dog Massacre: The Real Story of World War Two’s
Unknown Tragedy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2017.
Kučera, Rudolf. Rationed Life: Science, Everyday Life and Working-Class Politics
in the Bohemian Lands, 1914–1918. New York: Berghahn, 2016.
Mintz, Sidney W. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History.
New York: Viking, 1985.
Mintz, Sidney W. Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions into Eating, Culture,
and the Past. Boston: Beacon Press, 1997.
Mintz, Sidney W., and Christine Du Bois. “The Anthropology of Food and
Eating.” Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002): 99–119.
Offer, Avner. The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1989.
Patenaude, Bertrand M. The Big Show in Bololand: The American Relief
Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921. Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 2002.
Tönsmeyer, Tatjana, Peter Haslinger, and Agnes Laba, eds. Coping with Hunger
and Shortage Under German Occupation in World War II. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
Treitel, Corinna. Eating Nature in Modern Germany: Food, Agriculture, and
Environment, c. 1870–2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.
16 H. M. BENBOW AND H. R. PERRY

Trentmann, Frank, and Flemming Just. Food and Conflict in Europe in the Age of
the Two World Wars. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Vincent, C. Paul. The Politics of Hunger: The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1915–1919.
Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1985.
Weinreb, Alice. Modern Hungers: Food and Power in Twentieth-Century
Germany. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
Yaney, George. The World of the Manager: Food Administration in Berlin During
World War I. New York: Peter Lang, 1994.
Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina, Rachel Duffett, and Alain Drouard. Food and War
in Twentieth Century Europe. Farnham: Ashgate, 2011.
 CHAPTER 2

Onward Kitchen Soldiers! Gender, Food

and Health in Germany’s Long Great War

Heather R. Perry

The war taught us many lessons in the field of nutrition. Before the war no
one racked their brains over the big pictures of ‘how to organize national
nutrition’ or ‘how to create the building blocks of nutrition’. However,
during the war we learned that deprivation and scarcity of food can have a
good impact for the nourishment and health of mankind.1
Berlin Mayor’s Press Address for the Nutrition Exhibit (17 December
1927)

In the spring of 1928, the city of Berlin unveiled the most ambitious
public health exposition undertaken in Germany since before the
war. Housed in the expo halls on the Kaiserdamm, the exhibit enti-
tled NUTRITION: AN EXHIBITION FOR HEALTHY AND
PRACTICAL DIET [Die Ernährung: Ausstellung für gesunde und

H. R. Perry (*)
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA

© The Author(s) 2019 17

H. M. Benbow and H. R. Perry (eds.), Food,
Culture and Identity in Germany’s Century of War,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27138-1_2
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