British Journal of Management, Vol.

19, 103–119 (2008)

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2007.00540.x

Human Resource Management as a Field

of Research*
Fernando Martı́n-Alcázar, Pedro M. Romero-Fernández and
Gonzalo Sánchez-Gardey
University of Cádiz, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Plaza Carlos Cano,
s/n 11002 Cádiz, Spain
Corresponding author email: [email protected]

Drawing on Snow and Thomas’s (Journal of Management Studies, 31 (1994), pp. 457–
480) matrix, we empirically explore the state of the art in human resource management
(HRM) research. The data were obtained through a questionnaire directed to HRM
scholars all over the world, in which they were asked about their particular theoretical
and methodological approaches. The evidence obtained shows clearly that HRM
scholars are progressively abandoning the universalistic perspective and completing
their models with contingent and contextual variables. Trying to classify the different
contributions proposed and discuss their integration, HRM is described as a field of
research with three dimensions: subfunctional, strategic and international. The paper
concludes that to provide reliable explanations and valid responses to professional
problems, HRM research must advance simultaneously in these three dimensions. As
follows from our analysis, there are certain HR issues that still need to be addressed: (1)
the strategic use of HR practices, (2) their international applicability, (3) global HR
strategies and (4) the synergic integration of HR activities. Nevertheless, to advance our
knowledge in these issues, it seems necessary to integrate previous research in
subfunctional, strategic and international aspects of HRM.

Introduction bureaucratic issues, to a more strategic orienta-

tion. In this sense, human resource management
Over the last two decades, scholars have explored (HRM) has started to be considered as a broad
how firms cope with globalization, competitive function covering personnel management strate-
uncertainty, and the threats from a changing gies, policies, practices and overarching philoso-
environment. Recent strategic models have fo- phies (Schuler and Jackson, 1987a, 1987b).
cused mainly on inner determinants of competi- Although HRM models originally were virtually
tiveness, moving from an external to an internal disconnected from strategic thinking, the increas-
orientation (Hoskisson et al., 1999; Stopford and ing importance of intangible resources has high-
Baden-Fuller, 1994). This change has produced a lighted firms’ workforce and social issues as a
shift from the traditional perspective of personnel central element of strategy (Aragón Sánchez
management, focused on administrative and et al., 2003; Boxall, 1996; Boxall and Purcell,
2003; Budhwar, 2000; Buller and Napier, 1993;
*The authors are alphabetically ordered. This study has Carmona Moreno, Céspedes Lorente and Jérez
benefited from financing from the Research Project Gómez, 2000; Hendry and Pettigrew, 1992).
SEJ2004-01751/ECON of the Spanish Ministry of Globalization has added new questions to the
Science and the Research Group SEJ-449 of the
Andalusian Government. The authors would like to HRM debate. As the literature at the beginning of
thank British Journal of Management reviewers for their the 1990s pointed out, the increasing international
constructive comments on earlier versions of the paper. activity of firms and the new organizational forms

r 2007 British Academy of Management. Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford
OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA, 02148, USA.
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104 F. Martı´n-Alcázar, P. M. Romero-Fernández and G. Sánchez-Gardey

that appeared because of it made it necessary to (SHRM) (Delery and Shaw, 2001; Wright and
reconsider the influence of environmental variables McMahan, 1992) or international HRM (Ozbil-
(Brewster, 1993; Schuler, Dowling and De Cieri, gin, 2004). Difficulty in defining the concept
1993; Sundaram and Black, 1992). arises from the broad domain of the field, which
The HRM discipline has grown quickly from covers several research areas and levels of
the first models proposed to explore it from a analysis (Delery and Shaw, 2001), and from its
global and strategic perspective (Galbraith and relative youth (Wright and McMahan, 1992).
Nathanson, 1978; Lindtroh, 1982; Niniger, 1980; Authors such as Wright and McMahan (1992),
Schuler, 1981; Sweet, 1982). In this process, we Boxall (1993, 1996), Truss and Gratton (1994),
must highlight the importance of some crucial Snell, Youndt and Wright (1996) and Ulrich
theoretical revisions (Brewster, 1999; Jackson and (1997) have tried to offer comprehensive defini-
Schuler, 1995; Wright and McMahan, 1992) as tions able to integrate the different dimensions
well as special issues of dedicated journals such as that modern HRM involves.
the International Journal of Human Resource In trying to shed some light on this complex
Management (1997) and the Human Resource landscape, Boxall (1993, 1996) identified, using
Management Review (1998). HRM has also an in-depth review of the literature, two different
incorporated inputs from different psychological, ways of defining HRM. The first considers it as a
organizational, sociological and economic the- specific approach to manage employment rela-
ories, as Jackson and Schuler (1995) and McMa- tionships that is oriented to commitment, as
han, Virick and Wright (1999) have pointed out. proposed by Walton (1985), Guest (1987) and
These inputs, together with a variety of articles, Storey (1995). The second definition considers
journals and groups focused on the topic, describe HRM in a more comprehensive manner, defining
a state of the art characterized by a multiplicity it not as a particular orientation to personnel
of theoretical approaches, methodologies and management, but as a broader function directly
research interests. The amount of knowledge linked to a firm’s strategy. Boxall (1996, p. 59)
accumulated in the last few years draws a complex argued that, as a consequence of this approach,
state of the art in HRM. Therefore, it is necessary HRM is not necessarily oriented to improving
to stop and think about research in this field in employee commitment, and that none of the
order to state what we know, and point out the possible personnel management orientations is
issues that still need addressing. excluded. Wright and McMahan (1992), Jackson
In this sense, our paper contributes to the and Schuler (1995) and Wright, Dunford and
HRM debate by clarifying the present landscape Snell (2001) explained that different HRM
in the discipline, describing covered and uncov- policies and practices can be designed depending
ered topics, as well as the research approaches on a firm’s strategic orientation. Therefore, the
and methodologies adopted by scholars. To do second approach, which several authors refer to
so, we draw on data directly obtained from HR as SHRM, can be considered a broader way of
academics from all over the world. As explained understanding HRM (Schuler and Jackson,
later, this empirical analysis is based on Snow 1987a; Wright and McMahan, 1992). The re-
and Thomas’s (1994) framework, which provides source-based view of the firm played a crucial
an interesting description of the management role in providing solid theoretical arguments to
research process. explain how a firm’s human capital, as an
idiosyncratic resource that is difficult to analyse
and imitate, can be a source of competitive
Review of the literature advantage (Wright, Dunford and Snell, 2001).
Regarding the level of analysis, HRM can be
Concept of HRM
conceptualized in two ways: (1) a micro orienta-
A number of authors have pointed out that there tion focused on functional issues; and (2) a macro
is confusion over the meaning of HRM, which perspective that analyses it from a strategic
has restrained its theoretical development (Ferris viewpoint (Fisher, 1989; Mahoney and Deckop,
et al., 2004; Wright and Boswell, 2002). Scholars 1986; Wright and Boswell, 2002). For example,
have even found it difficult to distinguish it from Fisher (1989) differentiated between two types of
other related concepts, such as strategic HRM HRM activities: (1) one set related to the role of

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Human Resource Management as a Field of Research 105

HRM managers in strategy formulation and Schuler, 1995; McMahan, Virick and Wright,
strategic decision making; and (2) another set of 1999) is required because of the introduction of
operational activities, such as recruitment, train- the strategic and international dimensions. More
ing and selection, developed mainly by line recently, economic and sociological arguments
managers and HRM staff. have been incorporated through agency and
Similarly, Wright and Boswell (2002) proposed transaction cost theory (Barringer and Milko-
a typology of definitions based on two dimen- vich, 1998; Gómez Mejı́a, Tosi and Hinkin, 1987;
sions: (1) level of analysis, and (2) number of Lepak and Snell, 1999; Romero and Valle
practices considered. They tried to avoid the Cabrera, 2001), a resource dependence perspec-
ambiguity of the adjective strategic in the field of tive (Balkin and Bannister, 1993; Harrel-Cook
HRM, distinguishing between a functional per- and Ferris, 1997) and institutional theory (Ei-
spective (individual orientation and single prac- senhardt, 1988; Gooderham, Nordhaug and
tice approach) and a strategic orientation Ringdal, 1999; Paauwe and Boselie, 2003; Scott
(business unit/organizational level orientation and Meyer, 1994), amongst others. Strategic
and multi-practice approach). Delery and Shaw thinking has contributed to HRM by providing
(2001) also argued that SHRM could be con- the criteria to evaluate its capability to be a
sidered as a particular approach to HRM source of competitive advantage through a
characterized by a higher level of analysis and a resource-based view of the firm (Barney and
broader domain. Following Wright and McMa- Wright, 1998; Boxall, 1996; De Sáa Pérez and
han (1992), Ferris et al. (1999), Delery and Shaw Garcı́a Falcón, 2002; Kamoche, 1996; Lado and
(2001) and Wright and Boswell (2002), we can Wilson, 1994; Richard and Johnson, 2001;
say that recent research on HRM has included a Wright, Dunford and Snell, 2001). Finally, there
strategic approach directly linked to organiza- are inputs from other organizational theories,
tional competitiveness. such as the behavioural perspective (Huang,
Moreover, authors such as Sundaram and 2001; Jackson, Schuler and Rivero, 1989; Schu-
Black (1992), Schuler, Dowling and De Cieri ler, 1987; Schuler and Jackson, 1987a, 1987b;
(1993) and Sparrow, Schuler and Jackson (1994) Sparrow, Schuler and Jackson, 1994; Tubre and
have added a necessary point of complexity to Collins, 2000), open systems theory (Snell, 1992;
HRM definitions, introducing the international Wright and Snell, 1991; Zedeck and Cascio,
dimension. As pointed out earlier, globalization 1984) and more recent approaches such as human
and the internationalization of firms’ activities capital (Cascio, 1991; Lepak and Snell, 1999;
introduced new research questions to the HRM Snell and Dean, 1992; Wallace and Fay, 1988)
debate, such as the expatriation process (Ander- and social capital (Adler and Kwon, 2002; Leana
son, 2005; Hebert, Very and Beamish, 2005), and Van Buren, 1999; Nahapiet and Ghoshal,
diversity management (Jackson, Joshi and Er- 1998).
hardt, 2003; Lorbiecki and Jack, 2000) and It is possible to reorganize this multiplicity of
differences between global, regional and local approaches into four research perspectives ac-
HRM strategies (Jackson, 2002; Schuler and cording to the specific emphasis on HRM
Tarique, 2007). Attempting to incorporate these (Brewster, 1999; Chadwick and Cappelli, 1999;
policies in previous definitions, Ferris et al. (1999) Delery and Doty, 1996). The universalistic
conceptualized HRM as a function with three perspective focuses on the strategic importance
dimensions: functional, strategic and international. of human capital, as well as the set of best
In this sense, they added international personnel practices through which it is created and man-
management issues to the two previous approaches aged. Direct empirical relationships are sought
identified by Mahoney and Deckop (1986), defin- between HR and performance (Duncan and
ing the function in a broader sense to cover the Hoffman, 1981; Gerhart and Milkovich, 1990;
new questions appearing because of globalization. Rumberger, 1987; Russell, Terborg and Powers,
1985; Terpstra and Rozell, 1993; Tsang, 1987).
The contingent perspective completes the univer-
Theoretical and methodological development
salistic perspective by adding a third intervening
Application of many different theoretical ap- variable, such as strategy (Chang and Huang,
proaches from several disciplines (Jackson and 2005; Lado and Wilson, 1994; Lengnick-Hall and

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106 F. Martı´n-Alcázar, P. M. Romero-Fernández and G. Sánchez-Gardey

Lengnick-Hall, 1988; Richard and Johnson, internal consistency (De Sáa Pérez and Garcı́a
2001; Wright, Dunford and Snell, 2001; Wright, Falcón, 2002; MacDuffie, 1995; Romero and
McMahan and McWilliams, 1994), the organi- Valle Cabrera, 2001). Scholars such as Fields,
zational context (Aycan, 2005; Balkin and Chan and Akhtar (2000) or Ding and Akhtar
Bannister, 1993; Jackson and Schuler, 1995; (2001) are introducing structural equation mod-
Jones, 1984; Pfeffer, 1987) or the external elling as a powerful tool to simultaneously
environment (Becker and Gerhart, 1996; Boxall, analyse the existence of latent constructs, such
1996; Burgess and Connell, 2006; Osland and as synergic systems of HR, and their relationship
Osland, 2005; Schuler and Walker, 1990). The to other multidimensional concepts such as
configurational perspective explores the internal performance, firm strategy or group dynamics.
dynamics of the HRM system, and analyses how In conclusion, a review of the literature shows
the different elements can be combined synergis- that present HRM research is characterized by a
tically in different management patterns that multiplicity of objectives, levels of analysis,
represent diverse orientations to HRM (Arthur, theoretical approaches and empirical methodol-
1992; Delery, 1998; Delery and Shaw, 2001; ogies. The increasing interest in strategic and
Lepak and Snell, 1999; MacDuffie, 1995; Miles international issues has fostered the development
and Snow, 1984; Snell and Dean, 1992; Wright of more comprehensive models and extended the
and Snell, 1998). Finally, the contextual per- domain of the field. Thus, it appears necessary at
spective reconsiders the importance of the this time to review the state of the art and to
context, not only as a contingent variable, but analyse and reorganize the different contributions
also as a framework for HRM decisions that are that scholars have made (Schuler and Jackson,
influenced by and influence the environment in 2005).
which they are embedded (Brewster, 1993, 1995, Snow and Thomas’s (1994) work offers a tool
1999; Brewster and Bournois, 1991; Brewster to systematically analyse the state of management
and Lockhart, 1992; Hendry and Pettigrew, research based on a matrix defined by two
1986, 1992; Muller, 1999; Paauwe, 1991; Poole, dimensions: (1) stage of theory development
1990; Sparrow and Hiltrop, 1994). This fourth (building or testing), and (2) purpose of theory
way of theorizing has provided interesting (description, explanation or prediction). By
arguments to explain the international dimen- analysing how the different contributions are
sion of HRM, especially about how cultural, distributed throughout the six cells of the matrix
social and political influences vary across the (Figure 1), it is possible to describe how academia
different contexts in which international firms is developing knowledge, as well as research
operate (Brewster et al., 1999). purposes and modes of theorizing.
There is divergence in the literature over the
empirical methodologies applied. Strongly de-
ductive tools allow universalists to better achieve
statistical strength in hypothesis testing. The Description Explanation Prediction

contextual perspective uses inductive logic (Brew- 1 2 3

Theory
ster, 1999). Depending on their research objec- building
Identify key Establish Examine boundary
constructs and relationships conditions of a
tives (Chadwick and Cappelli, 1999; Ferris et al., variables among constructs theory
1999), authors choose specific tools to test (What) and provide (Who, Where and
theoretical Why)
dependence between variables and relationships rationales for
(w2, Kendall’s tau or analysis of variance observed
relationships
(ANOVA)), normally through regression (Huse- (How and Why)
lid, Jackson and Schuler, 1997; Keng-Howe
4 5 6
Chew and Chong, 1999; Wood and Albanese, Theory
testing Developing and Documenting Testing competing
1995; Youndt et al., 1996) that allows scholars to validating measure relationships theories of the
of key constructs among variables same phenomenon
introduce moderating and mediating variables through hypothesis through critical
(Miller and Lee, 2001; Way-Kwong, Priem and testing experiments
Cycyota, 2001). Techniques such as cluster or
factorial analysis are also applied to identify Figure 1. Snow and Thomas’s (1994) matrix
HRM configurations, and to analyse their Source: adapted from Snow and Thomas (1994).

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Human Resource Management as a Field of Research 107

The study Table 1. Sample and population delineation

Population Sample
As pointed out earlier, we use the Snow and
Thomas (1994) framework to study the particular Europe 65.5% 56.2%
situation of HRM research in each of the cells, in North America 25.2% 35.4%
Asia and Africa 7.1% 6.7%
order to describe how scholars build and test South America 2.2% 1.7%
theory from a descriptive, explanatory or pre-
scriptive point of view.
ment scholars. In this sense, they provide us
reliable items to describe (1) the objectives
Sample
pursued in each of the six stages of theory
An online questionnaire was sent to an interna- development and (2) the different field research
tional sample of 1656 HRM scholars identified methods used to build and test theory. Never-
through the membership database of the HRM theless, as Snow and Thomas’s (1994) framework
division of the Academy of Management, and was not specifically designed for the HRM field,
through lists of attendees at specialized research it was necessary to include other variables in
meetings such as the EIASM conferences and order to describe scholars’ approaches to HRM
workshops, CRANET meetings, Cádiz and research. Thus, the original items provided by
Pablo de Olavide University HRM workshops Snow and Thomas (1994) were completed with
and IJHRM conferences. Questionnaires were six other questions. The final questionnaire
sent in several rounds of emails between June and comprised the following sets of variables, all of
October 2004. The online method used (the them defined as 0–5 Likert scales.
questionnaire was designed as a .php form) made
a larger sample possible through reduced survey
(a) Scholars’ objectives. We extracted informa-
costs and response time. We received 223
tion about scholars’ research purposes: (1)
satisfactory responses after three rounds of
identification of key concepts, (2) establishment
emails asking scholars to complete the online
of how and why these key concepts are related,
survey and after rejection of invalid cases (mainly
(3) prediction of the future behaviour of vari-
because scholars declared they were not primarily
ables, (4) measurement of key concepts, (5)
focused in HRM). The response represented
measurement of the relationships among vari-
13.5% of the sample, with the majority of
ables and (6) testing competing theories explain-
respondents coming from European (56.2%)
ing the same phenomenon. This first set of factors
and North American (35.4%) universities. Com-
was defined drawing on the variables used by
paratively fewer responses were received from
Snow and Thomas (1994) to define their matrix,
Asia (6.7%) and South America (1.7%). Never-
so it was useful for us to identify scholars’
theless, through a w2 test we confirmed that these
research purposes and the stages of theory
percentages were proportional to the geographical
development to which they contribute.
distribution of the population of HR scholars.
Therefore, we can consider that our sample was
representative enough, given that no significant (b) Theories. Scholars were questioned about
differences were found between our 223 cases and the theories and perspectives they used to support
the entire population with respect to scholars’ their propositions. The list of approaches drew
country of origin (the only demographic variable on previous reviews of the literature (Jackson and
available in the databases used to identify HR Schuler, 1995; Wright and McMahan, 1992). An
academics). Table 1 shows sample and population open option was provided to capture options not
proportions. included in the list. Scholars were requested to
choose between the following options: (1) the
resources and capabilities view, (2) the behaviour-
Measures
al perspective, (3) open systems theory, (4) agency
Snow and Thomas’s (1994) work points out some and transaction cost theories, (5) human capital
of the issues that need to be measured to identify theory, (6) social capital theory, (7) resource
the research approaches followed by manage- dependence theory and (8) institutional theory.

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108 F. Martı´n-Alcázar, P. M. Romero-Fernández and G. Sánchez-Gardey

(c) Research approach. Delery and Doty’s in each of the six cells of Snow and Thomas’s
(1996) distinction between universalistic, contin- (1994) matrix, six dependent variables were
gent and configuration perspectives was used to introduced, measuring the importance given to
extract information on assumptions about the the different research objectives identified:
relationship between variables. Following Brewster
CELL 1: identify key constructs and variables
(1995, 1999) we added a fourth alternative to
CELL 2: establish relationships among con-
capture the adoption of an inductive contextual
structs and provide theoretical rationale for
approach.
observed relationships
CELL 3: examine boundary conditions of a
(d) Data-obtaining methods. Also taking Snow theory
and Thomas’s (1994) list of field research CELL 4: developing and validating measures
methods into account, a second section of the of key constructs
questionnaire was designed to describe the CELL 5: documenting relationships among
methods used by scholars to obtain information: variables through hypothesis testing
(1) direct and participant observation, (2) inter- CELL 6: testing competing theories of the
views, (3) questionnaires, (4) computer databases, same phenomenon through crucial experiments
(5) simulations, (6) laboratory experiments or (7)
computer simulations. ANOVA outputs provided us not only means
for each item (in a 0–5 scale) but also the F
values, so we could assess the statistical signifi-
(e) Data analysis methods. The questionnaire cance of mean differences. Drawing on these
differentiated between qualitative (i.e. case stu- results, we could describe the particular research
dies, Delphi, repertory grid) and quantitative (i.e. approaches followed by scholars in the different
ANOVA, regressions, cluster analysis, factorial stages of theory development. In this sense, Table
analysis) methods. 2 presents mean values obtained for each item in
each of the cells of Snow and Thomas’s (1994)
(f) Research interests. Scholars were asked matrix. The F statistic allowed us to decide if the
about their interest in particular HR practices importance given to the different methods,
(staffing, recruitment and selection, compensa- theories, topics or approaches was particular to
tion, training, socialization, and motivation) and each stage or, on the contrary, represented a
in the broader topic of SHRM (Delery and Shaw, common pattern in HRM research.
2001; Schuler, 1992; Schuler and McMillan, 1984;
Wright and McMahan, 1992; Wright, Dunford
and Snell, 2001). As can be observed, we Results
introduced items regarding just two of the three Cell 1: Theory building/description
traditional HR levels. Because of the diversity of
The first cell represents a basic stage in theory
HR-related policies, the middle operational level
development. Description contributes to the
was not considered. Nevertheless, an open
comprehension of reality through identification
response in this question was allowed to identify
of key concepts and constructs, i.e. pointing out
relevant managerial policies not covered by the
‘what’ should be studied (Dubin, 1978). Because
options provided.
scholars base their propositions and hypotheses
on these elements, a correct specification is
Data analysis
important for generating solid theory. The F
To describe the particular conditions of the state values for the majority of variables were satisfac-
of the art in each of the six cells, we analysed tory (po0.01). Therefore, scholars who re-
significant mean differences using ANOVA. sponded that their main objective was the
Table 2 shows the results obtained from an identification of key concepts showed signifi-
ANOVA where theoretical frameworks, research cantly different behaviour (Table 2).
approaches, methodologies and specific research Table 2 shows that when research was oriented
interests were considered as independent vari- to the identification of constructs and variables,
ables. To analyse separately the mean differences models relied basically on behavioural theory and

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 Table 2. Results of ANOVA (means, F statistics and levels of significance)

CELL 1: Identification CELL 2: Description CELL 3: Examination of CELL 4: Measures CELL 5: Relationship CELL 6: Test of
of key constructs of relationships the boundaries of theories development testing competitive theories

Mean F Mean F Mean F Mean F Mean F Mean F

Theories Resource-based view 2.92 5.199*** 2.89 4.536*** – 0.706 3.00 3.635** – 1.156 – 0.676
Behavioural perspective 3.18 2.940* 3.12 3.240** 3.45 4.173** 3.32 4.032** 3.21 3.783** 3.14 3.520**
Open system 2.13 3.361** 2.23 8.772*** 1.80 3.735** 1.79 4.405** – 1.868 1.89 6.605***
Agency/transaction costs – 0.661 – 0.843 – 2.145 – 0.798 – 1.713 1.89 7.840***
Human capital 2.31 2.932* 2.31 2.555* 2.27 3.257** – 1.905 – 2.223 2.61 5.285***
Social capital 1.59 3.691** 1.67 5.559*** 1.43 3.797** – 2.027 1.48 4.087** 2.05 7.549***
Resource dependence 1.48 2.915* 1.63 4.436** – 1.449 – 1.077 – 0.807 1.86 4.766***

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Institutional theory 2.01 2.445* 2.06 4.058** 1.45 2.532* – 1.796 – 0.239 2.65 7.995***
Research Universalistic 1.37 2.592* – 1.348 1.42 2.570* 1.55 3.070** 1.51 3.393** 1.53 2.881*
approach Contingent – 1.474 3.15 6.324*** 3.22 3.994** 3.38 7.395*** 3.04 5.833*** 3.22 4.640***
Configuration – 1.999 1.52 2.903* 1.09 4.297** 1.54 4.029** 1.64 5.263*** 1.74 5.040***
Contextual 2.93 3.315** 2.95 3.683** – 1.764 – 0.929 – 0.657 3.41 3.836**
Data-obtaining Direct participation 2.16 8.759*** 2.05 6.197*** – 0.459 – 1.140 – 2.032 – 2.012
methods Interviewing 3.54 9.319*** 3.36 6.008*** 2.97 3.380** 1.43 2.600* 1.23 3.578** – 2.216
Human Resource Management as a Field of Research

Questionnaire survey – 0.780 – 1.167 4.24 8.520*** – 2.117 2.14 4.545** 2.81 4.493**
Archival analysis 1.67 4.022** 1.91 4.555** – 1.935 – 0.426 – 0.991 – 1.576
Databases 1.57 2.848* 1.54 3.746** 1.65 4.481*** – 0.028 – 0.465 – 0.494
Experimental simulations – 1.610 – 2.124 1.04 5.760*** 4.25 9.259*** 4.34 14.553*** 4.36 3.010*
Laboratory experiments 0.34 2.561* 0.48 2.710* 0.81 5.379*** – 1.501 – 1.519 2.02 4.120**
Computer simulations – 1.085 0.48 2.304* 0.71 5.006*** 1.38 4.270** 1.56 3.452** 1.90 6.234***
Data analysis Qualitative analysis 2.70 5.333*** – 1.905 – 1.784 0.73 2.689** – 2.009 0.84 4.214**
methods Univariate analysis 1.04 5.896*** 1.06 2.735* 1.21 2.695* 0.60 3.513** – 1.372 0.57 3.407**
Multivariate analysis – 1.537 – 0.975 2.66 3.485** 0.43 2.967* – 1.876 0.48 3.886**
Research Staffing/recruitment/ 1.58 3.266*** – 1.473 2.12 2.960* 1.66 2.703* 2.02 3.114** 2.49 6.087***
interests selection
Compensation 1.49 3.113*** – 0.324 2.06 3.141** – 1.052 – 1.388 – 1.787
Training 1.83 2.331* – 1.623 – 0.868 – 1.520 – 0.658 2.30 3.237**
Socialization 1.42 2.877* 1.43 3.126*** – 1.321 – 1.430 1.44 2.628* 1.77 5.215***
Motivation 2.11 6.192*** – 2.021 2.74 4.437** – 1.799 2.39 3.573** – 2.002
Human resource 3.07 2.898* – 1.592 – 2.104 – 1.834 – 0.374 3.72 7.936***
strategies

Significance levels: *po0.1; **po0.05; ***po0.01.

109

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110 F. Martı´n-Alcázar, P. M. Romero-Fernández and G. Sánchez-Gardey

the resource-based view, while the contextual designed to explain links between HR concepts
approach was perceived as being the most suitable included additional third variables as potential
research approach. Resource dependence and mediators and moderators of the relationships.
social capital theories received the lowest valua- The data also show that data obtained to
tions. Results for the universalistic approach identify relationships were normally extracted
seemed to confirm the assumption that present through interviews and direct participation
research gives lower importance to the identifica- methods. However, in this case, we cannot say
tion of best practices, and that third contextual much about data analysis methodologies. The
factors are starting to be considered, as pointed out results were only significant in the univariate
by Jackson and Schuler (1995) and Brewster (1999). analysis (showing a low valuation). Hence,
As can also be observed, the evidence used by scholars who looked for relationships between
HR scholars to identify key research questions key concepts did not differ from others in terms
was normally extracted from interviews. Quali- of their data analysis methodologies. A similar
tative methods were used more than quantitative result was obtained for research interests. In this
methods because of the nature of data obtained case, the only particular characteristic high-
from interviews. Therefore, the data showed that lighted by the data was the low interest of this
the descriptive stage of theory building followed group of scholars in socialization.
an inductive logic of analysis. Surprisingly,
laboratory experiments and secondary data
Cell 3: Theory building/prediction
analysis (archives and databases) received the
lowest valuation, although these methods are The third cell represents research oriented to
traditionally used to obtain conclusions from establish the conditions under which the theory
evidence (Snow and Thomas, 1994). holds true, explaining what or who produces
Data for particular research interests con- certain effects, and where and how. Thus,
firmed that, in order to describe and build theory, prediction draws on research in the previous
scholars focus their attention on multi-functional cells, but incorporates variables and hypotheses
constructs more than on isolated policies. In their in a theoretical model with clearly defined
attempt to identify key concepts, they paid boundaries (Snow and Thomas, 1994, p. 467).
attention to HR strategies as a comprehensive ANOVA identified the variables that signifi-
topic that integrates different HR practices. cantly describe the research profile of those
authors interested in the prediction of the future
behaviour of variables (Table 2). The means of
Cell 2: Theory building/explanation
the theoretical perspectives showed that beha-
Research oriented to build theory from an vioural theory was the most valued, followed by
explanatory point of view contributes to HRM the human capital approach. In this case, the
research in three ways (Snow and Thomas, 1994, p. resource-based view was not significantly related
467): (1) analysing the sense and the strength of the to prediction. As expected, the conditions under
relationships between the key concepts and con- which relationships were predicted to happen
structs, (2) identifying additional variables that can were specified through the introduction of third
help to describe the phenomena more precisely, intervening variables in models. This result could
and (3) theoretically explaining these relationships. explain the relatively higher valuation received
Table 2 shows the variables that could be for the contingent approach.
considered as significant descriptors of the state In this case, significant differences were found
of the art in this cell. The profiles for Cells 1 and 2 for research perspectives. Scholars preferred to
were similar for the theoretical perspectives. The use quantitative methods for data obtained from
F statistic was significant for the same theories, questionnaires. The importance given to multi-
and the means for the behavioural perspective variate tools showed that data analysis techni-
and the resource-based view were comparatively ques seemed to be more sophisticated. As in the
higher (Table 2). Data on research approaches previous cell, the data for some topics did not
led to an interesting conclusion: the result for the show a trend. The F statistic was significant for
contingent approach was significant and its mean only three items, and only motivation had a mean
was the highest. This showed that models exceeding 2.5.

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Human Resource Management as a Field of Research 111

Cell 4: Theory testing/description similar to those obtained for previous cells. The
behavioural perspective was the most valued
Description contributes to the theory testing stage
theoretical framework, although in this case
through the measurement of key constructs, a
arguments arising from the resource-based view
task that can be carried out from two alternative
were not emphasized as valid tools to measure
viewpoints (Snow and Thomas, 1994): analysis of
links. As was noted previously, models designed
how the definition and measurement of variables
to test relationships were developed mainly from
can be improved, or empirical research to study
a contingent perspective. This result seems logical
construct validity and compare results obtained
if we consider that these links have been specified
from different conceptualizations.
through contingent models, as results for this
The number of theoretical perspectives that
approach in Cell 2 show.
significantly describe the research by scholars
Analysis showed that data used to test relation-
interested in key concepts measurement was
ships were extracted mainly from questionnaires
found to be lower. Results for the F statistic
and analysed using quantitative methods. The
were similar for the remainder of the variables
data confirmed a light trend towards multivariate
(Table 2). The data show that scholars high-
analysis, although means obtained were relatively
lighted the importance of the resource-based view
low. Staffing, recruitment and selection, sociali-
and behavioural theory: results that appear to
zation, and motivation were the three topics that
build the theoretical foundations of the disci-
presented significant differences. However, none
pline, not only in terms of what theory building
reached a particularly high mean value.
means, but also in terms of construct measure-
ment. However, the data also show that this task
was carried out from a contingent point of view, Cell 6: Theory testing/prediction
considering not only isolated variables but also
Different theories explaining the same phenom-
their connections to other conditional influences.
enon must be confronted to test the degree each
Research to measure key concepts appeared to be
adds to the understanding of variables and
carried out from a quantitative point of view,
prediction of their future behaviour. Inputs from
drawing on data from questionnaires. However, this
previous stages are required. Hence, cells should
conclusion needs to be interpreted cautiously,
be interpreted as stages of an accumulative
because ANOVA’s F is only significant for uni-
process (Snow and Thomas, 1994).
variate analysis. A similar result was found for what
The number of variables with significant results
research interests mean. The only characteristic that
led to the conclusion that scholars followed a
differentiated scholars interested in construct mea-
particular approach when they compared differ-
surement was the relatively lower importance given
ent theories explaining the same reality. As in the
to staffing, recruitment and selection.
previous cell, the adoption of the resource-based
view was not significantly related to prediction,
and the behavioural perspective received the
Cell 5: Theory testing/explanation
highest valuation. However, in this case, the
When exploring in the testing stage of theory number of significant theoretical frameworks was
development, scholars based their work on links much higher. It was interesting to observe how
between variables and constructs specified by (as in Cell 3, which was also oriented to
previous research (Cell 2). Therefore, the objective prediction) human capital theory was highlighted
is to support relationships with empirical evidence. as one of the most frequently used frameworks,
Although theoretical models normally identify together with other new theories such as social
relevant associations, empirical research must capital and institutional theories.
tackle many conflicting issues about their sense, Although the mean for contingent analysis
shape or intensity (Snow and Thomas, 1994). remained high in this cell, contextual analysis
Studies focused on the test of relationships did received the highest valuation. Therefore, we
not seem to have a particularly different research concluded that scholars paid attention to the
approach. The number of significant variables in framework in which theories were applied. The
the ANOVA was reduced (Table 2), and, for importance given by scholars to questionnaire
those with valid F statistics and means, was surveys and multivariate analysis confirmed that

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112 F. Martı´n-Alcázar, P. M. Romero-Fernández and G. Sánchez-Gardey

research in this cell was characterized by a strategic importance of human resources, and to
quantitative focus, following the common ap- identify which particular characteristics sup-
proach to all predictive research, as the results for ported this role (value, rareness, inimitability).
Cell 3 showed. Methods such as experimental Furthermore, data obtained for Cell 2 showed
simulations, laboratory experiments and compu- that the resource-based view also contributed to
ter simulations presented very low means. Means theory explanation, clarifying links between
obtained for research interests confirmed that HRM and a firm’s competitiveness and perfor-
respondents normally compared theories to ex- mance. The data were not so conclusive for the
plain the HRM function considered as a whole remainder of the frameworks considered,
from a strategic point of view rather than as although it was interesting to observe the
isolated items. importance given to human capital theory in
prediction (Cells 3 and 6).
We also found support for the assumption that
Conclusions HRM models have been defined through con-
tingent and contextual models (Martı́n Alcázar,
Outline of present research in HRM
Romero Fernández and Sánchez Gardey, 2005a,
This study presents an analysis of the state of the 2005b). Results for this approach were significant
art in the field of HRM, based on a review of the in almost all cells, showing high levels of use.
literature and data obtained from 223 scholars in Therefore, we could conclude that present HRM
the field. Snow and Thomas’s (1994) framework research rejects the possibility of finding best
was applied to explore how the discipline is practices, and acknowledges the influence of third
building and testing knowledge. The diversity of variables that condition relationships.
approaches in this field and the expansion of the It was possible to find significant differences
domain of HRM made this analysis necessary. By between research done to build and to test theory,
exploring the results obtained from the empirical which were consistent with the Snow and
study (Table 2), it was possible to identify general Thomas (1994, p. 466) arguments. The data
trends in HRM research and the extent to which showed that scholars who focused on the
scholars followed particular approaches when identification of key concepts and relationship
they focused on each stage of the theory measurement adopted an inductive logic in
development process. analysis, extracting evidence from interviews or
The data showed a clear preference towards the direct participation and analysing data through
behavioural perspective as the theoretical foun- qualitative methods. However, when the objec-
dation of the field (a mean value of over 3 in all tive was to test theory or to predict future
cells). This result confirmed its importance not behaviour of variables, the methodologies
only for theory building but also for testing. The changed and scholars showed a clear preference
result demonstrated that the behavioural per- for quantitative tools based on data obtained
spective is useful not only to provide descriptions from questionnaire surveys.
but also to explain and predict HRM variables. Although HRM is a broad area covering many
Therefore, it can be concluded that much of subtopics, our data did not confirm the existence
HRM research draws on the basic assumption of of any pattern of particular interests throughout
behavioural theory that employees’ behaviour is the different stages of theory development. A
the key element of HRM strategies as well as a deeper analysis seems to be necessary to explore
potential moderator of its effects on performance how the field is creating and testing knowledge
(Jackson, Schuler and Rivero, 1989; Wright and about specific HRM dimensions, such as staffing,
McMahan, 1992). Scholars also highlighted the recruitment and selection, compensation, perfor-
importance of the resource-based view of the firm mance assessment, and socialization policies.
in identifying and measuring key concepts (Cells Nevertheless, it was interesting to observe how
1 and 4). This view provides solid arguments to SHRM was the only topic with means of over 3
analyse the degree to which a resource can be in the theory building/description phase. This
considered as a source of competitive advantage. seemed to confirm that scholars have identified
The ANOVA results confirmed that scholars HR strategy as a key construct in models
relied heavily on this framework to justify the (Wright and McMahan, 1992). However, lack

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Human Resource Management as a Field of Research 113

of significance in the other cells pointed to depending on the step of the theory development
research into the connection of strategy to third process in which each scholar places his/her
variables as comparatively less developed. work. In this sense, we have observed how a
In conclusion, we can describe HRM research contextual-qualitative point of view provides solid
as a collective process of development. Key arguments to build theory from a comprehensive
concepts and relationships are identified from point of view. The contingent-quantitative ap-
an inductive point of view, extracting relevant proach, on the other hand, helps us to identify
issues from data obtained through interviews and moderating variables in empirical models ori-
direct participation methods. We can conclude ented to test relationships.
that HRM scholars recognize the central role In spite of the academic focus of this paper,
played by employee behaviour, which moderates some recommendations for HR practitioners
the effect of personnel management policies on may also be derived from the results. In our
performance. We can also conclude that HRM opinion, the analyses confirm the need to reject
models are specified from a strategic point of the universalistic approach to manage personnel
view, considering a firm’s workforce as a source issues. In fact, scholars in this field have reached a
of competitive advantage, as supported by the consensus about the need to consider third
resource-based view of the firm. Moreover, intervening variables that make HR much more
results for the ‘research approaches’ item confirm complex than expected by the first professional
that these models acknowledge the influence of models. It seems clear that the adequacy of HRM
third contingent variables that mediate relation- practices depends on strategic and environmental
ships, suggesting that the best practice approach conditions.
seems to be superseded in HRM research. When
the objective is to test theory or predict the future
Future research in HRM
behaviour of variables, scholars prefer deductive
and quantitative analysis based on data extracted As pointed out in our review of the literature, and
through questionnaire surveys. as confirmed by our data, modern HRM could be
described as a three-dimensional field of research.
To provide reliable explanations of the function
Academic and professional implications
and valid responses to professional problems, it
It follows from the above that HRM is no longer must advance simultaneously in the three dimen-
the non-theoretical field described at the close of sions identified by Mahoney and Deckop (1986),
the 1980s (Bacharach, 1989; Dyer, 1985; Paauwe Ferris et al. (1999) and Wright and Boswell
and Boselie, 2005). Nevertheless, further research (2002): subfunctional, strategic and international.
is required to define and measure more precisely The data obtained from the survey showed
core concepts (e.g. HRM strategies) and to clearly how scholars are abandoning the pure
establish the conditions under which certain subfunctional approach, in which HR practices
relationships take place. Recommendations for are analysed in isolation, without considering
future scholars in the field of HRM flow from their international implications or their connec-
some of the conclusions pointed out. For tions to HR strategies. From its origins as a field
example, ANOVA has helped us to identify the of research, HRM has described staffing, assess-
theoretical frameworks in which scholars can find ment, compensation, planning or motivation
the rationale to support their propositions about policies as management instruments to reduce
the strategic importance of HRM (i.e. resource- problems of conflict, turnover and absenteeism or
based view of the firm) as well as about internal to improve staff productivity (Martı́n Alcázar,
dynamics within the workforce (i.e. behavioural Romero Fernández and Sánchez Gardey, 2005a).
perspective). Similarly, data also seem to point However, when one adds the strategic and
out the increasing importance of certain theories international dimensions to the HR domains,
that provide strong arguments to explore con- several questions that still need to be addressed
crete dimensions of HRM, such as the human arise. For example, more research is needed in
capital or institutional theories. Finally, results zone a of Figure 2. It seems necessary to explain
could also help us to identify which research how HR activities can be used strategically (Lam
approach and methodology could be more useful and Ho, 2006; Millmore, 2003), or how they can

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114 F. Martı´n-Alcázar, P. M. Romero-Fernández and G. Sánchez-Gardey

environment. As Schuler, Dowling and De Cieri

(1993) explained, models at the global level must
consider a broader set of external variables to
Subfunctional
explain the role that SHRM plays in developing
and sustaining competitive advantages. The
contextual approach, which, as we have seen, is
one of the main pillars of HRM research, can
a b
help scholars to explain this international dimen-
d
sion of HR strategies. Brewster and Hegewisch
(1993) or Brewster et al. (1999), for example,
c provided interesting comparative studies that
Strategic International identify differences between countries in social,
organizational or cultural variables. Contextual
research could also be helpful to introduce a
multiple stakeholders’ perspective in HRM mod-
Figure 2. Dimensions of HRM research els, as Schuler and Tarique (2007) suggested. The
Source: Authors’ elaboration from Mahoney and Deckop reconsideration of the effects of HRM activities
(1986), Ferris et al. (1999) and Wright and Boswell (2002). proposed by this approach might facilitate the
development of more sophisticated models, con-
sidering not only financial outcomes but also
be combined to form synergic systems of practices social consequences, as well as the effects of
(Delery, 1998; Wright and Snell, 1998). Something HRM on third interested agents.
similar happens when we analyse the intersection Finally, zone d in Figure 2 represents an issue
between the subfunctional and the international of investigation that is particularly underdevel-
dimensions (zone b). As Schuler and Tarique oped: the definition of international HR systems
(2007) pointed out, in their recent review of the of practices. Different HR configurations have
literature on international HRM, multinational been proposed (Delery, 1998; Delery and Shaw,
enterprises and firms involved in cross-border 2001; Lepak and Snell, 1999; MacDuffie, 1995;
alliances need to rethink many of their traditional Miles and Snow, 1984; Snell and Dean, 1992;
HR practices. To help organizations manage and Wright and Snell, 1998) but little has been said
control a global workforce, across a wide variety about the international applicability of these
of social and cultural contexts, research must systems. As Schuler and Tarique (2007) pointed
explore in more depth global career systems out, future research needs to address how HRM
(Suutari and Taka, 2004), appraisal practices can simultaneously maintain the coherence of the
(Harvey, 1997), international labour relation- synergic HR system and adapt it to the particular
ships (Gunnigle, Collings and Morley, 2005) conditions of each regional and local context in
and compensation mechanisms (Engle and which the firm operates.
Mendenhall, 2004). Furthermore, internationali- Our paper attempts to present a broad picture
zation has highlighted the importance of a new of theory development in the field of HRM.
set of activities not considered by previous However, we find it necessary to complete this
research but that will drive future discussions exploratory analysis with more revisions that
about HRM. For example, more knowledge could help us to identify remaining questions and
would be very helpful about what expatriation unmeasured concepts. As HRM is a broad topic,
and repatriation processes mean, as well as about it would also be interesting to replicate the study
transnational teams, diversity management or within more concrete dimensions of this research
cross-cultural competences development (Schuler area, such as international or strategic HRM,
and Tarique, 2007). which are nowadays attracting the attention of an
Another area of HRM that still seems to be increasing number of scholars. In this sense,
under-researched is the interlink between the meta-analyses, such as those of Boselie, Dietz and
strategic and international dimensions (zone c). Boon (2005), could be especially useful to
Global firms require global HRM strategies to systematically reorganize the previous literature.
cope with the complexity of the international These kinds of studies could help us to compare

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Human Resource Management as a Field of Research 115

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Human Resource Management as a Field of Research 119

Fernando Martı́n-Alcázar, PhD, is Professor of Organization at Cádiz University, where he

coordinates the MBA programme. He is currently leading two funded research projects, both of
them focused on the effects of HR strategies on a group’s social capital. He has published his work in
the field of HRM in international peer reviewed journals, such as the International Journal of Human
Resource Management, the Journal of Business Research and the Journal of Knowledge Management.

Pedro Romero-Fernández, PhD, is Associate Professor in the Organization Department of the

University of Cádiz. His investigations are across the broad spectrum of strategy, human resources
and people management, particularly the effects of HRM strategies on a group’s creativity. Together
with Professor Martı́n-Alcázar, he has published in top international and Spanish journals, and has
more than 15 years of experience in HRM teaching.

Gonzalo Sánchez-Gardey, PhD, teaches HRM at Cádiz University, and has been a visiting fellow at
Oxford Brookes University Business School and the European Institute for Managing Diversity. He
completed a PhD on the influence of workforce diversity in strategic HRM. His work has appeared
in research reading books, in international journals such as the International Journal of Human
Resource Management and Management Revue, and in top national publications.

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