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THE CAMBRIDGE COMPANION TO FILM
MUSIC

This wide-ranging and thought-provoking collection of specially

commissioned essays provides a uniquely comprehensive overview
of the many and various ways in which music functions in film
soundtracks. Citing examples from a variety of historical periods,
genres and film industries – including those of the USA, UK, France,
Italy, India and Japan – the book’s contributors are all leading
scholars and practitioners in the field. They engage, sometimes
provocatively, with numerous stimulating aspects of the history,
theory and practice of film music in a series of lively discussions
which will appeal as much to newcomers to this fascinating subject
as to seasoned film-music aficionados. Innovative research and fresh
interpretative perspectives are offered alongside practice-based
accounts of the film composer’s distinctive art, with examples cited
from genres as contrasting as animation, the screen musical, film
noir, Hollywood melodrama, the pop-music and jazz film,
documentary, period drama, horror, science fiction and the western.

PROFESSOR MERVYN COOKE teaches film music, jazz, twentieth-

century music and composition at the University of Nottingham. He
has edited The Cambridge Companion to Benjamin Britten (1999),
The Cambridge Companion to Jazz (2002, co-edited with David
Horn) and The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-Century Opera
(2005). He has also published A History of Film Music (Cambridge
University Press, 2008) and The Hollywood Film Music Reader
(2010), and co-edited volumes 3–6 of Letters from a Life: The
Selected Letters of Benjamin Britten (2004–2012).

DR FIONA FORD completed her doctoral thesis on The Film Music of

Edmund Meisel (1894–1930) at the University of Nottingham and
has wide experience of researching contemporaneous original scores
for silent film and early scores for sound films. She has written a
book chapter on Edmund Meisel for The Sounds of the Silents in
Britain: Voice, Music and Sound in Early Cinema Exhibition (2012,
ed. Julie Brown and Annette Davison) and a chapter on The Wizard
of Oz for Melodramatic Voices: Understanding Music Drama (2011,
ed. Sarah Hibberd).
 T HE C A MBR I D G E
C OMP A N I ON T O F I LM
MUSI C
Edited by

Mervyn Cooke
and

Fiona Ford
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the

pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international
levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107094512

© Cambridge University Press 2016

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any
part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University
Press.

First published 2016

Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cooke, Mervyn. | Ford, Fiona.

The Cambridge companion to film music / edited by Mervyn Cooke and

Fiona Ford.
 Cambridge, United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press, [2016] |

Includes bibliographical references and index.

LCCN 2016026629 | ISBN 9781107094512

LCSH: Motion picture music – History and criticism.

LCC ML2075 .C3545 2016 | DDC 781.5/42–dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016026629

ISBN 978-1-107-09451-2 Hardback

ISBN 978-1-107-47649-3 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in
this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
In memory of

Sergio Miceli

1944–2016
 Contents
List of Figures
List of Music Examples
List of Tables
Notes on Contributors
Acknowledgements

Introduction
Mervyn Cooke and Fiona Ford

Part One Making Film Music

1 Evolving Practices for Film Music and Sound, 1925–

1935
James Buhler and Hannah Lewis

2 ‘Pictures That Talk and Sing’: Sound History and

Technology
David Cooper

3 The Composer and the Studio: Korngold and Warner

Bros.
Ben Winters

4 Can’t Buy Me Love? Economic Imperatives and Artistic

Achievements in the British Pop-Music Film
 Stephen Glynn

5 ‘A Film’s First Audience’: The Composer’s Role in Film

and Television
George Fenton in conversation with Mervyn Cooke

Part Two Approaching Film Music

6 Film-Music Theory
Guido Heldt

7 Studying Film Scores: Working in Archives and with

Living Composers
Kate Daubney

8 Returning to Casablanca
Peter Franklin

9 Parental Guidance Advised? Mash-Ups and Mating

Penguins in Happy Feet
Fiona Ford

10 Materializing Film Music

Miguel Mera

Part Three Genre and Idiom

11 Film Noir and Music

 David Butler

12 Another Other History of Jazz in the Movies

Krin Gabbard

13 Horror and Science Fiction

Stan Link

14 The Western
Robynn J. Stilwell

15 The Music of Screen Musicals

Caryl Flinn

16 ‘Britannia – The Musical’: Scores, Songs and

Soundtracks in British Animation
Paul Wells

Part Four Music in World Cinemas

17 Leone, Morricone and the Italian Way to Revisionist

Westerns
Sergio Miceli

18 Music, Noise and Silence in the Late Cinema of Jean-

Luc Godard
Danae Stefanou
 19 Hans Werner Henze and The Lost Honour of
Katharina Blum
Annette Davison

20 Tōru Takemitsu’s Collaborations with Masahiro

Shinoda: The Music for Pale Flower, Samurai Spy and
Ballad of Orin
Timothy Koozin

21 Welcome to Kollywood: Tamil Film Music and Popular

Culture in South India
Mekala Padmanabhan

Works Cited
Reference Index of Films and Television Programmes
General Index
 Figures
2.1 35 mm film with optical soundtrack (a), a close-up of a
portion of the variable-area soundtrack (b), a close-up of a
portion of the variable-density soundtrack (c) and a
simplified schematic view of a variable-area recorder from
the late 1930s (d), based on Figure 11 from L. E. Clark and
John K. Hilliard, ‘Types of Film Recording’ (1938, 28). Note
that there are four sprocket holes on each frame.

2.2 The Maltese Cross or Geneva mechanism.

2.3 A simplified block diagram of the Fantasound system

(after Figure 2 in Garity and Hawkins 1941). PC indicates
photocell, PA power amplifier and VGA variable-gain
amplifier.

2.4 A simplified diagram of the Dolby Stereo system. On the

left side are the four source channels, in the centre are the
two film soundtracks derived from them and on the right are
the four output channels played in the cinema.

2.5 Punched holes in the optical soundtrack. The punch in

frame A is at the top of the frame, the punch in frame B is at
the 3/8 frame position. Numbers at the left-hand side of the
frame indicate the frame position for punches. (Note that the
film is travelling downwards, so the numbering is from the
bottom of the frame upwards.)

2.6 Schematic illustration of the visual cue known as a

streamer, shown running over nine frames.
2.7 Ian Sapiro’s model of the overall processes associated
with film scoring as a decision matrix.

3.1 Detail from Erich Wolfgang Korngold’s score to The Sea

Wolf, cue 4A. © WB MUSIC CORP. (ASCAP). All Rights
Reserved. Reproduced by kind permission of Alfred Music
(on behalf of Warner Bros.).

3.2 Detail from Korngold’s score to Kings Row, cue 1D. ©

WB MUSIC CORP. (ASCAP). All Rights Reserved. Reproduced
by kind permission of Alfred Music (on behalf of Warner
Bros.).

3.3 Detail from Korngold’s score to Kings Row, cue 1E. ©

WB MUSIC CORP. (ASCAP). All Rights Reserved. Reproduced
by kind permission of Alfred Music (on behalf of Warner
Bros.).

4.1 A Hard Day’s Night: ‘We’re out!’ The British pop-music

film’s liberation from imitative diegetic performance.

8.1 Sheet-music cover (c. 1943) of Herman Hupfeld’s 1931

song ‘As Time Goes By’ (Chappell & Co. Ltd). Reproduced by
permission of Faber Music Ltd.

9.1 Happy Feet: the penguins make a heart-shaped

formation around Norma Jean and Memphis.

9.2 Happy Feet: Norma Jean and Memphis bring their beaks
together, forming a heart shape.

16.1 ‘Private Bonzo’, about to escape from jail in Tanked, c.

1925.

16.2 The Cultured Ape: the simian who likes to play minuets
and jigs on his flute. (Score by Mátyás Seiber.)
17.1 Stylistic tripartion in the music of Ennio Morricone.

19.1 The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum: the original tone-

row (‘A’) and its inversion in Hans Werner Henze’s
manuscript sketch. Reprinted with the kind permission of
Hans Werner Henze and the Paul Sacher Foundation.

21.1 Typical structure of Tamil film songs.

21.2 Ramesh Vinayakam’s recording session for Ramanujan

(2014) at Bauer Studios, Germany.
 Music Examples
10.1 Score reduction/representation, Popcorn Superhet
Receiver, bars 37–9. Music by Jonny Greenwood © 2005.
Rights administered worldwide by Faber Music Ltd, London
WC1B 3DA. Reproduced by permission of the publishers. All
rights reserved.
10.2 Smear, bars 9–16. Music by Jonny Greenwood © 2004.
Rights administered worldwide by Faber Music Ltd, London
WC1B 3DA. Reproduced by permission of the publishers. All
rights reserved.
10.3 ‘Overtones’ from 48 Responses to Polymorphia, bars
22–9, fluttery textures and bitter-sweet harmonies. Music by
Jonny Greenwood © 2011. Rights administered worldwide
by Faber Music Ltd, London WC1B 3DA. Reproduced by
permission of the publishers. All rights reserved.
14.1 Opening ‘Indian’ theme from Cimarron.
14.2a Opening melody from Stagecoach.
14.2b ‘Bury Me Not on the Lone Prairie’.
14.2c ‘I’m an Old Cowhand from the Rio Grande’ from
Rhythm on the Range.
17.1 ‘Titoli’ melody from Per un pugno di dollari (A Fistful of
Dollars).
17.2 Electric-guitar variant of ‘Titoli’ material.
17.3 Chorus bridge in ‘Titoli’.
17.4 Contrapuntal texture in ‘Titoli’.
17.5 Jew’s harp passage from Per qualche dollaro in più (For
a Few Dollars More).
17.6 ‘La resa dei conti’ (‘The big gundown’) from Per
qualche dollaro in più.
17.7 Pocket-watch chime from Per qualche dollaro in più.
17.8 ‘Il buono’ (opening titles) from Il buono, il brutto, il
cattivo (The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly).
17.9 Electric-guitar segment from ‘Il buono’.
17.10 Cemetery music from Il buono, il brutto, il cattivo.
20.1 Rhythmic patterns in the dealer’s vocalization in Pale
Flower.
20.2 Wind dissonance from Pale Flower.
20.3 Bossa-nova cue from Samurai Spy.
21.1 Ramesh Vinayakam, ‘Viṇkaṭanta jōtiyāy’, bars 20–7. ©
2014 by Ramesh Vinayakam. Used by permission.
21.2 Ramesh Vinayakam, ‘Viṇkaṭanta jōtiyāy’, bars 44–51.
© 2014 by Ramesh Vinayakam. Used by permission.
21.3 Ramesh Vinayakam, ‘One to Zero’, bars 1–8. © 2014
by Ramesh Vinayakam. Used by permission.
 Tables
2.1 A section of an edit decision list (EDL).

2.2 Timing sheet for cues in an imaginary film.

4.1 Chart run-down: the Top Ten musical sequences in the

British pop-music film.

9.1 Transcript of the first mating sequence and song sources

in Happy Feet.

9.2 Transcript of the second mating sequence and song

sources in Happy Feet.

17.1 Analysis of final gunfight from Per qualche dollaro in

più (For a Few Dollars More).
20.1 Sound organization in the opening sequence of Pale
Flower.
20.2 Ballad of Orin: Orin in society and nature.

21.1 Sources for Tamil film songs.

 Notes on Contributors
James Buhler teaches music and film sound in the Sarah and
Ernest Butler School of Music at the University of Texas at Austin. He
is co-editor (with Caryl Flinn and David Neumeyer) of Music and
Cinema (2000) and co-author (with David Neumeyer and Rob
Deemer) of Hearing the Movies (2010), now in its second edition. He
is currently completing a manuscript entitled Theories of the
Soundtrack.

David Butler is Senior Lecturer in Screen Studies at the University

of Manchester. He is the author of Jazz Noir: Listening to Music from
Phantom Lady to The Last Seduction (2002) and Fantasy Cinema:
Impossible Worlds on Screen (2009). He has written widely on the
ideological function of music in film and television, especially in film
noir and science fiction, and his current research is focused on the
life and work of Delia Derbyshire, one of the pioneering figures in
British electronic music, whose tape and paper archive was donated
to the University of Manchester on behalf of her estate.

Mervyn Cooke is Professor of Music at the University of

Nottingham. The author of A History of Film Music (2008) and editor
of The Hollywood Film Music Reader (2010), he has also published
widely in the fields of Britten studies and jazz: his other books
include Britten and the Far East (1998), several co-edited volumes of
Britten’s correspondence and studies of the same composer’s Billy
Budd (1993) and War Requiem (1996). He has edited previous
Cambridge Companions devoted to Britten, twentieth-century opera
and (with co-editor David Horn) jazz, and has published two
illustrated histories of jazz for Thames & Hudson. He has recently
completed an analytical study of the ECM recordings of jazz guitarist
Pat Metheny.

David Cooper is Professor of Music and Technology and Dean of

the Faculty of Performance, Visual Arts and Communications at the
University of Leeds. He is the author of monographs on Bernard
Herrmann’s scores for Vertigo (2001) and The Ghost and Mrs. Muir
(2005), a large-scale study of Béla Bartók (2015) and co-editor (with
Ian Sapiro and Christopher Fox) of Cinemusic? Constructing the Film
Score (2008). He is currently Principal Investigator of a major
research project on the Trevor Jones Archive, funded by the UK Arts
and Humanities Research Council.

Kate Daubney is the Series Editor of the Film Score Guides

published by Scarecrow Press. She established the series in 1999
(with Greenwood Press) as a way for film musicologists to analyse
the composition and context of individual scores by drawing more
widely on the often hard-to-access archival and manuscript
resources of composers both living and dead. She is also a scholar of
the film scores of Max Steiner and the author of the first Film Score
Guide (2000), devoted to Steiner’s music for Now, Voyager.

Annette Davison is Senior Lecturer at the Reid School of Music,

University of Edinburgh. Her research focuses primarily on music for
screen and has been published in a range of journals and essay
collections, including two for which she was co-editor (with Erica
Sheen and Julie Brown). She is the author of the monographs
Hollywood Theory, Non-Hollywood Practice: Cinema Soundtracks in
the 1980s and 1990s (2004) and Alex North’s A Streetcar Named
Desire: A Film Score Guide (2009). She has begun to explore music
for short-form promotional media. Her essays on the main-title and
end-credit sequences for multi-season North American television
drama serials can be found in The Oxford Handbook of New
Audiovisual Aesthetics (2013), the journal Music, Sound, and the
Moving Image (2014) and in the Danish journal SoundEffects
(2013), where she analyzes viewer behaviour in relation to these
sequences. Current research includes the role of music in sponsored
film and advertising.

George Fenton is one of the world’s leading composers of music

for film, television and theatre, with a distinguished career spanning
half a century. He began composing professionally in the mid-1970s
for theatre productions by the Royal Shakespeare Company and the
National Theatre, then worked extensively for BBC TV where he
wrote many well-known signature tunes and scores for popular
drama series. His later music for the BBC Natural History Unit
achieved a new high standard for the genre and won several awards
for The Blue Planet (2001) and Planet Earth (2006). The success of
his first feature-film score, for Gandhi (1982), launched a career in
the movies which was to include Academy Award nominations for
Gandhi, Cry Freedom (1987), Dangerous Liaisons (1988) and The
Fisher King (1991). He has maintained a prolific and highly varied
output of music for both mainstream and independent productions in
the United States and United Kingdom, and recently composed (with
Simon Chamberlain) a stage musical based on the film Mrs
Henderson Presents (2005).

Caryl Flinn is Professor and Chair of the Department of Screen Arts

and Cultures at the University of Michigan. She is the author of
Strains of Utopia: Nostalgia, Gender, and Hollywood Film Music
(1992), The New German Cinema (2003), Brass Diva: The Life and
Legends of Ethel Merman (2007) and The Sound of Music (BFI Film
Classics, 2015), and co-editor (with David Neumeyer and James
Buhler) of Music and Cinema (2000). Her work also appears in the
anthologies Melodrama: Stage, Picture, Screen (1994), Camp: Queer
Aesthetics and the Performing Subject (1999), Film Music: Critical
Approaches (2001), Teaching Film (2012), A Companion to Rainer
Werner Fassbinder (2012) and The Oxford Handbook of New
Audiovisual Aesthetics (2013).

Fiona Ford is an independent researcher currently working on Max

Steiner’s pre-Hollywood career and his early years at RKO (with
particular emphasis on his score for King Kong). She completed her
undergraduate Music degree at the University of Oxford in the mid-
1980s, returning to academia at the University of Nottingham in the
new millennium. Her postgraduate research interests focused on the
film music of Dmitri Shostakovich (MA, 2003) and Edmund Meisel
(PhD, 2011). She has published on the use of pre-existing music in
Shostakovich’s score to Hamlet and Herbert Stothart’s The Wizard of
Oz, as well as Meisel’s lost soundtrack for The Crimson Circle and his
famous accompaniment to Sergei Eisenstein’s Battleship Potemkin.
Peter Franklin retired in 2014 as Professor of Music at Oxford,
where he is an Emeritus Fellow of St Catherine’s College. He writes
on late-romantic symphonies and post-Wagnerian opera and film,
and is the author of A Life of Mahler (1997) and Seeing Through
Music: Gender and Modernism in Classic Hollywood Film Scores
(2011). His book Reclaiming Late-Romantic Music: Singing Devils
and Distant Sounds (2014) is based on the lectures he gave as
Visiting Bloch Professor of Music at the University of California at
Berkeley in 2010.

Krin Gabbard taught at Stony Brook University from 1981 until

2014. He is currently an Adjunct Professor of English and
Comparative Literature at Columbia University. Otherwise he is busy
playing his trumpet and writing a memoir about his parents. His
books include Jammin’ at the Margins: Jazz and the American
Cinema (1996), Black Magic: White Hollywood and African American
Culture (2004) and Hotter Than That: The Trumpet, Jazz, and
American Culture (2008). His current project is an interpretative
biography of Charles Mingus. He lives in New York City with his wife
Paula.

Stephen Glynn, a film writer and teacher, is currently an Associate

Research Fellow at De Montfort University, UK. His books on film
music include studies of A Hard Day’s Night (2005) and
Quadrophenia (2014) and The British Pop Music Film (2013).

Guido Heldt studied in Münster, Germany, at King’s College,

London, and at Oxford. After completing a PhD on early twentieth-
century English tone poems (Münster 1997), he worked at the
Musicology Department of the Free University Berlin (1997–2003)
and as a visiting lecturer in the History Department of Wilfrid Laurier
University, Waterloo, Ontario (2003), before joining the Department
of Music at the University of Bristol in 2004. His work has focused on
film music and narrative theory (he is the author of Music and Levels
of Narration in Film, 2013), composer biopics, music in German film
and on a range of other film-music topics. He is currently working on
a monograph about music and comedy in film and TV.

Timothy Koozin is Professor and Division Chair of Music Theory at

the Moores School of Music, University of Houston, Texas. His
research interests include music and meaning, popular music, film
music and music instructional technology. His writings appear in
Perspectives of New Music, Contemporary Music Review, Music
Theory Online and College Music Symposium. His edited collection of
essays on the film music of Fumio Hayasaka and Tōru Takemitsu
was published as a special issue of the Journal of Film Music in 2010.
Koozin is co-author of two music-theory textbooks with companion
websites: Techniques and Materials of Music (2014, enhanced
seventh edition) and Music for Ear Training (2001, now in its fourth
edition). He is a former editor of Music Theory Online, the electronic
journal of the Society for Music Theory.

Hannah Lewis is Assistant Professor of Musicology at the University

of Texas at Austin. Her research interests include film music, music
and visual media, twentieth-century avant-garde and experimental
music and musical theatre. She has presented at national and
regional meetings of the American Musicological Society and the
Society for American Music, and her work has appeared in the
Journal of the American Musicological Society, Journal of the Society
for American Music and American National Biography. She is
currently writing a book about music in French cinema during the
transition to synchronized sound.

Stan Link is Associate Professor of the Composition, Philosophy and

Analysis of Music at Vanderbilt University’s Blair School of Music,
where he teaches composition, theory and interdisciplinary courses
on film, art, literature and music. The author of numerous essays
and papers on subjects ranging from musical horror to dancing
nerds, he is also an active composer of acoustic and electro-acoustic
music performed in the United States, Europe and Australia. Stan
lives in Nashville, Tennessee, with his wife, the musicologist Melanie
Lowe, and their daughter, Wednesday.

Miguel Mera is Reader in Music at City University, London, and a

member of BAFTA. His film scores have been screened at festivals
and cinemas around the world, including the feature film Little Ashes
(2008), which won the Schermi d’Amore Rose Prize for Best Film at
the Verona Film Festival. He is the co-editor (with David Burnand) of
European Film Music (2006), The Routledge Companion to Screen
Music and Sound (with Ron Sadoff and Ben Winters, forthcoming)
and a special edition of Ethnomusicology Forum (2009), exploring
global perspectives in screen-music studies. He is also the editor of a
special edition of Music and the Moving Image (2009), developing
concepts relating to audiovisual ‘reinvention’, and is the author of
Mychael Danna’s The Ice Storm: A Film Score Guide (2007). Miguel
has also undertaken empirical research applying eye-tracking
methodologies to the study of film-music perception.
Sergio Miceli, who died in 2016, was at the time he wrote his
contribution to this volume a retired Full Professor of History and
Aesthetics of Music at the Conservatory ‘Luigi Cherubini’, Florence,
Italy. He was formerly Adjunct Professor of History of Film Music at
Florence University and the University of Rome, ‘La Sapienza’. He
also taught film music with Ennio Morricone at the Accademia
Musicale Chigiana in Siena, with Franco Piersanti at the Scuola Civica
di Musica in Milan, and at the Centro Sperimentale Cinematografia
(CSC) in Rome. He was a member of the editorial boards of Music
and the Moving Image and the Russian journal MediaMusic. His
publications include Morricone, la musica, il cinema (1994), Musica e
cinema nella cultura del Novecento (2010) and Film Music: History,
Aesthetic-Analysis, Typologies (2013); and, with Morricone,
Composing for the Cinema: The Theory and Praxis of Music in Film
(2001; English translation 2013).

Mekala Padmanabhan studied at the Universities of Victoria and

North Dakota, and received her doctorate from the University of
Nottingham. She is an independent scholar and Diploma Examiner
(Music) for the International Baccalaureate Organization, with
research expertise in Tamil film music and popular culture, as well as
late eighteenth-century Viennese lied, Haydn and German poetry
and aesthetics. In 2013 she was a Visiting Research Fellow at the
AHRC Centre for Music Performance as Creative Practice, University
of Cambridge. Her publications include an essay exploring musical
creativity in Tamil film-music orchestras, to appear in Tina K.
Ramnarine’s Global Perspectives on the Orchestra: Essays on
Collective Creativity and Social Agency (forthcoming), and
‘Dedications to Haydn by London Keyboard Composers around 1790’
in Widmungen bei Haydn und Beethoven: Personen – Strategien –
Praktiken (2015).

Danae Stefanou is Assistant Professor of Historical Musicology at

the School of Music Studies, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Greece, where she also directs the Critical Music Histories research
group, and is a member of the Cognitive and Computational
Musicology team. She previously studied at the Universities of
Nottingham (MA) and London (PhD), and was a Research Fellow and
Visiting Lecturer at Royal Holloway, University of London. Her
research explores a broad range of twentieth- and twenty-first-
century sonic practices, with a particular focus on experimentalism,
noise and free improvisation, and has been published in various
journals, Grove Music Online and several edited volumes, including
Made in Greece: Studies in Popular Music, ed. Dafni Tragaki
(forthcoming).

Robynn J. Stilwell is Associate Professor in Music at Georgetown

University. Her research interests centre on the meaning of music as
cultural work. Publications include essays on Beethoven and
cinematic violence, musical form in Jane Austen, rockabilly and
‘white trash’, figure skating, French film musicals, psychoanalytic film
theory and its implications for music and for female subjects, and
the boundaries between sound and music in the cinematic
soundscape. Her current project is a study of audiovisual modality in
television and how the latter draws from and transforms its
precedents in film, theatre, radio and concert performance, with an
eye towards the aesthetic implications for technological
convergence.
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