ISSN(O): 2320-5407 Int. J. Adv. Res.

13(07), July-2025, 345-351

Journal Homepage: -www.journalijar.com

Article DOI:10.21474/IJAR01/21326
DOI URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/21326

RESEARCH ARTICLE

SA’DIYYA SHAIKH’S FEMINIST APPROACH THROUGH HER INTERPRETATION

OF SUFI THOUGHT IN IBN ʿARABI
Nur Farhana Abdul Rahman, Nurul Izzah Abdul Majid and Zaizul Ab. Rahman
1.Research Centre of Theology and Philosophy, Faculty of Islamic Studies, UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Manuscript Info Abstract
……………………. ………………………………………………………………
Manuscript History The discourse on women's rights, feminism, and gender justice within
Received: 06 May 2025 the context of Islam has gained increasing attention, especially as it is
Final Accepted: 09 June 2025 brought to the global stage and highlighted in secular European
Published: July 2025 societies. In the wake of post-9/11 Islamophobia, where Muslim
women are often portrayed as oppressed figures, there arises a critical
Key words:-
Feminism, Sa‘diyya Shaikh, Challenges need to present alternative narratives that are more just and inclusive in
to Islamic Thought discussions on gender within Islam. This is where figures like Sa‘diyya
Shaikh, a contemporary Islamic scholar from South Africa, emerge
with unique approaches that combine Sufi feminist perspectives and
Qur‘anic hermeneutics in re-evaluating the roles and status of women
in Islam. This article examines the feminist perspectives and
methodology promoted by Sa‘diyya, particularly through her
engagement with the Sufi thought of Ibn ʿArabi in constructing a
spiritually-grounded Islamic feminist discourse. This study employs a
qualitative design by analyzing her ideas through content analysis of
Sa‘diyya Shaikh‘s book, Sufi Narratives of Intimacy: Ibn ʿArabi,
Gender and Sexuality, and other related writings. The findings reveal
that Sa‘diyya‘s approach presents an alternative response to the
misrepresentation of women‘s status in Islam as perpetuated by
Islamophobic narratives. She draws upon Ibn ʿArabi‘s arguments
regarding the equality of men and women in various aspects of Islamic
spirituality, thereby affirming the elevated status of women in Islam.

"© 2025 by the Author(s). Published by IJAR under CC BY 4.0. Unrestricted use allowed
with credit to the author."
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Introduction:-
In recent decades, a significant trend has emerged among Muslim women to critically examine and reassess their
roles and positions within Islamic societies. This inclination stems from real-life experiences such as gender
discrimination, denial of basic rights, and the dominance of patriarchal systems, raising the critical question: Is the
perceived marginalization and inferiority of women truly rooted in Islamic teachings, or is it a consequence of
culturally and socially patriarchal interpretations? (Wadud, 1999; Barlas, 2002).This trend has become even more
pressing when coupled with external pressures, particularly the global wave of Islamophobia in the modern world.
On the global stage, Muslim womenespecially those who wear the hijab—are frequently used as symbols of
oppression within biased and stereotypical Western discourses. Such narratives reinforce the perception that Islam is
a religion that restricts women's freedom, thereby diminishing their status in the eyes of the world (Bullock, 2002).

Corresponding Author:-Nur Farhana Abdul Rahman 345

Address:- Research Centre of Theology and Philosophy, Faculty of Islamic Studies,
UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia.
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This situation calls for a constructive, knowledge-based response to restore the dignity of Muslim women grounded
in the true framework of Islam.

Islamic Feminist Movements

Against the backdrop of the aforementioned historical context, various forms of Islamic feminist movements have
emerged to champion gender justice based on Islamic principles. These movements do not replicate Western
feminism in its entirety. Instead, they offer contextual approaches grounded in the Qur‘an and Sunnah, while
critically engaging with interpretive traditions that have marginalized women. Among the key approaches
are(Badran, 2009; Mir-Hosseini, 2006):

Textual Feminism
This approach focuses on re-reading the Qur‘anic text from a gender perspective. Prominent figures include Amina
Wadud (1999), whose work Qur'an and Woman revisits verses relating to women to highlight messages of justice
and equality. Asma Barlas (2002), in Believing Women in Islam, asserts that the Qur‘an does not support patriarchy,
and that the oppression of women stems from erroneous interpretations.

Contextual and Legal Feminism

Ziba Mir-Hosseini (2006, 2015) offers an approach centered on reforming Islamic family law, arguing that the
principle of justice is a core foundation of the Shariah. Her involvement in projects such as Musawah demonstrates
how legal interpretations and applications can be aligned more closely with gender justice.

Sufi Feminism
A more spiritual approach is presented by Sa‘diyya Shaikh (2012) in her book Sufi Narratives of Intimacy. She
explores the thought of Ibn ʿArabi and shows how the framework of Sufism allows for a more inclusive
understanding of gender. In Sufism, the relationship between the human being and God does not depend on gender
but on spiritual potential. Shaikh argues that Islamic mysticism offers a strong basis for gender justice and the
liberation of Muslim women.
The diversity of Islamic feminist movements demonstrates that the struggle for gender justice ranges from textual
reinterpretation to legal reform and spiritual experience. This in turn proves that Muslim women are now emerging
as agents of change who advocate for their rights by utilizing religious sources—distinct from Western feminist
movements.

Background of Saʿdiyya Shaikh

Sa‘diyya Shaikh was born in 1969 in Krugersdorp, South Africa, and is of Indian descent. She obtained a degree in
psychology from the University of Natal, Durban, South Africa in 1991. In 1993, she earned a degree in religious
studies from the University of Cape Town. She continued with her master's studies in the same field and university,
completing them in 1996. In 2004, she also obtained a certificate in Women‘s Studies under the Women's Program
at Temple University. She then pursued her PhD in religious studies at Temple University, Philadelphia, completing
it in 2004.

Shaikh served as a lecturer in the Department of Religion at Temple University from 1998 to 2000. She was actively
involved in religious and community programs with her students. Among her contributions was serving as director
of the Seminarian Interaction Program for the National Conference on Community and Justice from 1999 to 2001.
She led this initiative by organizing interfaith dialogues and seminars for graduate students from Jewish, Christian,
and Islamic traditions in New York City. The program aimed to foster religious understanding by discussing
sensitive issues such as religious diversity, pluralism, and social justice.

As a lecturer, she also participated in a seminar titled ―Islamic Feminism: Textual Study‖ at the Center for Religion
and Cross-Cultural Studies, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, from June to July 2004. Currently, she
continues to serve as Professor of Religious Studies in the Department of Religious Studies at the University of
Cape Town since 2002. Shaikh is also involved in several international committees, including the Advisory
Committee on Religion and Sexuality Consulting at the American Academy of Religion (AAR) since 2011.Her
experience as a lecturer and her engagement in the academic world reflect her deep interest in education. Her ideas
and thoughts are expressed through seminars, inter-university programs, and her involvement in various
international committees. Thus, her progressive thought is able to reach other countries through her writings and
lectures.

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Sa‘diyya Shaikh‘s life has been influenced by the socio-political context of apartheid South Africa. A significant
aspect of her religious tradition that she strongly upholds in facing contemporary realities is the fact that Islam
emphasizes the human struggle for social justice. The patriarchal systems in society and cultural environmentsoften
cloaked in religious and traditional rhetoricare equally pressing issues that drive her to advocate for gender justice as
taught in Islam (Shaikh, 2003).Her academic writings are grounded in the synergy between intellectual activity,
social responsibility, and spiritual commitment. Her works are not solely based on personal opinions, but also
address the plurality and diversity that exist within the Islamic world encompassing various socio-cultural and
political realities. Therefore, her writings represent a clear rejection of the misunderstandings propagated by
intellectual, political, and literary circles regarding Islamic civilization.

Saʿdiyya Shaikh‘s Works

Building on her career as an Associate Professor in the Department of Religious Studies at the University of Cape
Town, South Africa, Sa‘diyya Shaikh has produced a range of scholarly publications. Her research focuses on
Islamic studies, feminist thought, and Sufism. She has actively authored books, articles, and book chapters. Some
examples of her works includeBook:Sufi Narratives of Intimacy: Ibn ʿArabi, Gender and SexualityPublished in
2012, this book explores feminist concerns within the fields of anthropology, Islam, and Sufism. Shaikh elaborates
on the hermeneutic methods employed and discusses gender equality through the lens of Ibn ʿArabi‘s thought. The
book is significant not only for contemporary issues, social justice, and feminism, but also for the study of gender in
relation to Islamic mysticism. Beside books, there are articles discussed her idea on feminism sufi such as Islamic
Feminist Imaginaries: Love, Beauty and Justice, Ibn ‗Arabi and the Mystical Disruption of Gender: Theoretical
Explorations in Islamic Feminismand Feminism, Epistemology and Experience: Critically (En)gendering the Study
of Islam.

Saʿdiyya Shaikh‘s Feminist Discourse as A Response to Islamophobic Feminist Narratives

Saʿdiyya Shaikh‘s feminist discourse originates from her critique of Western perspectives on Muslim women,
perspectives which are rooted in Islamophobic narratives. Shaikh critiques the experiences of women that are used
as propaganda within Islamophobic rhetoric. According to Shaikh (2013), women's experiences represent one of the
epistemological sources in early feminist theory. This is understandable, as women‘s experiences vary across
different ethnicities. Feminist debates since the 1980s have often centered on issues grounded in women‘s lived
experiences. Among such foundational experiences cited by feminism are the social-political hierarchies that
marginalize women, especially those from the middle class and First World countries (Omar Mokhtar, 2021).
Gender identity, in fact, is interconnected with social location and power, including ethnicity, class, nationality,
religion, geopolitical location, and sexual orientation.

This diversity of women‘s experiences gives rise to the concept of intersectionality, which refers to the intersection
of differences and has emerged as a crucial theory. It signifies an awareness of the interconnection among various
social identities, with gender as one category that relates to others. Such experiences and approaches have led
feminist theorists to focus on power relations and inequalities experienced by diverse groups of women (Shaikh,
2012).The importance of maintaining an intersectional approach to women's issues is clearly illustrated in
contemporary ideologies that include the experiences of Muslim women. Since the events of September 11, 2001,
there has been a proliferation of literature in American and European markets documenting the experiences of
Muslim women. These are often narratives by Muslim women who link their suffering to life in Islamic societies,
portraying Islam as a religion that discriminates against women. These portrayals conflict with the Islamic concept
of women, which requires clarification and differentiation in light of Muslim women‘s diverse experiences (Shaikh,
2012).

Through neo-conservative ideology and right-wing political agendas, women from Islamic backgrounds have
presented their experiences in ways that depict Muslim societies as uncivilized and misogynistic. For political gain,
they have received substantial financial support and acclaim. Figures such as Irshad Manji and Ayaan Hirsi Ali, for
instance, have received clear backing from U.S.led military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq, portraying
themselves as resistors of Islamic fundamentalism. Moreover, books such as Reading Lolita in Tehran by Azar
Nafisi, The Trouble with Islam by Irshad Manji, and The Caged Virgin by Ayaan Hirsi Ali further reinforce the
trope of Muslim women‘s oppression. These writings undeniably intensify Islamophobia.
Therefore, women's experiences and voices must be discussed within an intersectional framework that demands
multi-dimensional analysis. As Shaikh argues, ―religion‖ alone cannot be the sole cause of differing experiences. If
examined only through the lens of religion, the perspectives offered may serve political agendas or other interests.

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Based on this view, the authors observe that Shaikh attempts to clarify women‘s status in Islam through two
additional approaches such as (i)- Explaining women‘s rights based on her interpretation of Ibn ʿArabi‘s thought. (ii)
Applying a hermeneutical method to interpret Qurʾanic verses related to women.However, this article focuses only
on the first approachSaʿdiyya Shaikh‘s feminist interpretation of Ibn ʿArabi‘sthoughtwhile the second is discussed in
another study.

Saʿdiyya Shaikh‘s Feminist Approach Through the Interpretation of Ibn ʿArabi‘s Thought
Shaikh‘s feminist approach to advocating for Muslim women's rights is conducted through an analysis of the
thought of the 13th-century Islamic thinker, Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn ʿArabi. He produced comprehensive understandings
of Islamic cosmology, human nature, and profound conceptualizations of gender within tradition. Islam, as Shaikh
emphasizes, places importance on the analytical category of ―experience.‖ She creatively explores how interpersonal
relationships and spiritual experiences are interwoven in mystical concepts.

Shaikh presents a theoretical framework in the field of feminism and religion. Her innovative reading of Ibn
ʿArabi‘s work provides a ―vibrant condition of possibility‖ for contemporary Islamic feminism.For instance, in her
renowned book Sufi Narratives of Intimacy: Ibn ʿArabi, Gender and Sexuality (2012), Shaikh elaborates on Ibn
ʿArabi‘s religious anthropology, particularly his understanding of human purpose and the nature of existence, and
then translates this into discussions of law, gender, and society. Shaikh references certain aspects of Ibn ʿArabi‘s
thought which depict God‘s most perfect manifestation as observable in women. Therefore, women possess
unparalleled capabilities in sexual intimacy and empathytraits closely tied to knowledge of God.

According to Shaikh (2012), Ibn ʿArabi‘s theological and anthropological contributions, as presented in the Islamic
intellectual tradition, display extraordinary teachings on gender. She argues that men and women in Islam hold equal
status, drawing on Ibn ʿArabi‘s assertions that both genders possess equal capabilities and opportunities to attain
high spiritual ranks.For example, Shaikh explains that in discussing human attributes as divine attributes, Ibn ʿArabi
integrates the qualities of majesty (jalāl) and mercy (jamāl). He provides strong arguments for the equal spiritual
capacities of men and women, including their equal potential to attain the ideal state of the ―Perfect Human‖ (al-
insān al-kāmil) (Shaikh, 2009).

Shaikh (2015) further articulates gender justice through spiritual praxis, referencing Ibn ʿArabi‘s concept of al-insān
al-kāmil to underscore gender equality. Ibn ʿArabi repeatedly asserts that al-insān al-kāmil is a spiritual theory
independent of gender, equally applicable to men and women. In exploring various forms of sanctity, Ibn ʿArabi
highlights verse al-Aḥzāb 33:35, which proclaims spiritual equality for both sexes. He notes that ―no spiritual merit
is granted to men that is denied to women,‖ and that every righteous deed can be performed by both men and
women, with equal reward from God.

Shaikh also underscores the capacity of women to attain the highest spiritual rank, namely that of a walī (saint). The
idea that power, sin, capacity, and human responsibility apply equally to men and women is central to Ibn ʿArabi‘s
teachings on human nature. This religious anthropology has profound implications for restructuring Islamic law
based on gender, as well as addressing deficiencies in current fiqh discourse (Shaikh, 2022).

According to Shaikh, Ibn ʿArabi clearly extends spiritual capacity to women in social agency and, specifically, legal
authority. She cites the example of Hajar (Hagar), whose ritual of saʿī during the Hajj pilgrimage was
institutionalized and applies universally to Muslims. Through this legal framework, she sees the potential for
women‘s spiritual perfection. Gender strength and spiritual capacity thus have the power to shape Islamic law.

Shaikh also discusses legal scenarios where a woman‘s testimony is given equal weight to that of two men, such as a
judge accepting a woman‘s statement regarding her menstrual cycle in ʿiddah cases, or a husband's acknowledgment
of paternity, even with uncertain circumstances. In these cases, a woman‘s statement is treated as equivalent to the
testimony of two men in debt-related matters (Shaikh, 2015).
In discussions of gender and social roles, Ibn ʿArabi offers readers distinct and provocative positions. Regarding the
spiritual capacity shared by men and women as described in Qur‘an verse al-Aḥzāb 33:35, he also touches upon
prophethood, the mission of messengers, and apostleship. He refers to a ḥadīth which affirms that both Maryam, the
daughter of ʿImrān, and Asiyah, the wife of Pharaoh, attained spiritual excellence (kamāl). Furthermore, in relation
to the station of prophethood (nubuwwah), Ibn ʿArabi explains that only men are granted the superlative degree of
perfection (akmaliyyah) (Shaikh, 2015).

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Men and women share in certain degrees of spiritual excellence (kamāl). Hence, both can attain prophethood
(nubuwwah). However, some individuals are granted preference through their status as messengers with divine
missions. Men and women share certain spiritual stages, while some stages involve prioritization, as God states in
the Qur‘an: ―Indeed, We have preferred some prophets over others‖ (Qur‘an, al-Isrāʾ 17:55). God has also made
men and women equally bound by legal rulings. The obligations of women mirror those of men. Likewise, if rulings
apply exclusively to women in certain cases, the same is true for men in others (Shaikh, 2015).

Additionally, Shaikh clarifies gender equality in legal matters by citing Ibn ʿArabi‘s view that both men and women
in Islam follow the same legal rulings (fiqh). For instance, in her study (Shaikh, 2009), she notes that Ibn ʿArabi
believed both men and women are equally qualified to lead mixed-gender congregational prayers—a topic of
significant contemporary debate among 21st-century Muslims. She also argues that women can establish legal
rulings for the Muslim community (Shaikh, 2013).

Ibn ʿArabi holds that ontological differences between men and women—such as issues relating to ʿawrah (modesty
and covering)—carry ethical implications for gender, including in dress code practices. His arguments for women‘s
social equality are clearly grounded in theological views that emphasize the ontological parity of men‘s and
women‘s spiritual nature. These are based on his readings of core Islamic sources and his own mystical experiences.
Furthermore, Shaikh critically engages with Ibn ʿArabi‘s writings on gender by applying feminist analysis to the
tensions between patriarchal formulations and egalitarian gender principles within his works. Importantly, this
tension does not deviate from his original ideas on gender and women in the 13th century.

On Women‘s Leadership, Ibn ʿArabi adopts a courageous position regarding female leadership in prayer—a topic
that has generated significant debate in recent times. He is quoted as follows:

Some permit women to lead men and women in prayer. Shaikh (2015) agrees with this view. Only a few scholars
strictly forbid it. Others allow women to lead prayers for female congregations only. How should this be assessed?
The Prophet testified to spiritual perfection (kamāl) in certain women, just as he witnessed it in some men, although
there may have been more men than women who attained this level. Since perfection (kamāl) is synonymous with
prophethood (nubuwwah), and the Prophet held a leadership role, this affirms that the principle of female imamate is
valid. Those who prohibit it without solid evidence can be dismissed. For Shaikh, such prohibition lacks definitive
textual basis. These restrictions are merely negative opinions, and such arguments are insufficient to override
fundamental principles that allow for women‘s leadership in prayer (Shaikh, 2015).

Here, Shaikh once again asserts that Ibn ʿArabi links the Prophet‘s recognition of women‘s spiritual capacities to
their ritual leadership potential—challenging the views of scholars who reject female imamate. In this case, spiritual
excellence suggests an individual‘s eligibility for ritual leadership, regardless of gender. While some classical
scholars—such as al-Ṭabarī (d. 923)—have addressed the issue of female imams, it has never been considered a
central controversy. In fact, historical documentation on women serving as imams is quite limited.

Through her study Islamic Laws, Sufism and Gender: Rethinking the Terms of the Debate (2015), Shaikh proposes
that applying a Sufi lens to gender discourse in Islamic law opens up space for Muslim feminists to explore
foundational principles of jurisprudence. Any practice that directs inquiry into the definition of humanity, the God-
human relationship, and the related implications for social ethics can inform legal discussions.

Shaikh argues that specific strands of Sufism offer a wealth of resources for developing richer, more relevant
interpretations of Islamic law and understandings of human nature—ones that transcend existing fiqh discourse. Her
analysis of core Sufi teachings proposes a reexamination of ontology and metaphysics to reshape gender ethics in
emerging feminist legal frameworks.

Shaikh believes that the underexplored relationship between Sufism and Islamic law warrants renewed attention in
order to develop contemporary gender ethics. She critically engages with what she sees as shortcomings in gendered
religious anthropology that underpins dominant interpretations of qiwāmah (male authority) and wilāyah
(guardianship). Through a feminist dialogue with Sufi religious anthropology, she offers an alternative foundation
for addressing issues of gender relations and Islamic law. Shaikh writes:
―Sufis do not hold a singular position on gender nor is Sufism an ahistorical panacea of all things good and
benevolent for women. Al-Ghazali, who criticized the shortcomings of a law not firmly rooted in ethical

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praxis, simultaneously formulated an ethics of justice saturated with male domination. Sufism as
practiced in a variety of historical contexts, like other areas of Muslim thought and practice, has been
characterized by tensions between patriarchal inclinations and egalitarian impulses. Although negative
understandings of women emerged in some strands of Sufi thought and practices from its inception,
particularly during its earlier ascetic variety, Sufism in other instances has provided gender-egalitarian
spaces. Textual evidence suggests that early Sufi women adopted diverse approaches to piety and practice.‖
(Shaikh, 2015)

This statement explains that, although negative conceptions of women have emerged in some strands of Sufi
thought—especially during early ascetic phases—Sufism in other contexts has fostered gender-egalitarian
environments. Textual evidence shows that early Sufi women adopted diverse approaches to devotion and practice.
Despite embracing forms of asceticism and spiritual discipline, their lifestyles ranged from traditional gender roles
such as mother and wife to nontraditional roles such as independent travelers, teachers, disciples, and practitioners
of mystical knowledge in their own right.

Islamic Perspectives on Saʿdiyya Shaikh’s Feminist Ideas

Saʿdiyya Shaikh‘s integration of feminism, hermeneutics, and Sufism in addressing gender issues in Islam must be
critically assessed through the lens of mainstream Islamic epistemology. Her use of Ibn ʿArabi‘s mystical thought to
support comprehensive gender equality in Islam raises important concerns. Although Ibn ʿArabi is known as a great
Sufi thinker who developed the concept of al-insān al-kāmil and waḥdat al-wujūd (unity of existence), Shaikh‘s
interpretation of his works to support modern feminist agendas appears highly selective and is not grounded in
established disciplines of Qur‘anic exegesis and Shariah.

Ibn ʿArabi‘s ideas do not represent the totality of Islamic tradition. In fact, as widely acknowledged, his mystical
terminologies require cautious engagement and are not suited to literal interpretation by the general public due to
their symbolic and esoteric nature. Using Sufi discourse as justification to reinterpret Shariah rulings—such as those
concerning ʿawrah, male leadership in the family, or women‘s roles in prayer—is a method that deviates from the
principles of Uṣūl al-Fiqh (Islamic legal methodology).

Moreover, Shaikh openly rejects traditional interpretations of the Qur‘an and ḥadīth on the grounds that they are
patriarchally constructed. She attempts to replace classical scholarly approaches with feminist and contextual re-
readings. This risks undermining the authority of the ʿulamāʾ, ijmāʿ (scholarly consensus), and the science of sanad
(transmission), which are essential to the authenticity of Islamic rulings. In Islam, the interpretation of Qur‘an and
understanding of ḥadīth must follow methodologies passed down through generations of righteous predecessors—
not moderntheories rooted in secular ideologies.

Conclusion:-
Saʿdiyya Shaikh‘s attempt to introduce feminist agendas into Islamic discourse through hermeneutics and Sufism is
a questionable endeavor and should be rejected by Muslims committed to revelation and sound scholarly tradition.
While the defense of women‘s rights is indeed a noble cause, it must be rooted in the authentic disciplines of Islamic
knowledge—not foreign theories that may jeopardize faith and Islamic law. Islam already provides a balanced
framework for gender justice based on divine revelation and natural disposition (fiṭrah), without the need to rely on
relativistic or external ideologies that conflict with the maqāṣid al-sharīʿah (higher objectives of Islamic law).

Acknowledgement:-
This study was funded by GGP 2019-011 Research Grant: Module Construction for Prevention of Violent
Extremism among Women through Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 16 Approach: The Malaysian Case
Study.
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