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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

N O V E L P O LI TI C S
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Novel Politics
Democratic Imaginations in
Nineteenth-Century Fiction

I S O B E L A R M S TRO N G

1
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3
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OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

For Cora Kaplan

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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

Acknowledgements

I have taught the nineteenth-century novel to several generations of

students on the mountain campus of the Middlebury Bread Loaf MA in
Vermont, and it is they who made this book happen. We were always
struck by the discrepancy between our perceptions of the risk and experi-
ment in the novels we read and the caution and sense of limit we found in
academic criticism—the assumption that texts must be limited either by
nineteenth-century ideologies or by disciplinary forces in the culture. The
energy and intellectual imagination my students brought to the texts made
them read otherwise. I thank them warmly for the delight and insight that
was the starting point of this book.
Novel Politics is for Cora Kaplan, who read an early draft, and whose
wisdom, generosity, and deep and demanding scholarship enabled a
rewriting when the book had reached an impasse.
I have been lucky in having challenging critics. Amanda Anderson read
an early proposal and pointed out some fundamental problems; Tyler
Curtain took me stringently through the book’s omissions at a later stage;
Josephine McDonagh suggested some material changes, and was always
on hand to question and advise. George Levine generously pointed me
towards work on Darwin. The three anonymous readers of the manuscript
offered transformative advice. Their reports were works of thinking in
their own right. The book’s shortcomings are down to me.
I owe particular thanks to Ruth Livesey and Ella Dzelzainis for allowing
me to see parts of their edited book, The American Experiment and the Idea
of Democracy (2013) in manuscript, to Emma Clery for putting me right
on illegitimacy in the eighteenth century, to David Gillott for solving a
knotty research problem and wonderful expertise, to Colin Jones for his
advice on nineteenth-century family history, to Talia Schaffer for reading
advice, to John Rignall for details of Lewes’s work, and to Toni Griffiths
for information. Warm thanks to Jeni Buckley for invaluable help with
the bibliography. The advice of friends and mentors is an indispensable
part of a book’s growth. Influential have been the late Simon Dentith,
Laura Marcus, Helen Carr, Alison Mark, Mary Hamer, and Laurel Brake
in England and Emily Bartels and Anna Henchman in America.
The unmissable annual conferences on George Eliot run by my dearest
friend the late Barbara Hardy and Louise Lee at the Institute of English
Studies over the last few years were inspirational. I gave lectures relating to
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viii Acknowledgements
this book at the universities of Loughborough, Leicester, Sheffield, Sussex,
Southampton, Oxford, and Chawton Library in England and Johns
Hopkins University in the USA. On every occasion the comments
I received were invaluable and I thank the many questioners unknown
to me for their contributions.
My nephew, Colin Burrow, shared his scholarly knowledge of the
classics and helped materially with technological expertise. My polymath
husband, the late Michael Armstrong, always came to the rescue with
information and ideas whenever I was stuck. I mourn his loss and thank
him for a lifetime of challenge and discussion. Exuberance is beauty.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

Contents

I. DEMOCRATIC IMAGINARIES
1. Genealogies 3
Introduction 3
Codifying the Arboreal Family 8
Felix Holt 16

2. Illegitimacy: Genealogy Out of Place 29

Illegitimacy and the Biopolitics of the Non-subject 29
Anthropology of the Family, Illegitimacy Laws 34
Reimagining the Category of the Human—Mary Shelley
and Darwin 41

3. ‘The Republic of my Imagination’: Democratic

Imaginations and Dialogic Print Culture 49
Symptoms of History 49
Political Polarities of Print Culture 54
De Tocqueville: Democracy in America 62
Hegel: The Philosophy of Right 66

II. PO ETICS F OR A DEMOCRATIC I MAGINATION

4. ‘Passionate Thinking’: Four Strategies for Reading 83
Four Principles of Democratic Reading 83
Case Study of the Aesthetic: The Doll’s Dressmaker 94

5. Reading for Democratic Imaginations: Inquiry, Form,

and Illegitimate Mothers 102
Inquiry as Form 102
Illegitimate Mothers: The Heart of Midlothian 104
Illegitimate Mothers: Ruth 119
Illegitimate Mothers: Esther Waters 131

6. Reading for Democratic Imaginations: Inquiry, Form,

and Illegitimate Children 141
Peripeteia 141
Illegitimate Children: Emma 144
Illegitimate Children: No Name 154
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x Contents
Illegitimate Children: Daniel Deronda—Master and Slave
and the Politics of Recognition 162
Philosophical Peripeteia 174

7. Absolutely Destitute 182

Case Study 1. Spatial Politics of Dispossession: The
Heath—Emma, Jane Eyre, Ruth, No Name 182
Case Study 2. Spatial Politics of Dispossession: The Water’s
Edge—Ruth, No Name, Daniel Deronda, Esther Waters 197

8. The Aesthetic: Representation 209

Print Culture, Simulacra, and the Politics of Representation 211
Political Landscapes Before and After the Photograph 221
Leaf Prints and Labour 228

9. The Aesthetic and Bodies: Singing, Acting, Voicing

Freedoms 236
Ballads 236
Acting and Deconstruction 240
Music and Mythopoesis 243
Coda: The Art of Unofficial Democracy 251

Conclusion: Parting Questions 254

Bibliography 265
Index 279
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PART I
DEMOCRATIC IMAGINARIES
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1
Genealogies

INTRODUCTION

This book explores the living presence of democratic imaginations in

novels of the long nineteenth century, and the way a democratic aesthetic
shapes narrative form. The democratic imaginary has been systematically
under-read. A belief that the novel indelibly registers bourgeois ideology
and morality—Franco Moretti calls the novel the symbolic form of the
bourgeois nation state—has meant that the novel’s default position has
been read as conservative and hegemonic.1 The novel’s seeming commit-
ment to realism is a related problem: Fredric Jameson believes that the
realist novel has an ‘ontological commitment to the status quo as such’.2
He writes that the cultural logic of realism ‘requires a conviction as to the
massive weight and persistence of the present as such, and an aesthetic
need to avoid recognition of deep structural social change as such and of
the deeper currents and contradictory tendencies within the social order’
(p. 281). These critiques are directed to the classic realist novel and assume
that there is such an (inevitably conservative) entity. Latterly, critiques of
neoliberal ‘compulsory democracy’, which assume democracy is a mere
front for global capital, an ally, not an opponent, of market individualism,
have consolidated these claims.3
These readings belong to a perceptible shift in criticism. Identifying the
reframing of discourse in the ‘new’ postcolonial studies of the 1990s, Neil
Lazarus noted that the history of ex-colonial states was no longer seen

1
Franco Moretti, Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900. London and New York:
Verso Books, 1998, p. 20. Throughout the book the first reference to a text is given in the
notes, with subsequent references in parentheses in the text.
2
Fredric Jameson, ‘Afterword’, in A Concise Companion to Realism, ed. Matthew Beaumont.
Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, pp. 279–89, p. 280. Jameson follows up this argument in
detail in Antinomies of Realism. London and New York: Verso Books, 2013.
3
See Simon During, Against Democracy: Literary Experience in the Era of Emancipations.
New York: Fordham University Press, 2012. During’s serious and challenging book is
joined by a larger contingent of French writers, represented in Giorgio Agamben and others,
Democracy in What State (2009), trans. William McCuaig. New York: Columbia University
Press, 2012.
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4 Novel Politics
through accounts of crisis or conflict. An ‘epochal transformation’ from
the overarching world order of ‘modernity’ to another, ‘postmodernity’,
has meant the displacement of ‘the grand narratives of emancipation and
enlightenment (including, notably, the “grand narrative” of capitalist his-
tory) [which] are not merely arguable or susceptible to criticism, but have
become definitively obsolete.’4 A ‘struggle-based’ (p. 12) model of politics
has given over to a more wary account of cultural difference and the
complexities of colonial discourse. Arguably, not merely postcolonial studies
but the whole field of criticism has become warily responsive to the
obsolescence of such grand narratives—including those critics working in
the tradition of Marxist criticism itself, those from whom I have just quoted.
A book that reads for a democratic imagination in the nineteenth-
century novel encounters an inhospitable critical environment. Neverthe-
less I aim to undo the readings characterized above. The book describes
the principles of a radical reading through a consideration of six novels of
illegitimacy. It takes up illegitimacy as a heuristic device for examining its
challenge to cultural norms, exclusion, social abjection, and perceived
inequity.5 Three novels of bearing illegitimate children and three novels
of being one are case studies in the second part of this book—Walter
Scott, The Heart of Midlothian (1818), Elizabeth Gaskell, Ruth (1853),
George Moore, Esther Waters (1894), Jane Austen, Emma (1815), Wilkie
Collins, No Name (1862), and George Eliot, Daniel Deronda (1876).6

4
Neil Lazarus, The Postcolonial Unconscious. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2011, p. 14.
5
My heuristic task has benefited from the considerable research on illegitimacy, both in
terms of historical documentation and the fictional representation of illegitimacy in nineteenth-
century novels, by Jenny Bourne Taylor and others. See Jenny Bourne Taylor, ‘Received, a
Blank Child: Charles Dickens, John Brownlow and the London Foundling Hospital—
Archives and Fictions’. Nineteenth-Century Literature, 56. 3. (2001) 293–363; ‘Bastardy and
Nationality: The Curious Case of William Shedden and the 1858 Legitimacy Act’. Cultural
and Social History, 4. 2. (2007) 171–92; ‘Bastards to the Time: Legitimacy and Legal Fiction in
Trollope’s Novels of the 1870s’, in The Politics of Gender in Anthony Trollope’s Novels, ed.
Regenia Gagnier et al. Burlington, VA and Farnham: Ashgate, 2009, pp. 45–60. See also, Alysa
Levene, Thomas Nutt, and Samantha Williams, eds., Illegitimacy in Britain 1700–1920, 3rd
edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2005; Ginger Frost, Living in Sin: Cohabiting as Husband and Wife
in Nineteenth-Century England. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2008; Margot
C. Finn, Jenny Bourne Taylor, and Michael Lobban, eds., Legitimacy and Illegitimacy in
Nineteenth-century Law, Literature and History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
6
The editions of the six novels are as follows: Walter Scott, The Heart of Midlothian, ed.
Claire Lamont. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1982; Elizabeth Gaskell,
Ruth, ed. Angus Easson. London: Penguin, 1997, rev. 2004; George Moore, Esther Waters,
ed. Hilary Laurie. London and Rutland VT: J. M. Dent, Charles E. Tuttle, 1991, rev.
1994; Jane Austen, Emma, eds. Adela Pinch and James Kinsley. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2008; Wilkie Collins, No Name, ed. Virginia Blain. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1986; George Eliot, Daniel Deronda, ed. Edmund White. New York: The Modern Library,
Random House Inc., 2002.
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Genealogies 5
Part I sets out the ways we might think about democratic imaginations
and the novel. Part II is a reading of the six novels through a poetics of
democratic imagination that is both formal and discursive.
The family is an invariant element of the novel of this era, but it is
defined through its other, illegitimacy. The family entity, dictating codes
of exclusion and entitlement, hierarchy and class, and constantly shifting
the boundaries of inclusion and exclusion, depends for its stability in civil
society on a definition of illegitimacy, by which it is underpinned. Illegit-
imacy becomes a nexus for a democratic imagination because it challenges
cultural certainties, but its significance is greater than this, as the philo-
logical history of the word demonstrates. Its reverse reflection, ‘legitim-
acy’, OED’s etymology reminds us, coming into Middle English from
Latin, is formed from lex, the law. The dictionary’s definition of ‘illegit-
imate’ (deriving from the sixteenth century) stresses this: ‘Born to parents
who are not lawfully married, not entitled in law to full filial rights.’ The
general meaning of ‘illegitimate’ is emphatically associated with the law:
‘not in accordance with or authorized by law; not in accordance with a
rule’. Not simply spurious, the illegitimate is defined as one without legal
identity, outside the law, outside heredity, a being without biological
parents. The law assumes that it can arbitrate over biology, when in fact
the law and biology are not parallel systems, but it ensures that illegitimacy
is always an irritant to itself and its systems. Nevertheless the law is
powerful enough to render the illegitimate an outsider and by extension
stateless, a non-subject. The illegitimate body belongs to no one, has no
roots. Thus illegitimacy and the radical—that which cuts to the root of
things, reconceptualizes roots—come together as a challenge to the demo-
cratic imagination. It has to think through the claims of the illegitimate ab
initio, going to the extreme limit of social space to do so and even to the
limits of species being. For once you are placed outside the law your status
as a fully human being can be questioned.
The law complicated this status further in the nineteenth century: it
abandoned the illegitimate to legal non-being and at one and the same
time exercised a coercive definition of its subjecthood. After the new Poor
Law of 1834, the illegitimate mother could no longer claim financial
support from the father on the grounds of paternity—paternity always
being uncertain—and instead the new law ruled that economic relief for
the mother must be assigned to the parish of her birth.7 It was a blow both
for and against patriarchal power. For, because it released the father from

7
For an astute account of the post-1834 standing of illegitimacy and its implications for
the culture as a whole, see Irene Tucker, A Probable State: The Novel, the Contract, and the
Jews. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2000, pp. 108–13.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

6 Novel Politics
responsibility for his casually conceived offspring; against, because it
erased him. In so far as the mother was solely responsible for the child
deemed self-evidently hers, this ruling endorsed matrilineal power; in so
far as it forced her into social and legal isolation it created a new kind of
category of negative matrilineality. Though Thomas Malthus seems
uncharacteristically generous to the illegitimate mother, marking the
gender-driven injustice that ensures that a woman may be ‘almost driven
from society for an offence which men commit nearly with impunity’, he
was quick to point out that the ‘offence’ of illegitimacy meant that the
woman and her children must ‘fall upon the society for support’.8 As for
the illegitimate child, in the second volume of Principles of Population he
insisted that ‘after the proper notice has been given, they should on no
account whatever be allowed to have any claim to parish assistance . . . The
infant is, comparatively speaking, of no value to the society’ (vol. 2,
p. 141). This was amended to ‘little value’ in 1806, a change that makes
little difference. If the child was deemed to have parents at all, that parent
was its literally de-graded mother. It was severed from its birthplace, with
no roots in a locality, uprooted both biologically and topographically. This
outsider status, a double outsider status for mother and child, is why
illegitimacy in the novel was for writers and is for us as readers a test case
for radical thinking.
What does democratic imagination mean in this context? John Dewey
described democracy as ‘more than a form of government; it is primarily a
mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience . . . the
widening of the area of shared concerns, and the liberation of a greater
diversity of personal capacities’.9 Pragmatism’s Hegelian heritage, and
Dewey’s seeming tendency to naturalize democracy as a form of life
without political foundations, have earned him some sceptical readings.
The usefulness of his formulation is that it points to an egalitarian way of
life that implicitly refuses the taxonomy of legitimate and illegitimate. But
it also points to a problem that I have to confront my readers with from
the start. When uncoupled from its strict political meaning, the achieve-
ment of a universal franchise, the semantics of ‘democratic’ are unspecific.
It is nevertheless the best word I can find. It may seem inappropriate to a
century where full democracy was never achieved, and whose leading
intellectuals—Carlyle, Mill, Arnold—it is only too well known, resisted

8
T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (1803), ed. Patricia James.
London: 1989, vol. 1, p.324.
9
John Dewey, Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan, 1916. Quoted by
Mary Emma Harris, The Arts at Black Mountain College. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1987, p. xx.
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Genealogies 7
the franchise. But as will be seen, I am not writing of novels whose politics
are restricted to the franchise. I am speaking of the ‘democratic’ in a wider
sense that collocates a number of meanings that on their own would be
insufficient—egalitarian, radical, a life in common, comprehending an
inclusive human species being. Its negative connotations are equally
important: refusal of hierarchy and authoritarianism, repudiation of
what I will later term the deficit subject, the subject that falls outside
accounts of the fully human, consigned to bare life. A democratic imagin-
ation emerges through praxis in novels, through the capacity to image
states and conditions, not through discursive definition. The common
good, what it means to be human in the company of others, are concepts
democracy strives to define. The meaning of democracy is always in
process. It is an open term, perpetually demanding a new content.
Inevitably ‘democratic’ risks a fiduciary element when it enters expos-
itional language just as it risks essentialism. Despite this risk I am com-
mitted to it and to the need for testing out the integrity of its meaning in
different contexts. As we know, democratic societies can always commit
atrocities; but the democratic ideal remains a creative possibility. Recently
Simon During produced an impressive taxonomy of six forms of conser-
vatism, and argued that ‘Particular ideas or values are not conservative by
nature; they are conservative as historically situated and intended.’ He
adds that conservatism’s ‘structural tendency is to support hegemony’.10
This suggests that locating a conservative text involves reading for hegem-
ony as much as attending to the historical situatedness of the text. By the
same token locating a democratic text means frankly reading for the anti-
hegemonic. And reading for a democratic imagination acknowledges
Adorno’s principle: ‘The greatness of works of art lies solely in their
power to let those things be heard which ideology conceals’.11
A democratic imagination initiates a critical inquiry that belongs
equally to the themes and to the poetics of the novel, where it is possible
to see a social imaginary working formally and discursively. The corollary
of this argument is that the novel of the long nineteenth century is deeply
experimental. To attempt to discover a democratic aesthetic in the expli-
citly ‘political’ novel is to look in the wrong place, for two reasons: first,
the modern category of ‘social problem’ too often preordains a limited
thematic reading that iterates the conservative default model; second, the

10
Simon During, Against Democracy. Literary Experience in the Era of Emancipations.
New York: Fordham University Press, 2012, p. 45.
11
Theodore Adorno, ‘Lyric Poetry and Society’, in Critical Theory and Society: A Reader,
ed. Stephen Eric Bronner and Douglas MacKay Kellner. New York and London: Routledge,
1989, pp. 155–71, p. 157.
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8 Novel Politics
historical nineteenth-century writer was often hostile to the ballot, and the
mechanics of the ballot are not where political energy lies. As a starting
point the place to look is the prevalence of genealogy in the novel of this
time. Why genealogy? Because it is about the law of exclusion. It is
committed to hierarchy. It turns on the law. It is governed by the status
of biological descent rigidly defined, by roots. Genealogy is established
through the law of the father and implicitly on the transmission not only
of biological identity but also of property, frequently designated as own-
ership of land. Nevertheless the genealogical imperative in the British
novel of the long nineteenth century is extraordinarily self-conscious and
deconstructive in its awareness of the protocols of inclusion and exclusion,
of the new codifications of lineage, privilege, and class in print culture’s
encyclopaedias of the aristocracy, and of the old Enlightenment project of
determining affiliative roots, wedded increasingly with a Darwinian read-
ing of inherited characteristics. To question genealogy is to question the
law, the lex on which it is founded, and thus a whole value system and
relations of power.

CODIFYING THE ARBOREAL FAMILY

‘throw up your chin a moment . . . ’

Family genealogies outside the novel are elaborate exercises in construction,
organized as they are round the male line and primogeniture. They are a
product of artifice. To construct a genealogy in fiction must involve an
understanding of the fictiveness of genealogy itself. It must be a constructive
and a deconstructive project, for to construct not a historical but an imagined
family tree is to be sharply aware of the legal, social, and economic rules and
protocol, past and present, governing not only primogeniture but class, status,
entitlement, and exclusion. To construct may be to collude, but it must
always be an act of extreme self-consciousness. The arboreal model of family
itself comes into question. Genealogy in fiction hints, overtly or covertly, at
scepticism about social hierarchy, family lineage, and the permanence of the
law, and both exposes and imagines the codes of inclusion and entitlement
that generate exclusion. Postmodernism has taken the arboreal model to an
ironic extreme, assuming the whole meaning of a novel is its genealogy, in the
Romanzo Historico (1974) of Carla Vasio and Enzo Mari, a novel entirely
constructed as a family tree.12 But its antecedents are the sceptical and
deconstructive genealogies of the nineteenth-century novel.

12
Carla Vasio and Enzo Mari, Romanzo Historico. Milan: Milano Libri Edizione, 1974.
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Genealogies 9
Sooner or later the narrator lets the reader know the genealogy of his or
her main characters. Here are two examples that occur right at the start of
novels from the end and the beginning of the century respectively. ‘Throw
up your chin a moment, so that I can catch the profile of your face better.
Yes, that’s the D’Urbeville nose and chin—a little debased.’ In one of the
most self-conscious acts of genealogy-making, Hardy, at the end of the
century, treated the conventions of a long tradition of antiquarian research
into family origins with open irony. He begins the first chapter of Tess of
the D’Urbevilles (1891) with an extensive genealogical initiation: a scholar
clergyman and amateur philologist tells John Durbeyfield he is ‘the lineal
representative of the ancient and knightly family of the “D’Urbevilles”’,
who go back to the Norman conquest: though its inherited characteristics
are now ‘debased’.13 The myth of degeneracy goes hand in hand with the
notion of ‘pure’ lineage—hence the wry force of Tess as a ‘pure’ woman.
The tragedy unfolds from there. For the hypothetical affiliation of the
Durbeyfields with ‘Sir Pagan D’Urbeville, that renowned knight who
came from Normandy with William the Conqueror’ (p. 13), is not
incidental to the plot, though the clergyman shrugs off his information
as ‘useless’. Hardy makes the germ of the tragedy lie in the obsession of
certain forms of nineteenth-century historicism and linguistic research
with ‘tracing back’, with roots, and the model of the arboreal family
tree. He exposes its essential illogic. If widely dispersed affiliations are
eligible as ‘family’, when do relations of affinity terminate? When do we
effectively cut them off ? The brutal answer is, when poverty takes over.
The root of the tragedy is in its concern with the legal fiction of roots.14
Such genealogical irony is just as evident at the beginning of the
century, where one might expect less scepticism. Jane Austen offers
information immediately in Mansfield Park (1814): ‘About thirty years
ago, Miss Maria Ward of Huntingdon, with only seven thousand pounds,
had the good luck to captivate Sir Thomas Bertram, of Mansfield Park, in
the county of Northampton, and to be thereby raised to the rank of a
baronet’s lady’.15 That ‘good luck’ deconstructs in just two words both
aristocratic lineal entitlement and meritocracy as a basis for privilege.
Genealogies call up whole power structures and formations. When, later
in the novel, we come to the realization that Sir Thomas is a slave owner

13
Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D’Urbevilles, ed. Simon Gatrell. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1988, chapter 1, p. 14.
14
See Hans Aarsleff, The Study of Language in England. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1967; Stephen G. Alter, Darwinism and the Linguistic Image: Language, Race, and
Natural Theology in the Nineteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
15
Jane Austen, Mansfield Park, ed. Kathryn Sutherland. London: Penguin Books, 2000,
chapter 1, p. 5.
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10 Novel Politics
on his Antigua estate, retrospectively the ‘luck’ of marrying into wealth
and status takes on an even sharper political and legal edge. We wonder
about the shallowness of this new slave-owning wealth, its pretence of
heredity: what were Sir Thomas’s antecedents? All we know is that his
activities have been sanctioned by a—new?—baronetcy. Significantly his
house is ‘modern built’, a fashionable Palladian construction, we assume,
testifying to recently acquired status.
The genealogical imperative receives bracing deconstructive mockery in
Thackeray’s account of an aristocratic pedigree. Lord Steyne’s monster
pedigree in Vanity Fair (1848) gleefully lists the empty functions on which
his ancien régime aristocratic capital is based. A depthless, scintillating
array of mere names undermines his claims—a Whig myth of descent—to
belong to an organic history dating from the Druids. Here the Steyne
genealogy is a series of titles, where entitlement is tautologically invested in
titles. These are not a chain of signifiers but a discontinuous list that
reiterates power:
. . . the Most Honourable George Gustavus, Marquis of Steyne, Earl of Gaunt
and of Gaunt Castle, in the Peerage of Ireland, Viscount Hellborough, Baron
Pitchly and Grillsby, a Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, of the
Golden Fleece of Spain, of the Russian Order of Saint Nicholas of the First
Class, of the Turkish Order of the Crescent, First Lord of the Powder Closet
and Groom of the Back Stairs, Colonel of the Gaunt or Regent’s Own
Regiment of Militia, a Trustee of the British Museum, an Elder Brother of
the Trinity House, a Governor of the White Friars and D.C.L.16
Thackeray, like Hardy, is mordantly aware that the credentials of lineage
are the preserve of upper class groups (though punningly the Most
Honourable Gustavus propagates a stain on family history that goes
unnoticed by the upholders of privilege). Thackeray was more than
aware of that prestigious codification of aristocratic lineage, Burke’s Peerage,
initiated in 1826 by John Burke. Vanity Fair refers to Burke and twice
to his predecessor and rival, Debrett, whose records derived from John
Almon’s The New Peerage of 1769. Such pretentious documentation is also
sinister in this text: Sir Pitt Crawley as Baronet is entitled to wear the ‘blood-
red hand’ (9, p. 123) on the escutcheon of his coat of arms, a reminder that
the category of baronet originated in bloodshed and the necessity to raise
money for war in Ulster. Debrett’s was an elite manual for the privileged,
but Burke’s labour of genealogical documentation was ceaseless: he went
beyond the aristocracy to codify that lesser group of gentry that fell just

16
William Makepiece Thackeray, Vanity Fair, ed. J. I. M. Stewart. Harmondsworth:
Penguin Books, 1968, chapter 64, p. 753.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

Genealogies 11
below hereditary entitlement. He embarked on A genealogical and heraldic
history of the commoners of Great Britain and Ireland enjoying territorial
possessions or high official rank, but uninvested with heritable honours
(1833–8), a work that continued to be updated to the 1960s. He also
edited The Patrician: A monthly journal of history, genealogy, antiquities,
heraldry. His son, Sir Bernard Burke, continued the work of exclusive
social taxonomy with A genealogical and heraldic history of the landed
gentry of Great Britain (1886). The earliest genealogical society was
actually American, the New England Historic Genealogical Society,
founded in 1845. English genealogists preferred to document the elite,
such as Walford’s County Families (1860). This zeal for documenting
family privilege was clearly part of a general movement of codification
that saw the first Census of Great Britain take place in 1801. However,
the Burke records were a new nineteenth-century project of hierarchy
and exclusion, a new form of genealogical law-making. It is significant
that this intensification of the codification of the aristocracy happened
at the time when the agitation for political reform that culminated in
the Reform Act of 1832 was under way.
The supreme fiction of aristocratic genealogy is one thing. Details of
family, fortune, and descent appear, less dramatically than in the examples
here, but no less certainly in virtually all fictional texts of the period
documenting upper and middle class family. The act of construction
and the act of questioning run parallel. We hear from Trollope on the
first page of He Knew He Was Right (1869) that Louis Trevelyan had
married Emily Rowley, daughter of Sir Marmaduke, governor of the
fictitious tropical Mandarin islands, who at fifty possessed an income
(and eight daughters) no larger than the £3,000 a year his twenty-four-
year-old son-in-law could realize on his inherited wealth. It is Trollope
who exposes the functions of genealogy when one of his personae, Mr
Wharton, in The Prime Minister (1876) speaks of Ferdinand Lopez, a
character whose origins are unknown, as a man without ‘belongings’.17 He
does not mean ‘belongings’ as property, but the record of birth and
affiliation that affirms your legal and social status. Your genealogy
‘belongs’ to you and shows others where you belong. Without its guar-
antee of family history you have no identity or standing.
Thus, as important as the provenance, status, and wealth of such
figures, is the fact that they belong to a recognized history of biological
law. The politics of genealogy are subtle: George Eliot is careful to relate
that Dorothea, in Middlemarch (1872) is descended from a ‘Puritan

17
Anthony Trollope, The Prime Minister, ed. David Skilton. London: Penguin Books,
2004, chapter 5, p. 44.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

12 Novel Politics
gentleman who served under Cromwell’, not only registering the
unusually intense social feeling that Dorothea expresses, and that a mod-
ern reader might miss, but also making sure of a gendered understanding.
Women are ‘lineal’ descendents as well as men.18 Daniel Deronda is
uncomfortably aware of the Mallinger family tree from a boy, uncertain
of his part in it, an illuminated document that is brought out to show off
the longstanding aristocratic Mallinger lineage when Grandcourt and
Gwendolen visit. Genealogies in the novel register almost impersonally
criteria for expanding or contracting the limits of social inclusion and are
sensitive to the nuances of groups and formations and the changing
configurations of class hierarchy. Sir Marmaduke belongs to a new profes-
sional bureaucracy invested in colonial governance, and Dorothea is affili-
ated to a proud minority tradition of Puritan gentry-republicans reaching
back to the Civil War. It is no wonder she castigates her wealthy compat-
riots (with radical feeling rarely taken seriously either by her fictional
contemporaries or by readers) for living complacently in their ‘great houses’,
from which they should be whipped (p. 31).19 Daniel Deronda’s Sir Hugo
Mallinger, on the other hand, is a Whig grandee, a formation conspicuous
in nineteenth-century fiction. These fictional characters’ understanding of
social experience, class, and status, is often determined by the ways they can
see beyond their own conditions—or not. Mallinger, over-confident but in
some respects correct, is convinced, for instance, that political reform will
not substantially change the aristocratic and elite class structures of England
or make a ‘serious difference’ to them.20
If characters do not belong to such established groups their place in
provincial life is carefully localized. The lineage of Elizabeth Gaskell’s ‘fallen’
woman in Ruth (1853) is an example. Significantly this is a matrilineal
account. ‘Ruth’s mother had been the daughter of a poor curate in Norfolk,
and, early left without parents or home, she was thankful to marry a
respectable farmer a good deal older than herself ’.21 As Ruth’s mother slips
down the social scale in the move from being the daughter of a professional
man and gentleman to becoming the wife of a country farmer, so Ruth slips
further, in less than a generation, by joining the labouring poor and becom-
ing a seamstress on the deaths of her parents. The precariousness of class and
status and its material power to order lives is poignantly understood.

18
George Eliot, Middlemarch, ed. Rosemary Ashton. London: Penguin Books,
2003, chapter 1, p. 7.
19
Thanks to Barbara Hardy for reminding me of Dorothea’s vehemence.
20
George Eliot, Daniel Deronda, ed. Edmund White. New York: The Modern Library,
Random House Inc., 2002, chapter 69, p. 721.
21
Elizabeth Gaskell, Ruth, ed. Angus Easson. London: Penguin Books, 2004, chapter 3,
p. 33.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

Genealogies 13
The point of emphasizing the genealogical imperative in the novel is
that genealogy enables us to probe details of origin that have been set up
with purposive deconstructive design. Genealogy is the place in the novel
that exposes origins and indeed the myth of origins in such a way that one
cannot say that ideology is going on behind the novel’s back. What we
encounter is a sharply critical self-consciousness where class and status are
reimagined. It is where we will find the self-conscious markers of a
democratic imagination. It is where the notion of a default conservatism
has to be substantially complicated and revised.
There are two ways in which the genealogical imperative manifests itself
in the novel: direct and indirect. Sometimes writers introduce problems of
class and privilege openly: Trollope’s Cousin Henry (1879) deals frankly
with the contradictions and artifice of primogeniture. But many novelists
leave details to be deduced, often exposing a dubious entitlement or
problematic family history that points to the precariousness of the social
order and its constructedness. In contrast to Mansfield Park, Austen uses
the indirect deployment of genealogical matter in Emma (1815). We hear
that Emma is handsome, clever, and rich, but later that the Hartfield
estate is a small ‘notch’ in the Donwell land. From this we deduce the
relative brevity of the Hartfield family’s ownership of wealth, and its
possibly dubious and parvenu origins in comparison with the longstand-
ing history of the Tory landowning Knightleys—in the non-stop com-
mentary that initiates her acquaintance with Emma, the upstart Mrs Elton
remarks that both her own sister’s Maple Grove and Emma’s abode are
‘modern’ houses, which doesn’t augur well. The grounds of Emma’s
genealogical snobbery and her eugenic commitment to ‘blood’ become
curiously problematical. After her hysterical response to Elton’s proposal
of marriage, adding the taint of trade to its insult, her fear of sexuality, of
her own and others, hides behind a sense of entitlement that becomes
suspect and euphemistically uncertain: though the Woodhouse fortune
does not come from ‘landed property’, Emma tells herself, in a revealing
moment of free indirect discourse, they have been settled in Hartfield for
‘several generations’ (number unspecified), they are of ‘a very ancient
family’ (how ancient unspecified), with an income not from land but
‘from other sources’ (unspecified).22 If an income did not originate in land
in the early nineteenth century, it is hard to see where else it could have
come from except from inward trade or outward trade with the colonies.
Some critics characterize this income as stocks and bonds, but stocks and
bonds have simply transformed the vulgar income derived ultimately from

22
Jane Austen, Emma, eds. Adela Pinch and James Kinsley. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2008, chapter 16, p. 108.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

14 Novel Politics
trade into a more distant form of it. To whom do those words, ‘hand-
some’, ‘clever’, ‘rich’, belong? Are they the internalized vocabulary of
privilege to which Emma has been early acculturated? In any case, they
cannot remain unquestioned.
Family history is bound up ideologically with the broader movement of
history. In a very different novel, Wuthering Heights (1847) the same
indirectness is at work, but we can still deduce a significant genealogy
for the Earnshaw family. Lockwood, the fact-gathering urban outsider
who fancies himself as an amateur anthropologist, visits Wuthering
Heights. He sees the date, ‘1500’, over the door of the farm-house, and
‘grotesque’ carvings of griffins and ‘shameless’ (illegitimate?) little boys in
its stone lintel, with the name, ‘Hareton Earnshaw’ inscribed there.23 The
year 1500 takes the Earnshaw family back to the reign of Henry VII, and
to the establishment of Tudor power after the Wars of the Roses. It’s even
possible that the origin of the (presumably Yorkshire) Heights was a grant
of land awarded for a part in this conflict. Perhaps the Earnshaws earned
something. Emily Brontë places the Heights at the junction of two great
historical upheavals, these wars, and the coming of Protestant England
under Henry VIII. The ‘shameless’ carvings that clearly make Lockwood
uncomfortable about his sexuality are not remnants of medieval iconog-
raphy: early modern putti were part of the influx of renaissance art into
England at this time, a movement that continued into the Elizabethan era.
Emily Brontë’s accurate, though slightly early placing of putti in this
location, suggests that she knew of the revival of putti through what is
sometimes termed the Victorian renaissance revival.24 The 300-year-old
Earnshaw family was once cultured and upwardly mobile, it seems, but now
its isolation has forced it in upon itself, though always with libido and
aggression to spare. Its ossification as a farming family without the entrepre-
neurial talent of the rentier practices of Thrushcross Grange has declassed it.
Its introversion makes it a prey to another cultural phenomenon of mod-
ernity, romantic love, and the compensatory hubris of the romantic subject
that creates its own terms for existing in the social world. The carvings, stone
remnants from another era, point to an enduringly ‘shameless’ erotic

23
Emily Brontë, Wuthering Heights, ed. David Daiches. London: Penguin Books,
1985, chapter 1, p. 46.
24
The putto, revived in quattrocento art, arrived in England as part of the so-called
Northern Renaissance in approximately 1500, and interest in putti reappeared in the
nineteenth-century revival of renaissance art. See Charles Dempsey, Inventing the Renais-
sance Putto. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. See also Hilary
Fraser, The Victorians and Renaissance Italy. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 1992; Katherine
Wheeler, Victorian Perceptions of Renaissance Architecture. Aldershot and Burlington VT:
Ashgate, 2014.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/10/2016, SPi

Genealogies 15
unconscious at Wuthering Heights, where romantic love depends on pos-
session, on being possessed, and on possession of the other. Passional
possession and material possession become hopelessly entangled.
Emily Brontë’s historical and political insight is so deeply and pro-
foundly embedded in her text, and so indirectly, that its implications and
indirectness require teasing out. This embeddedness appropriately rounds
off these detailed examples of the genealogical imperative because the
critique of the law of exclusion engaged by the democratic imagination
occurs in this narratologically embodied way. It is immanent. The demo-
cratic imagination comes into being through praxis. It is a critical project:
it does not pursue a finite agenda or preordained plan. Yet it is sustained
by a purposive imagining of the constructed fragility of social forms and
how they could be otherwise.
Unwillingness to read this kind of indirectness and its purposiveness is
the reason why the genealogical imperative and the centrality of the family
to the novel is frequently seen as a limiting factor, a concern with domestic
values that is taken as evidence of the conservative default mode, an elite
middle class idiom. An extreme form of such criticism has aligned the
novel with an Englishness that is in identity with the nation and an
ideology of power and hierarchy on the assumption that the family
affiliations and credentials so carefully mapped in fiction are a microcosm
of the nation state and its authority. In turn the nation state comes to be
envisaged as an extended family. We have seen Franco Moretti’s reading of
the novel: for Terry Eagleton the novel is the literary form most typical of
the bourgeois culture that is both agent and shaper of the nation state.25
(Moretti and Eagleton have been joined by more open critics who are re-
reading the working class novel, and who see mainstream fictions as
canonical, realist, and middle class.)26 These critics belong to a strong
tradition of Marxist criticism and take up what can fairly be expected to be
a predetermined position. Yet in his impressive Nation and Novel (2006),
even such a subtle and less aligned critic as Patrick Parrinder is inclined
to bring the novel and its family themes under the rubric of the
nation state: taking up Benedict Anderson’s model of the imagined
community, he writes that ‘if the novel is a representation of an imagined
community, then so, as many recent writers have argued, are our ideas of

25
A view best represented in Terry Eagleton’s Heathcliff and the Great Hunger. Oxford:
Wiley, 1995.
26
See in particular Ian Haywood, Working Class Fiction (Writers and their Work).
Tavistock: Northcote House Press, 1996; Ellen Bayuk Rosenman, ‘The Virtue of Illegitimacy:
Inheritance and Belonging in The Dark Woman and Mary Price’, in G. W. M. Reynolds:
Nineteenth-Century Fiction, Politics, and the Press, eds. Anne Humphreys, Louis James.
Aldershot and Burlington VT: Ashgate, 2008, pp. 213–26.
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