LOAD FACTORS IN TURNS

In straight-and-level flight, an aeroplane has a load factor of 1, or 1G. Turns increase

the load factor. The steeper the angle of bank, the greater the load factor. A 60 o turn
produces a load factor of 2, making the effective weight of an aeroplane twice its
normal weight. If an aeroplane weighs 2,500 pounds in a level flight, in a 60 o tum, it
will have an equivalent weight of 5,000 pounds. A very steep turn may impose an
increase in the loading as high as ten times the normal load. With some types of
light aeroplanes, a bank of 80° or over can result in possible structural failure.
By reference to Fig.2.39, it is readily apparent that the G load on the aeroplane
structure increases with the angle of bank. However, other maneuvers than just
turns impose high load factors on the aeroplane.

For example, when an aeroplane is pitched up more or less abruptly, the load factor
is increased correspondingly. Therefore, while in a turn, should the pilot cause the
aeroplane to abruptly pitch up, the G forces resulting from the pitching maneuver
will be added to those caused by banking the aeroplane. The combined load factor
may exceed the design limits of the aeroplane. As a result pilots should be cautious
about conducting maneuvers which require excessive movement of the controls in
more than one plane.
STALL
A stall occurs when the wing is no longer capable of producing sufficient lift to
counteract the weight of the aeroplane. A smooth laminar flow of air over the wing
is necessary to produce lift. The stall occurs when the angle of attack is increased to
the point where the steady streamlined flow of air is unable to follow the upper
camber of the airfoil. The airflow separates from the wing, becomes turbulent or
"burbles”, the downwash and pressure differential are greatly reduced and loss of
lift occurs. The aeroplane ceases to fly. This is called the stall condition.
The point at which the airflow pulls away from the wing is called the separation
point.
When the angle of attack is increased to the point that the separation point moves
forward far enough to exceed the design factor of the wing, the wing must stall. The
stalling angle is commonly in the vicinity of 20° but varies with the shape of the
airfoil.
An aeroplane will stall if the critical angle of attack is exceeded. It will stall at any
airspeed if the critical angle of attack is exceeded. It will stall at any attitude if the
critical angle of attack is exceeded.
Most light aircraft lack an angle of attack indicator, so airspeed is used to detect an
approaching stall. Early signs may include light airframe buffeting as airflow begins
to separate over the wing, sometimes felt in the control wheel. As the angle of
attack increases, buffeting intensifies, and lateral control decreases due to aileron
ineffectiveness in the separated airflow. In a full stall, the wings lose all lift, and the
nose drops.
On most aeroplanes, the stall occurs gradually. Because of the washout of the
wings, the wing roots will stall before the wing tips. The alert pilot will recognize the
symptoms and take corrective action while there is still aileron control and before all
lift is lost.
The high lift airfoil, with a curved upper surface and a nearly flat bottom surface,
generally stalls at a lower speed and a greater angle of attack than the more
efficient high speed symmetrical or laminar flow airfoil commonly used in general
aviation aeroplanes today.
An aeroplane properly loaded will stall at an indicated airspeed somewhere near the
stalling speed published in the Pilot's Operating Handbook. This stalling speed, for
all practical purposes, remains the same regardless of altitude.
It must be remembered that aeroplane attitude, airspeed and angle of attack are
not consistently related.
FACTORS AFFECTING STALL
1. Weight.
2. Centre of Gravity.
3. Turbulence.
 4. Turns.
5. Flaps.
6. Snow, Frost and Ice.
7. Heavy Rain.
Weight affects the stalling speed of an aeroplane. Weight added to an aeroplane
requires that it be operated at a higher angle of attack to produce the lift necess
ary to support that weight. Therefore, the critical angle of attack will be
reached at a higher airspeed.
The center of gravity (CG) significantly affects an aircraft's stall characteristics. A
forward CG increases stall speed, requiring more lift and a higher angle of attack to
maintain flight, bringing the aircraft closer to the critical angle of attack where a
stall occurs. The download on the horizontal tail surfaces can be considered as part
of the aeroplane's weight since it acts in the same direction as the weight force.
Stalling speed, as we know, increases as the weight increases. Conversely, an aft
CG reduces the tail's downforce requirement, potentially lowering stall speed, but
can also make the aircraft less stable and stall recovery more difficult.
Turbulence affects stall speed of an aeroplane. An upward vertical gust causes an
abrupt increase in angle of attack because of the change in direction of the air
relative to the wing and could result in a stall if the airspeed of the aeroplane is at
the same time relatively low.
Turns affect the stalling speed of an aeroplane. As the angle of bank increases, the
amount of lift required to sustain level flight also increases because of the
increasing load factor that is integral to the action of banking an aeroplane. To
increase lift, the pilot must increase the angle of attack of the airfoils. Therefore, in
a turn, the stall angle is reached at a higher airspeed than in level flight. Most Pilot's
Operating Handbook have a chart similar to Fig.2.42 that depicts the stalling speed
at various angles of bank. There is, however, a fairly simple formula for determining
stalling speed: normal stalling speed times the square root of the load factor being
imposed. Typical load factor values and their square roots are shown in the following
table:

Flaps affect the stall speed of an aeroplane. The use of flaps, by increasing the lift
potential of the wing, results in a reduction in the stall speed, as indicated in
Fig.2.42.
Snow, Frost and Ice affect the stall characteristics of an aeroplane. An accumulation
of frost, snow or ice on the wings will substantially alter the lifting characteristics of
the airfoil and cause an increase in the stall speed and a decrease in the stall angle
of attack. Even a very light layer of frost spoils the smooth flow of air over the airfoil
by separating the vital boundary layer air. The airflow separates much farther
forward than would normally be expected for the particular angle of attack. Lift is
reduced substantially, the stall angle is decreased and the stalling airspeed is
increased.
On the clean airfoil in Fig.2.43, the separation point between the laminar and the
turbulent airflow occurs near the trailing edge and the downwash angle is high.
Downwash angle, it must be remembered, is a very important function of lift. On the
frost covered airfoil in Fig.2.44, the separation point has moved much further
forward, despite the fact that the angle of attack of the two airfoils is the same
(about 12° which is about the angle for best angle of climb). The downwash angle is
substantially reduced, as is lift.

Air regulations prohibit takeoff with frost, snow, or ice on any critical surface,
including wings, control surfaces, rotors, propellers, stabilizers, and for rear-engine
aircraft, the upper fuselage. This “clean aircraft concept” is vital for flight safety. All
critical surfaces must be inspected and confirmed free of contamination before
takeoff. Snow, frost, or ice must be removed using a heated hangar or approved de-
icing methods—relying on onboard de-icing or anti-icing systems after takeoff is not
acceptable.
Frost, ice or snow formations that have a thickness and surface roughness
comparable to medium or coarse sandpaper can reduce wing lift by as much as
30% and increase drag by as much as 40%. With a coating of frost such as this that
appears relatively thin and insignificant, the aeroplane may manage to take off but
as soon as the nose is raised to climb away, a stall may result at an angle of attack
that would normally, on a clean wing, represent a safe climbing angle. The loss of
lift and the decrease in the stalling angle of attack is not just the result of
contamination of the wing surface but also, and perhaps most significantly, the
contamination of the leading edge of the wing.
If a minimal coating of frost can have such a detrimental effect on lifting capacity,
an accumulation of snow and ice will be even worse. It is possible for the stalling
speed to be increased to such a degree that the aeroplane cannot reach a speed
sufficient to achieve take-off, or if having achieved take-off, to maintain flight. The
weight of an accumulation of ice or snow, of course, adds to the total weight of the
aeroplane but the weight factor is secondary to the effect the accumulation has on
the airflow over the wing. Frost, snow, ice and slush should always be removed
before take-off.
Dirt and bugs also disrupt the smooth surface and should be removed so that the
surface is clean and uncontaminated.
Never assume that loose snow, slush, or water will blow off during takeoff, as they
can freeze to wing and tail surfaces. As lift is generated, airflow over the wing
causes a pressure drop and a slight temperature decrease. Near freezing ambient
temperatures, this cooling can cause liquid on the surfaces to turn into ice during
the take-off roll.
In aircraft with wing fuel tanks, cold fuel can lower the surrounding wing surface
temperature. After flight, if the fuel is colder than the ambient air, clear ice may
form above the tanks—difficult to detect and caused by a phenomenon called cold
soaking. Cold soaking can also lead to frost formation in high humidity, even above
freezing, and this frost can quickly reappear after removal.
On the other hand, warm fuel that is loaded into fuel tanks on a cold day may melt
snow around the tanks. This liquid may then refreeze before take-off.
Heavy Rain affects the stalling speed of an aeroplane. Recent studies have indicated
that an aircraft exposed to heavy rain experiences a loss of lift and an increase in
drag as a result of the effect the rain has on the boundary layer and the surface of
the airfoil. The rain drops that strike the leading edge are accelerated backward into
the boundary layer and decrease air flow velocity. This causes premature separation
of the boundary layer, an increase in drag and early stall.
The rain also causes a roughness of the airfoil surface. A thin water film forms on
the surface. Raindrop impact craters and surface waves in the water film roughen
the airfoil surface. The effect on lift and drag is not unlike that caused by frost.
It is possible that the aircraft may stall before the stall warning devices activate.
These devices provide a warning signal just prior to the normal stall angle of attack.
Airfoils contaminated with ice, snow, frost or heavy rain stall at an angle of attack
much lower than this predetermined value.
Laminar airfoils are very sensitive to any surface roughness that changes the nature
of the boundary layer and can be expected to be affected by heavy rain. Aircraft
with a canard have also been shown to experience control difficulties in heavy rain.
Obviously the key to preventing the problems associated with heavy rain is to avoid
the phenomenon. Do not penetrate heavy rain cells when landing, taking off or
going around. Unfortunately, such heavy downpours cannot be predicted. If caught
in one, expect a significant increase in descent rate and a decrease in airspeed.
STALL WARNING DEVICES
Many light aircraft have a stall warning system that detects the angle of attack
using a vane or a small hole near the wing’s leading edge. It activates a cockpit
warning—typically a buzzer, horn, light, or bell—about five to ten knots before a
stall. However, these systems are calibrated for clean wing conditions and cannot
detect performance degradation due to icing, making them unreliable in such
situations.
The most effective stall warning is the pilot’s own training and experience. While
stall training is part of pilot licensing, many avoid practicing stalls afterward.
Regular practice is essential to develop instinctive recognition of an impending stall
and automatic corrective response.
STALL RECOVERY
Because insufficient lift is being generated by the wings to maintain flight, a stalled
aeroplane starts to lose altitude. To recover from a stall, the pilot can:
1. Lower the nose to decrease the angle of attack, or
2. Apply more power to accelerate the aeroplane. If, however, the aeroplane is
already under full power when the stall occurs, the only option for recovery
from the stall is to lower the nose of the aeroplane.