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 THE ROUTLEDGE COMPANION TO
SOCIAL MEDIA AND POLITICS

Social media are now widely used for political protests, campaigns, and communication
in developed and developing nations, but available research has not yet paid sufficient
attention to experiences beyond the US and UK. This collection tackles this imbalance
head-on, compiling cutting-edge research across six continents to provide a compre-
hensive, global, up-to-date review of recent political uses of social media.
Drawing together empirical analyses of the use of social media by political move-
ments and in national and regional elections and referenda, The Routledge Companion
to Social Media and Politics presents studies ranging from Anonymous and the Arab
Spring to the Greek Aganaktismenoi, and from South Korean presidential elections to
the Scottish independence referendum. The book is framed by a selection of keystone
theoretical contributions, evaluating and updating existing frameworks for the social
media age.

Axel Bruns is an Australian Research Council Future Fellow and Professor in the Digital
Media Research Centre at Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia.

Gunn Enli is Professor of Media Studies at University of Oslo, Norway.

Eli Skogerbø is Professor in Media Studies and Co-Head of the Political Communication
Research Group at the Department of Media and Communication, University of Oslo,
Norway.

Anders Olof Larsson is Associate Professor at Westerdals Oslo School of Arts,

Communication and Technology, Norway.

Christian Christensen is Professor of Journalism at Stockholm University, Sweden.

 THE ROUTLEDGE
COMPANION TO SOCIAL
MEDIA AND POLITICS

Edited by Axel Bruns, Gunn Enli,

Eli Skogerbø, Anders Olof Larsson,
and Christian Christensen
First published in paperback 2018
First published 2016
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2016, 2018 Taylor & Francis

The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of
the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bruns, Axel, 1970– editor.
Title: The Routledge companion to social media and politics/edited by Axel Bruns,
Gunn Enli, Eli Skogerb², Anders Olof Larsson, and Christian Christensen.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2016. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015026472| ISBN 9781138860766 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781315716299 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Communication in politics—Technological innovations. |
Political participation—Technological innovations. | Social media—Political
aspects. | Mass media—Political aspects. | World politics.
Classification: LCC JA85. R68 2016 | DDC 320.01/4—dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015026472

ISBN: 978–1-138–86076–6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978–1-138–30093–4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978–1-315–71629–9 (ebk)

Typeset in Goudy
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
 CONTENTS

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xii
Acknowledgements xiv
Contributors xv

Introduction 1
AXEL BRUNS, GUNN ENLI, ELI SKOGERBØ, ANDERS OLOF
LARSSON, AND CHRISTIAN CHRISTENSEN

PART I
Theories of Social Media and Politics 5

1 Politics in the Age of Hybrid Media: Power, Systems, and Media Logics 7
ANDREW CHADWICK, JAMES DENNIS, AND AMY P. SMITH
2 Network Media Logic: Some Conceptual Considerations 23
ULRIKE KLINGER AND JAKOB SVENSSON
3 Where There Is Social Media There Is Politics 39
KARINE NAHON
4 Is Habermas on Twitter? Social Media and the Public Sphere 56
AXEL BRUNS AND TIM HIGHFIELD
5 Third Space, Social Media, and Everyday Political Talk 74
SCOTT WRIGHT, TODD GRAHAM, AND DAN JACKSON
6 Tipping the Balance of Power: Social Media and the Transformation
of Political Journalism 89
MARCEL BROERSMA AND TODD GRAHAM
7 Agenda-Setting Revisited: Social Media and Sourcing in Mainstream
Journalism 104
ELI SKOGERBØ, AXEL BRUNS, ANDREW QUODLING,
AND THOMAS INGEBRETSEN
8 “Trust Me, I Am Authentic!”: Authenticity Illusions in Social
Media Politics 121
GUNN ENLI

v
 Contents

9 How to Speak the Truth on Social Media: An Inquiry into

Post-Dialectical Information Environments 137
MERCEDES BUNZ

PART II
Political Movements 151

10 All Politics Is Local: Anonymous and the Steubenville/Maryville

Rape Cases 153
CHRISTIAN CHRISTENSEN
11 Social Media Accounts of the Spanish Indignados 165
CAMILO CRISTANCHO AND EVA ANDUIZA
12 Every Crisis Is a Digital Opportunity: The Aganaktismenoi
Movement’s Use of Social Media and the Emergence of
Networked Solidarity in Greece 184
YANNIS THEOCHARIS
13 Social Media Use during Political Crises: The Case of the
Gezi Protests in Turkey 198
LEMI BARUH AND HAYLEY WATSON
14 Structures of Feeling, Storytelling, and Social Media:
The Case of #Egypt 211
ZIZI PAPACHARISSI AND STACY BLASIOLA
15 The Importance of ‘Social’ in Social Media:
Lessons from Iran 223
GHOLAM KHIABANY
16 Digital Knives Are Still Knives: The Affordances of
Social Media for a Repressed Opposition against an
Entrenched Authoritarian Regime in Azerbaijan 235
KATY E. PEARCE AND FARID GULIYEV
17 Social Media and Social Movements: Weak Publics, the Online
Space, Spatial Relations, and Collective Action in Singapore 248
NATALIE PANG AND DEBBIE GOH
18 Social Media and Civil Society Actions in India 259
RAJESH KUMAR
19 Cyberactivism in China: Empowerment, Control, and Beyond 268
RONGBIN HAN
20 Voicing Discontent in South Korea: Origins and Channels
of Online Civic Movements 281
MAURICE VERGEER AND SE JUNG PARK

vi
 C ontents

21 Nationalist and Anti-Fascist Movements in Social Media 296

CHRISTINA NEUMAYER

PART III
Political Campaigns 309

22 From Emerging to Established? A Comparison of Twitter Use

during Swedish Election Campaigns in 2010 and 2014 311
ANDERS OLOF LARSSON AND HALLVARD MOE
23 Social Media in the UK Election Campaigns 2008–2014:
Experimentation, Innovation, and Convergence 325
DARREN G. LILLEKER, NIGEL JACKSON, AND KAROLINA
KOC-MICHALSKA
24 Compulsory Voting, Encouraged Tweeting? Australian Elections and
Social Media 338
TIM HIGHFIELD AND AXEL BRUNS
25 Not Just a Face(book) in the Crowd: Candidates’
Use of Facebook during the Danish 2011 Parliamentary
Election Campaign 351
MORTEN SKOVSGAARD AND ARJEN VAN DALEN
26 Social Media Incumbent Advantage: Barack Obama’s
and Mitt Romney’s Tweets in the 2012 U.S. Presidential
Election Campaign 364
GUNN ENLI AND ANJA AAHEIM NAPER
27 The 2012 French Presidential Campaign: First Steps into
the Political Twittersphere 378
FRANÇOISE PAPA AND JEAN-MARC FRANCONY
28 The Emergence of Social Media Politics in South Korea:
The Case of the 2012 Presidential Election 391
LARS WILLNAT AND YOUNG MIN
29 Interactions between Different Language Communities on
Twitter during the 2012 Presidential Election in Taiwan 406
YU-CHUNG CHENG AND PAI-LIN CHEN
30 Social Media Use in the German Election Campaign 2013 419
CHRISTIAN NUERNBERGK, JENNIFER WLADARSCH,
JULIA NEUBARTH, AND CHRISTOPH NEUBERGER
31 Comparing Facebook and Twitter during the 2013 General
Election in Italy 434
LUCA ROSSI AND MARIO OREFICE

vii
 Contents

32 Social Media and Election Campaigns in Sub-Saharan Africa:

Insights from Cameroon 447
TEKE NGOMBA
33 Social Media and Elections in Kenya 460
MARTIN NKOSI NDLELA
34 Electoral Politics on Social Media: The Israeli Case 471
SHARON HALEVA-AMIR AND KARINE NAHON
35 Social Media and the Scottish Independence Referendum 2014:
Events and the Generation of Enthusiasm for Yes 488
MARK SHEPHARD AND STEPHEN QUINLAN
36 The Use of Twitter in the Danish EP Elections 2014 503
JAKOB LINAA JENSEN, JACOB ØRMEN, AND STINE LOMBORG
37 Twitter in Political Campaigns: The Brazilian 2014 Presidential Election 518
RAQUEL RECUERO, GABRIELA ZAGO, AND MARCO T. BASTOS

Index 531

viii
 FIGURES

2.1 Dimensions of Media Logic 28

3.1 Politics of Social Media: Dimensions 42
3.2 Four Top Search Engines’ Market Share 48
3.3 Politics of Social Media: Relationships 51
4.1 The Australian Twittersphere 68
4.2 #qanda Hashtag Participants over Several Weeks in 2014 69
7.1 Twitter Citations in Election Coverage over the 10 Weeks
Prior to the 2013 Australian General Election 112
7.2 Tweet Citations and Functions in Articles in the 2013
Election Coverage in Australia 113
7.3 Twitter Citations in Election Coverage over the 10 Weeks
Prior to the 2013 General Election in Norway 114
7.4 Tweet Citations and Functions in Articles in the 2013
Election Coverage in Norway 114
7.5 Twitter Citations in Election Coverage 10 Weeks Prior to
the 2014 General Election in Sweden 115
7.6 Tweet Citations and Functions in Articles in the 2014
Election Coverage in Sweden 116
8.1 Barack and Michelle Obama Hugging on the Campaign
Trail in Iowa 127
8.2 Photo of Jens Stoltenberg Hugging His Father Thorvald Stoltenberg 128
11.1 Volume of Movement Frames in Retweets 173
12.1 Conversation Network Based on 17,866 Tweets Posted
under #greekrevolution, #25Mgr, 31 May–25 June 2011 189
12.2 Conversation Network Based on 1,100 Tweets Posted
under #tutorpool, 11 and 17 November 2012 192
13.1 Reasons for Using Twitter during the Gezi Protests, by Percentage,
2013, N = 233 202
13.2 Activities Performed on Twitter during Gezi Protests by
Respondents for at Least Half the Time They Logged on
to Twitter, by Percentage, 2013, N = 239 202
13.3 Activities Performed on Twitter during Gezi Protests by
Respondents for at Least Half the Time They Logged on
to Twitter, by Percentage, 2013, N = 239 203
13.4 Twitter Usage Segments, 2013, N = 218 204
13.5 Information Sources, 2013, N = 281 206
13.6 Distribution of Sources Quoted for ‘News Sources—Identified’
Category, N = 54 207

ix
 F igures

16.1 Annotated Map to a Rally (Mitinq) Location Posted

on a Facebook Event 240
19.1 Most Frequently Used Online Services in China 269
19.2 A Multi-Actor Multi-Dimensional Framework of
Cyberpolitics in China 271
20.1 2013 Revenues of Chaebǒl and Their South Korean
Communications Subsidiaries Compared to Apple 282
20.2 Internet Connection Speeds in Countries, Second
Quarter of 2014 283
20.3 Level of Confidence in Political Institutions in South Korea 287
20.4 Confidence in Political Institutions in Countries and Regions 287
20.5 Average Level of Confidence in Political Institutions across
East and South-East Asian Countries 288
22.1 Distribution of Tweets over Time, Comparison of #val2010
and #val2014, 31 Days Prior to Election Day to 3 Days
after Election Day; 2010 317
22.2 Distribution of Activity among Three User Groups
(1 per cent lead users, 9 per cent highly active users, and
90 per cent least active users) as Percentages of the Total
Number of Tweets Sent; 2010 319
23.1 Direction of Communication between Parties and Their
Voters Compared across Contests 2008–2014, Mean Scores 329
23.2 Level of User Control over Communication between Parties
and Voters Compared across Contests 2008–2014, Mean Scores 329
24.1 @mentions of Party Leaders, 4 August to 8 September 2013 342
24.2 Network of Retweets between Candidates, 4 August to
8 September 2013 345
24.3 #ausvotes Tweets per Hour, 7 September 2013 346
26.1 Tweets Posted on the Accounts @BarackObama and @MittRomney
in the 2012 Election Campaign, Absolute Figures 369
26.2 Links in Tweets Posted on @MittRomney and @BarackObama
in the 2012 Election Campaign, by Percentage, N = 3,420 371
26.3 Use of Common Twitter Features by Presidential Candidates in the
2012 Election Campaign, by Percentage, N = 3,420 372
26.4 Tweets Posted on @BarackObama and @MittRomney, by
Theme, in the 2012 Election Campaign, by Percentage, N = 3,420 373
27.1 Diagram Illustrating the Political Polarities Identified from
the Analysis of Content on Twitter over the 2012 Campaign 385
29.1 Volume of Tweets in the Traditional Chinese Community
Relating to Individual Candidates 411
29.2 Volume of Tweets in the Simplified Chinese Community
Relating to Individual Candidates 411
29.3 Social Network of Retweet Conversations in the 2012
Taiwanese Presidential Election 415
29.4 Social Network of @reply Conversations in the 2012
Taiwanese Presidential Election 416
31.1 Daily Volume of Twitter Mentions 440

x
 Figures

31.2 Daily Volume of People Talking About 440

31.3 Media Presence of Political Leaders Superimposed to
the Volume of Twitter Mentions 441
34.1 HaBayit HaYehudi Facebook Homepage 475
34.2 Yesh Atid Facebook Homepage 476
34.3 Negative Anonymous Campaigns 477
34.4 A Game Developed by the Kadima Party 480
34.5 Likud Activists Sharing a Negative Advertisement
about Naftali Bennet 481
34.6 ‘Be Pretty and Keep Quiet’ Negative Campaign 481
34.7 The Fake and Official Facebook Pages of PM Benjamin
Netanyahu483
35.1 Facebook and Twitter Support Totals for Both Campaigns 492
35.2 Differences in Facebook and Twitter Support Levels for
Both Campaigns—YS Campaign Total Minus BT Campaign Total 493
35.3 Social Media Intensity of Engagement by the Campaigns:
Number of Cumulative Tweets from Each Campaign 494
35.4 Social Media Intensity of Engagement by the Public with
Social Media Campaigns: Difference In the Number of
People Talking about Each of the Campaigns 494
36.1 Conversation Network with >500 In-Degree Accounts Labelled 508
36.2 Network of Interactions between >500 In-Degree Accounts 511
37.1 Number of Mentions per Candidate per Day 524
37.2 Number of Tweets per Candidate per Day 525

xi
 TABLES

2.1 Dimensions of Media Logics: Production 29

2.2 Dimensions of Media Logics: Distribution 31
2.3 Dimensions of Media Logics: Media Use 33
11.1 Twitter Samples for Indignados Events 170
11.2 Framing Patterns in Tweets by Centrality and Type of Actor 175
13.1 Comparison of Usage Segments in Terms of Activities on
Twitter during the Gezi Protests, 2013, by Percentage, N = 217 204
13.2 Comparison of Usage Segments in Terms of Information
Verification Techniques, by Percentage, N = 217 205
21.1 Fascists and Anti-Fascists’ Marginalisation and Oppositionality 298
22.1 Volumes of Tweets Sent and Users Involved for #val2010
and #val2014 315
22.2 Top Senders of Undirected Twitter Messages in #val2010
and #val2014 316
22.3 Top Senders of Retweets for #val2010 and #val2014 320
22.4 Top Receivers of Retweets for #val2010 and #val2014 321
23.1 Parties’ Preferred Priorities of Methods for Communication
with Their Voters in the 2014 EP Campaign and General
Election Campaign 2015, Mean Scores 332
23.2 Social Media Reach by Party during the 2014 EP Campaign;
Facebook Likes, Twitter Followers, YouTube Subscribers;
Absolute Figures 333
23.3 Parties’ Reach and Visible Support on Facebook during
the 2014 EP Campaign, Absolute Figures 334
25.1 Politicians with Most Posts on Public Facebook Profile during
2011 Parliamentary Election Campaign in Denmark 356
25.2 Number of Posts per Party on Public Facebook Profiles during
2011 Parliamentary Election Campaign in Denmark 357
25.3 Explaining the Use of Different Campaign Channels 358
25.4 Motivation to Use Facebook and Twitter for Candidates with
Public Facebook Profile during the 2011 Parliamentary Election
Campaign in Denmark 359
25.5 Explaining the Use of Public Facebook Profiles by Chances
to be Elected during the 2011 Parliamentary Election
Campaign in Denmark 360
28.1 Importance of Social Media for Politics among Korean and
U.S. Citizens 397
28.2 Political Activities on Social Media by Korean and U.S. Citizens 398

xii
 Tables

28.3 Predictors of Political Efficacy and Likelihood of Voting

among Korean Citizens 400
29.1 Matrix of User Visibility in Four Local Twitter Communities 413
30.1 Amount and Shares of Articles on Different Topics 425
30.2 Amount and Shares of Party Mentions 426
30.3 Amount and Shares of Candidate Mentions 427
30.4 Distribution of MdBs’ Tweets Compared to Party Strength
in the Bundestag 429
30.5 Weekly Rate and Distribution of Tweets 429
30.6 @replies and Retweets in MdBs’ Tweets by Parties 430
31.1 Top 5 Political Accounts on Facebook for Level of Engagement
and People Talking About (PTA) 437
31.2 Top 5 Political Accounts on Twitter for Number of Direct Mentions 437
31.3 Official Results of 2013 Italian General Election—Votes for
the Candidate 439
32.1 List of Newspapers and Reports 451
32.2 Overview of Facebook Posts and Interactions 453
32.3 Types of Posts 454
34.1 Party Leaders and Followers on Facebook 478
36.1 Distribution of Twitter Accounts According to the Number
of Tweets Sent by Each Account Related to the 2014 EP Election 506
36.2 Twitter Activity of Political Parties 507
36.3 Centrality Measures for EP Candidate Twitter Accounts with
In-Degree >500 510
37.1 Data from Official Twitter Accounts of Presidential Candidates 521

xiii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We offer our heartfelt thanks to the many contributors to this large and ambitious
project. Given the rapid development of social media platforms and their uses, our
authors were given a very tight turnaround for their chapters in this collection, and
they responded to this challenge with energy and enthusiasm. We are especially pleased
to be able to include in this collection a truly international group of experts in their
fields, representing all six continents and offering important new perspectives on local
developments in an international context.
Similarly, we are very grateful to Routledge, and especially Editorial Assistant Simon
Jacobs, for their support for this project. There is in the literature in this field a ten-
dency for studies of the ‘usual suspects’—the U.S., UK, and perhaps some other major
European countries—to be overrepresented. While many of these studies are valuable
and important, the world itself, and the world of social media, is a great deal larger and
richer than this focus on leading Western democracies lets on, and it has been a guiding
principle of our work in compiling this volume to allow insights from a wider variety
of contexts to find an audience. We are delighted by Routledge’s strong support for this
project—and while no one collection, however large, can claim to offer a comprehen-
sive review of the uses of social media in political communication around the world,
we hope that this Companion will contribute to putting a broader range of national
and regional experiences on the map and may inspire further studies of the fascinating
developments which are unfolding in many of these cases.
We are also thankful for the support from the Norwegian Research Council and the
research project The Impact of Social Media on Agenda-Setting in Election Cam-
paigns (SAC), based at the University of Oslo, which was responsible for bringing
together the editorial team. Additionally, work on this collection was also supported by
the Australian Research Council Future Fellowship project Understanding Intermedia
Information Flows in the Australian Online Public Sphere.
Finally, our deepest gratitude goes to Nicki Hall, our Project Coordinator at
Queensland University of Technology. She took on the difficult task of managing a
large and internationally dispersed group of authors (and editors), and completed it
with good grace and great efficiency, even as final deadlines loomed. That you now hold
this substantial volume in your hands (or are able to access it electronically) is as much
due to her hard work as it is to the scholarly excellence of the individual contributors.
Thanks, Nicki!

xiv
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Eva Anduiza is Professor of Political Science at Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona.

Her main fields of research are political participation, political attitudes, and elections.
She has recently edited Digital Media and Political Engagement around the World: A Com-
parative Analysis, with Michael Jensen and Laia Jorba (Cambridge University Press).
[email protected]

Lemi Baruh is Assistant Professor at the Department of Media and Visual Arts at Koç
University, Turkey. His research focuses on new media technologies, social media use,
surveillance, and privacy—especially pertaining to the psychology of attitudes about
privacy and the culture of voyeurism. [email protected]

Marco T. Bastos is Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of California at Davis.

He holds a PhD in Communication Sciences from the University of São Paulo and
was previously the NSF EAGER postdoc at Duke University. His research explores the
tension between online and onsite networks in the distribution of news, contentious
politics, and scholarly work. [email protected]

Stacy Blasiola is a PhD candidate in the Department of Communication at the Univer-

sity of Illinois at Chicago. Her research interests include social media and politics, legal
and policy issues in social media, and online privacy. [email protected]

Marcel Broersma is Professor of Journalism Studies and Media at the University of

Groningen. His research focusses on the current and historical transformation of jour-
nalism. He has published widely on the use of social media by both journalists and
politicians. [email protected]

Axel Bruns is an Australian Research Council Future Fellow and Professor in the Digi-
tal Media Research Centre at Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, Aus-
tralia. He is the author of Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life and Beyond: From Production to
Produsage (2008) and Gatewatching: Collaborative Online News Production (2005), and
a co-editor of Twitter and Society (2014), A Companion to New Media Dynamics (2012),
and Uses of Blogs (2006). His research examines the uses of social media in political
communication, crisis communication, and other contexts, and he is leading the devel-
opment of new research methods for large-scale social media analytics. His research
Website is at http://snurb.info/, and he tweets at @snurb_dot_info. [email protected]

Mercedes Bunz is Senior Lecturer at the University of Westminster, London, where

she teaches Digital Media and Journalism. She writes about technology, media, criti-
cal theory, and journalism. Her latest book is The Silent Revolution: How Algorithms

xv
 N O TES O N C ontributors

Changed Knowledge, Work, Journalism, and Politics without Making Too Much Noise (Pal-
grave Macmillan, 2014). [email protected]

Andrew Chadwick is Professor of Political Science and Co-Director of the New Politi-
cal Communication Unit in the Department of Politics and International Relations at
Royal Holloway, University of London. www.andrewchadwick.com

Pai-Lin Chen is Associate Professor in the College of Communication at National

Chengchi University in Taiwan. His research interests are social media, risk and crisis
communication, information gathering and visualization, and journalistic expertise and
practice. [email protected]

Yu-Chung Cheng is Assistant Professor in the Department of Mass Communication

at the Hsuan Chuang University in Taiwan. Her research interests are social media,
risk and crisis communication, science communication, and technology culture studies.
[email protected]

Christian Christensen is Professor of Journalism at Stockholm University. His research

examines the relationships between technology, politics and journalism. christian.
[email protected]

Camilo Cristancho is a Postdoctoral Researcher in Political Science at Universitat

Autònoma de Barcelona. He has published on contentious politics, online social net-
works and protest, and political use of the Internet on electoral campaigns. His cur-
rent research deals with the potential of social media for political equality, attitudes
and effects of exposure to disagreement, and attitudes towards protest in social media.
[email protected]

James Dennis is a PhD candidate and Research Assistant in the New Political Com-
munication Unit in the Department of Politics and International Relations at Royal
Holloway, University of London. His research focuses on the effect of social media on
citizenship and political engagement in Britain. jameswilldennis.com

Gunn Enli is Professor of Media Studies at the Department of Media and Communica-
tion, University of Oslo. Enli is the project leader of ‘Social Media and Election Cam-
paigns’, an international research project examining cross-media and cross-national
effects of social media on election campaigns. Her research interests include politi-
cal communication, social media, media history, and media policy. Enli has published
widely in high-ranked international journals and has published five books. Her latest
books are Mediated Authenticity: How the Media Constructs Reality (Peter Lang, 2015),
and The Media Welfare State: Nordic Media in the Digital Age (Michigan University Press,
2014). [email protected]

Jean-Marc Francony is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Humanities and Social

Sciences and an active member of PACTE Laboratory (University of Grenoble Alpes,
France). He is currently working on issues related to large-scale Web usage and data
mining. His research focusses on how to capture data as well as what methodological
and ethical issues are involved with tracking and using the Web in this context. His

xvi
 N O TES O N C ontributors

aim is to establish behavioural profiles and to identify the roles, dynamics, and social
interactions of various actors on the Web and on social media. jeanmarc.francony@
umrpacte.fr

Debbie Goh is Assistant Professor in the Division of Journalism and Publishing at Nan-
yang Technological University’s Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Informa-
tion. Her research focusses on digital inequalities and the processes that influence how
marginalized communities engage with new media technologies. [email protected]

Todd Graham is Assistant Professor in Journalism and Political Communication at the

Groningen Centre for Media and Journalism Studies, University of Groningen. His
main research interests are the use of new media in representative democracies, the
intersections between popular culture and formal politics, online election campaigns,
online deliberation and political talk, and online civic engagement. [email protected]

Farid Guliyev is an independent researcher currently based in Baku, Azerbaijan. He

holds a PhD in Political Science from Jacobs University in Bremen, Germany (2014),
and an MA from Central European University in Budapest (2004). His work has been
published in Democratization, Demokratizatsiya, Energy Policy, and as a book chapter
in Challenges of the Caspian Resource Boom (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012). His current
research focusses on comparative regime studies and natural resource management in
developing countries. [email protected]

Sharon Haleva-Amir is Adjunct Professor at Tel Aviv University and Beit Berl College
and Research Fellow at the Haifa Center of Law and Technology (HCLT), University
of Haifa. Her research interests relate to the broader spectrum of Israeli e-Politics,
mainly during incumbency. Current research focusses on the 2015 electoral campaigns.
[email protected]

Rongbin Han is Assistant Professor at the Department of International Affairs, Uni-

versity of Georgia. His research interests centre on regime transition, state–society rela-
tions, media politics, and social activism in authoritarian regimes, with an area focus on
China. [email protected]

Tim Highfield is Vice-Chancellor’s Research Fellow in Digital Media at Queensland

University of Technology, where his fellowship project is ‘Visual Cultures of Social
Media’. His first book, Social Media and Everyday Politics, is due in late 2015. t.highfield@
qut.edu.au

Thomas Ingebretsen is a Market Analyst in Omnicom Media Group. He has trained

as a media scholar and has written his master thesis with and also worked as a Research
Assistant with the Social Media and Election Campaign Project at the Department of
Media and Communication, University of Oslo. [email protected]

Dan Jackson is Principal Lecturer in Media and Communication at Bournemouth Uni-

versity. His research broadly explores the intersection of media and democracy, includ-
ing news coverage of politics, the construction of news, political communication, and
political talk in online environments. [email protected]

xvii
 N O TES O N C ontributors

Nigel Jackson is Reader in Persuasion and Communication in the Faculty of Busi-

ness, Plymouth University, England. He is interested in how political actors such as
parties, candidates and representatives use communication and marketing to encour-
age behavioural change through persuasive messages. He has particularly focussed on
online political communication. [email protected]

Jakob Linaa Jensen is Head of Research for Social Media at the Danish School of
Media and Journalism. He has been Associate Professor of Media Studies at Aarhus
University for nine years. He is a board member of Center for Internet Studies, Aarhus
University. He has also headed a European task force on social media methods. He has
published three monographs, three edited volumes, and more than 30 international
journal articles. His research interests include political communication, the public
sphere, social media, Internet politics, the sociology of the Internet, and the cognitive
affordances of new media. [email protected]

Gholam Khiabany teaches in the Department of Media and Communications, Gold-

smiths, University of London. He is the author of Iranian Media: The Paradox of
Modernity (Routledge, 2010), and co-author of Blogistan: The Internet and Politics in
Iran, with Annabelle Sreberny (I. B. Tauris, 2010). [email protected]

Ulrike Klinger is Senior Research and Teaching Assistant at IPMZ—Institute for Mass
Communication and Media Research, University of Zurich, Switzerland. Her cur-
rent research focusses on political online communication and digital public spheres.
[email protected]

Karolina Koc-Michalska is Assistant Professor at Audencia School of Management

(France) and an Associate Researcher at Sciences-Po Paris. Her research focusses
on political communication, the role of social networks, and their impact on politi-
cal engagement. She studies the campaigning effects, media influence on election
outcomes, and original methods to study the online public spheres. kkocmichalska@
audencia.com

Rajesh Kumar is Associate Professor with the School of Communication, Doon Uni-
versity, Dehradun, India. His teaching and research interests include communication
for development, mass media and society, the political economy of communication, and
communication programmes and campaigns. [email protected]

Anders Olof Larsson was until recently Postdoctoral Fellow at the Department of Media
and Communication at the University of Oslo. From November 2015, he is Associ-
ate Professor at Westerdals Oslo School of Arts, Communication and ­Technology. His
research interests include the use of online interactivity and social media by societal
institutions and their audiences, online political communication, and methodology,
especially quantitative methods. [email protected]

Darren G. Lilleker is Associate Professor in Political Communication in the Faculty

of Media and Communication, Bournemouth University. Lilleker’s expertise is in the
professionalization and marketization of politics and its impact on citizens, on which he
has published widely. [email protected]

xviii
 N O TES O N C ontributors

Stine Lomborg is Associate Professor in Communication and IT at the University

of Copenhagen. Her research centres on social media users and methods. She is the
author of Social Media—Social Genres: Making Sense of the Ordinary (Routledge) and
co-editor of The Ubiquitous Internet: User and Industry Perspectives (Routledge, with
Anja Bechmann). [email protected]

Young Min is Professor of Media & Communication at Korea University, Seoul, South
Korea. Her research interests concern the roles of political media and interpersonal
communication in elections and other political contexts. [email protected]

Hallvard Moe is Professor of Media Studies at the University of Bergen. He has pub-
lished widely on the use of media for public debate and issues of media policy. His latest
book is The Media Welfare State: Nordic Media in the Digital Era (University of Michigan
Press, 2014, co-authored with Trine Syvertsen, Gunn Enli, and Ole J. Mjøs). Hallvard.
[email protected]

Karine Nahon is Associate Professor at the Information School, University of Wash-

ington, and the Government School at the Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya (IDC).
Her research focus is on the politics of information. More specifically, she studies ques-
tions which relate to information flows and virality, network gatekeeping, and power.
She has authored one book and over 50 peer-reviewed publications. Her book Going
Viral (with Jeff Hemsley) won the Best Information Science Book Award and the Out-
standing Academic Title Award. Her research Website is at http://eKarine.org/, and she
tweets at @karineb. [email protected]

Anja Aaheim Naper is currently completing a PhD on immigration journalism at Oslo

and Akershus University College. She was previously a Research Assistant on the
‘Social Media and Agenda-Setting in Election Campaigns’ project at the University of
Oslo, where she examined the U.S. presidential election campaign on Twitter. anjana
[email protected]

Martin Nkosi Ndlela is Associate Professor at Hedmark University College in Norway.

His research interests include issues of media and democracy in Africa, in particular,
how new information and communication technologies can be harnessed for citizen
engagement, participation and empowerment. [email protected]

Julia Neubarth is Research Assistant and doctoral student at the Department of Com-
munication Studies and Media Research (IfKW) at Ludwig-Maximilians-University
Munich. Her research interests include social media, network analysis, finance blogs,
and the transnational public sphere. [email protected]

Christoph Neuberger is a full Professor at the Department of Communication Studies

and Media Research (IfKW) at Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich. His research
interests include media change, online journalism, activities of press and broadcast-
ing on the Internet, social media, journalism theory, and media quality. christoph.­
[email protected]

Christina Neumayer is Assistant Professor in the Culture and Communication

research group at the IT University of Copenhagen, with an interest in digital

xix
 N O TES O N C ontributors

media, radical politics, activism, social movements, and civic engagement. chne@
itu.dk

Teke Ngomba is Assistant Professor of Media Studies at the School of Communica-

tion and Culture at Aarhus University, Denmark. His research in the fields of political
communication, communication and social change, and journalism and media studies
has been published in several international peer-reviewed journals. [email protected]

Christian Nuernbergk is Assistant Professor at the Department of Communication

Studies and Media Research (IfKW) at Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich. His
research interests include political communication, digital journalism, social media,
networked publics, and network analysis. [email protected]

Mario Orefice is Postdoctoral Research Fellow at University of Urbino–Department of

Media Studies and Humanities. His research areas range from communication and social
media study to alternative forms of political participation performed by political parties,
civic groups, or social movements, online as well as offline. [email protected]

Jacob Ørmen is a PhD Fellow at the Department of Media, Cognition and Communi-
cation, University of Copenhagen. His primary fields of research are people’s engage-
ment and disengagement with the news, and research methods—in particular, digital
methods. [email protected]

Natalie Pang is Assistant Professor in the Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and
Information at Singapore’s Nanyang Technological University (NTU). Her research
focusses on social media use and information behaviour, specifically in contexts of
uncertainty and risks (e.g. crises and social movements). [email protected]

Françoise Papa is Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Communication and Media and
a member of PACTE Laboratory (University of Grenoble Alpes, France). She is con-
ducting research on global communication, media events and social uses of ICTs. She
is studying the evolution of communication paradigms in various configurations, such
as media coverage of global sport events like the Olympic Games, or political elections
and public communication campaigns. Her research focusses on social media uses and
their impacts on the process of information. [email protected]

Zizi Papacharissi is Professor and Head of Communication at the University of

Illinois–Chicago. She is Editor of the Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media
and the open access and free journal Social Media and Society. She has published 4
books and over 50 articles and book chapters on the social and political consequences
of newer media. Her latest book is Affective Publics: Sentiment, Technology and Politics
(Oxford University Press). [email protected]

Se Jung Park is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Communication at Georgia

State University. Current research includes information diffusion, social network anal-
ysis, environmental communication, and Online PR. [email protected]

Katy E. Pearce is Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at the

University of Washington and holds an affiliation with the Ellison Center for R
­ ussian,

xx
 N O TES O N C ontributors

East European and Central Asian Studies. Her research focusses on social and politi-
cal uses of technologies and digital content in the transitioning democracies and
semi-authoritarian states of the South Caucasus and Central Asia, but primarily Arme-
nia and Azerbaijan. [email protected]

Stephen Quinlan is Senior Researcher and Manager of Operations of the Comparative

Studies of Electoral Systems (CSES) project, GESIS Leibniz Institute for the Social
Sciences, Mannheim. His research focusses on electoral behaviour and public opinion,
including voter turnout, elections, political parties, referendums, and examining the
impact of social media on politics. His research has been published in Electoral Studies
and Irish Political Studies. [email protected]

Andrew Quodling is a Doctoral Candidate at Queensland University of Technology.

His research focusses on social and political conflict on social media platforms. He
examines the ways that users and operators of social media services negotiate political
conflict and the ways in which their interactions in these conflicts influence the gover-
nance of social media platforms and other online spaces. [email protected]

Raquel Recuero is a Professor and researcher at Universidade Católica de Pelotas. She

received a PhD and an MSc in Communication and Information Sciences from Uni-
versidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). [email protected]

Luca Rossi is Assistant Professor at the Communication and Culture research group of IT
University of Copenhagen. He is active in the field of digital research methods for social
sciences and social network analysis techniques for social media studies. [email protected]

Mark Shephard is Senior Lecturer in Politics at the Department of Government, Uni-

versity of Strathclyde, and was principal investigator on the ESRC/AQMeN Future of the
United Kingdom and Scotland research project focussing on the impact of social media
on the Scottish Independence referendum. His works have been published in a number of
journals, including Electoral Studies, Political Studies, The Journal of Legislative Studies, The
Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, British Politics, Parliamentary Affairs, and the
British Journal of Politics and International Relations. [email protected]

Eli Skogerbø is Professor in Media Studies and Head of the Political Communica-
tion Research Group (with Øyvind Ihlen), University of Oslo. Her current research
includes social media as tools for journalism, political communication, and minority
media. [email protected]

Morten Skovsgaard is Associate Professor at the Center for Journalism, University of

Southern Denmark. His research interests include journalists’ professional values and
ethics, journalistic routines, and news coverage of politics. [email protected]

Amy P. Smith is a PhD candidate and Research Assistant in the New Political Com-
munication Unit in the Department of Politics and International Relations at Royal
Holloway, University of London. [email protected]

Jakob Svensson is Associate Professor in Media and Communication Studies at

Uppsala University. Svensson directs the MA program in Digital Media and Society.

xxi
 N O TES O N C ontributors

His research focusses on two main areas: political participation on digital media plat-
forms and mobile communication in developing regions. [email protected]

Yannis Theocharis is Research Fellow at the Mannheim Centre for European Social
Research (MZES), University of Mannheim, a former Alexander von Humboldt Fellow,
and Co-Director of the MZES-based project ‘Social Media Networks and the Relation-
ships between Citizens and Politics’. His research interests are in political communica-
tion and comparative political behaviour, and more specifically, in political participation,
new media, protest politics, and social capital. [email protected]

Arjen van Dalen is Associate Professor at the Center for Journalism, University of
Southern Denmark. His research interests include the relation between journalists and
politicians, political journalism, comparative research, algorithmic journalism, and
economic news. [email protected]

Maurice Vergeer is Media Researcher at the Department Communication Science of

the Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, in the Netherlands. His inter-
ests in Internet research cover political communication, journalism, and people’s social
capital. His methodological interests cover quantitative research, network analysis, and
cross-national comparative research. [email protected]

Hayley Watson is Senior Research Analyst at Trilateral Research & Consulting, Lon-
don, UK. Her main area of expertise includes the role of technology in relation to
security, the development of citizen journalism, and the role of social media in crisis
management. [email protected]

Lars Willnat is Professor of Journalism at Indiana University–Bloomington. His research

interests include comparative survey research, theoretical aspects of public opinion for-
mation, and journalism studies. He is author and co-editor of four books: Social Media,
Culture and Politics (Peter Lang 2014); The Global Journalist in the 21st Century (Rout-
ledge 2012)’ Political Communication in Asia (Routledge 2009); and Empirical Political
Analysis: Research Methods in Political Science (Pearson 2008). [email protected]

Jennifer Wladarsch is a Research Assistant and doctoral student at the Department

of Communication Studies and Media Research (IfKW) at Ludwig-Maximilians–­
University Munich. Her research interests include social media, online journalism and
political communication. [email protected]

Scott Wright is Senior Lecturer in Political Communication, University of Melbourne.

His research focusses on everyday political talk in non-political online third spaces;
e-democracy; e-petitions; online deliberation; and journalism. He has published in lead-
ing international journals, including New Media & Society, Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, European Journal of Communication and Political Communication. scott.
[email protected]

Gabriela Zago is Professor at Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel), in Pelotas,

Brazil. She received a PhD and an MSc in Communication and Information Sciences
from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). [email protected]

xxii
 INTRODUCTION
Axel Bruns, Gunn Enli, Eli Skogerbø,
Anders Olof Larsson, and
Christian Christensen

Politics and the media have always been closely interrelated. The very dawn of demo-
cratic structures, in Ancient Greece, is inextricably linked to the gradual development
of effective systems for the mediation of ideas between political leaders and the public.
The formalisation of rhetorical strategies, the establishment of functional environments
for public speech, and the creation of accountable systems for expressing the will of the
demos, even if at the time that term encompassed only free, male members of the local
polis, are all early manifestations of an interdependency between politics and the media.
The subsequent 2,500 years have seen the—halting and unsteady, but in the long
term, unstoppable—development of ever more sophisticated frameworks and technolo-
gies for political communication, including the printing press, broadcast media, and
the Internet, in its various forms and formats. Indeed, the past century is marked by a
notable increase in the frequency of the successive waves of such inventions, and thus
by an acceleration of the processes of political change: if the fundamental structure of
political systems in many countries had remained comparatively static over previous
centuries, a person born in Europe at the dawn of the 20th century might have had the
misfortune to live through the transition from feudal rule through fledgling democracy
to fascist dictatorship before even reaching middle age (not to mention the small mat-
ter of two world wars, covered by, and at times, also fought through the media). And
the emergent media technologies of the day—newsprint and radio—would have played
a crucial role in these political revolutions.
In their own ways, political science and media and communication studies—and
allied disciplines beyond—have recognised this interdependency of politics and the
media. In a number of cases, they have identified the catalyst moments that document
a shifting of the balance between existing and emerging media forms: Franklin D. Roo-
sevelt’s ‘fireside chats’ to a nationwide radio audience, for example, which enabled him
to speak directly to the American people and thus bypass editing and interpretation
by newspaper journalists, or the first televised presidential debate between Richard M.
Nixon and John F. Kennedy, which introduced a focus on the body language and per-
sonal demeanour of the candidates in addition to their spoken words. More recently,
of course, Barack Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign was widely highlighted as the
breakthrough moment for the use of contemporary social media platforms in political
campaigning—and in doing so also spawned a rapidly growing field of research that

1
 A XEL BRU NS E T A L .

investigates exactly how social media intersect with the broader political and electoral
process.
Yet, these examples also point to a considerable, persisting limitation of much of
the work that examines the nexus of politics and the media, historically as well as—
especially—in the present moment: there remains in the literature an overrepresenta-
tion of studies that examine these phenomena in the United States, and (already to
a lesser extent) in other large nations of the developed world. While excellent work
has been done on the situation elsewhere, to be sure, it has failed to generate the same
impact as the research emerging from more hegemonic contexts. Attempts to translate
the insights gleaned from the US, UK, and other leading Western nations to local con-
texts elsewhere are all too often frustrated by the significant idiosyncrasies of the respec-
tive political and media systems: the convoluted US primary and presidential election
system, for example, is without equal anywhere else in the world, and our understand-
ing of how media are being used for campaigning there is, consequently, only of rather
limited value for the analysis of media campaigning in elections in Scandinavia or
sub-Saharan Africa.
Such imbalances in the literature on media and politics appear to be even more
pronounced when we shift our attention exclusively to contemporary social media plat-
forms, such as Facebook and Twitter, as the latest wave of innovation in political com-
munication. Created and first broadly adopted in the United States, these platforms
are now used in many countries around the globe, although with widely varying levels
of market penetration amongst different user demographics. These considerable local-
ised variations, combined with important differences in political systems, make it even
more difficult to translate, say, observations from the Obama 2008 campaign to another
country context. What is necessary instead is a broad-based, cross-national investiga-
tion of social media use in political communication and campaigning that allows for
a charting of the similarities and differences in social media adoption and application
against the backdrop of specific national (and indeed, given the rapid ongoing develop-
ment of social media platforms, temporal) contexts.

Introducing the Companion

With this collection, we hope to make a constructive contribution to this continuing
project. In compiling the chapters we present here, we have deliberately sought to
avoid an overrepresentation of the United States and other global hegemons in the
adoption of social media for political purposes; instead, we hope that this Companion
provides a valuable overview of the no less important and fascinating ideas and inno-
vations for the use of social media in political communication that are emerging from
other corners of the globe as well. The energy and enthusiasm with which our host of
contributors have taken up the challenge of reporting on developments in their coun-
tries and regions, and have made these observations accessible and meaningful for an
international audience, has been inspiring.
The Companion opens, however, with a selection of keystone chapters in Part I that
provide an overview of current and emerging theory on the intersections of social media
and politics. Our contributors in this section revisit existing and established theories,
from agenda-setting to the public sphere, and explore emerging frameworks for under-
standing the impact of online and social media on journalism, authenticity, mediation,
and the political process. They present concepts such as hybrid media and third spaces

2
 I ntroduction

as means to conceptualise the continuing transformations in the contemporary media

ecology, and examine the impact of networked media logic on existing systems of politi-
cal communication.
Part II moves to a close examination of the political uses of social media by move-
ments around the world. Some of the studies collected here are concerned with spe-
cific events and actions, from the revolutionary protests in Egypt to the emergence of
anti-austerity movements in Spain or Greece; others examine more broadly the various
developments in their specific countries of interest, from the long history of civic move-
ments in South Korea to the emergent opposition against Azerbaijan’s authoritarian
regime. While each of these chapters in itself has a fascinating story to tell about how
the adoption of social media for political communication is flavoured both by a view
towards international trends and a need to cater to local traditions and preferences, we
particularly encourage a reading across these chapters, to explore the sometimes surpris-
ing inspirations and interconnections that emerge as activists look to learn from social
media experiences elsewhere in the world.
Part III, finally, explores in detail the gradually increasing adoption and adapta-
tion of social media for political campaigning, across a range of national and regional
elections and referenda. This section of the Companion is organised broadly chrono-
logically, opening with two longitudinal studies of campaigning in Swedish and UK
elections and closing with a number of snapshots of social media uses in very recent
campaigns, including the Brazilian presidential election, the Danish elections for the
European parliament, and the Scottish independence referendum, all in 2014. Again,
reading across these chapters with an eye towards chronological developments as well
as national differences is supremely rewarding: at a general level, it reveals the growing
sophistication of social media-based political campaigning approaches, but from case
study to case study, it also highlights the reinvention of wheels, the missteps and the
dead ends that appear to also be an inescapable aspect of this continuing process.
A collection of this size is not designed to be read cover to cover in one sitting, of
course, and so each individual chapter stands on its own to tell a compelling story. For
those readers who are interested simply in finding out more about the role of social
media in the political debates amongst Indian civil society, or the use of Twitter and
Facebook in recent Israeli election campaigns, those chapters will offer valuable new
insights. But we encourage you to trace the interconnections, the similarities and differ-
ences, the influences and inspirations that connect the many cases collected in Parts II
and III, and to return to the theoretical frameworks outlined in Part I which underpin
and enrich the empirical analyses. There is no right or wrong way to approach this
collection: explore whichever way you prefer, and in doing so uncover the network of
connections and complexities that exist at the nexus of social media and politics.

3
 Par t I

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