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CHARACTERIZATIONS OF
C*-ALGEBRAS
 PURE AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS
A Program of Monographs, Textbooks, and Lecture Notes

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1. K. Yano, Integral Formulas in Riemannian Geometry (1910)(out of print)

2. S. Kobayashi, Hyperbolic Manifolds and Holomorphic Mappings (1970)
(out of print)
3. V. S. Vladimirov, Equations of Mathematical Physics (A. Jeffrey, editor;
A. Littlewood, translator) (1970) (out of print)
4. B. N. Pshenichnyi, Necessary Conditions for an Extremum (L. Neustadt,
translation editor; K. Makowski, translator) (1971)
5. L. Narici, E. Beckenstein, and G. Bachman, Functional Analysis and
Valuation Theory (1971)
6. D. S. Passman, Infinite Group Rings (1971)
7. L. Dornhof[, Group Representation Theory (in two parts). Part A:
Ordinary Representation Theory. Part B: Modular Representation Theory
(1971' 1972)
8. W. Boothby and G. L. Weiss (eds.), Symmetric Spaces: Short Courses
Presented at Washington University (1972)
9. Y. Matsushima, Differentiable Manifolds (E. T. Kobayashi, translator)
(1972)
10. L. E. Ward, Jr., Topology: An Outline for a First Course (1972) (out of
print)
11. A. Babakhanian, Cohomological Methods in Group Theory (1972)
12. R. Gilmer, Multiplicative Ideal Theory (1972)
13. J. Yeh, Stochastic Processes and the Wiener Integral (1973) (out of print)
14. J. Barros-Neto, Introduction to the Theory of Distributions (1973)
(out of print)
15. R. Larsen, Functional Analysis: An Introduction (1973) (out of print)
16. K. Yano and S. Ishihara, Tangent and Cotangent Bundles: Differential
Geometry (1973) (out of print)
17. C. Procesi, Rings with Polynomial Identities ( 197 3)
18. R. Hermann, Geometry, Physics, and Systems(1973)
19. N. R. Wallach, Harmonic Analysis on Homogeneous Spaces (1973)
(out of print)
20. J. Dieudonne, Introduction to the Theory of Formal Groups (1973)
21. I. Vaisman, Cohomology and Differential Forms (1973)
22. B. - Y. Chen, Geometry of Submanifolds (1973)
23. M. Marcus, Finite Dimensional Multilinear Algebra (in two parts) (1973,
1975)
24. R. Larsen, Banach Algebras: An Introduction (1973)
25. R. 0. Kujala and A. L. Vitter (eds.}, Value Distribution Theory: Part A;
Part B: Deficit and Bezout Estimates by Wilhelm Stoll (1973)
26. K. B. Stolarsky, Algebraic Numbers and Diophantine Approximation ( 1974)
27. A. R. Magid, The Separable Galois Theory of Commutative Rings (1974)
28. B. R. McDonald, Finite Rings with Identity (1974)
29. J. Satake, Linear Algebra (S. Koh, T. A. Akiba, and S. lhara, translators)
(1975)
30. J. S. Golan, Localization of Noncommutative Rings (1975)
31. G. Klambauer, Mathematical Analysis (1975)
32. M. K. Agoston, Algebraic Topology: A First Course (1976)
33. K. R. Goodearl, Ring Theory: Nonsingular Rings and Modules (1976)
34. L. E. Mansfield, Linear Algebra with Geometric Applications: Selected
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35. N.J. Pullman, Matrix Theory and Its Applications (1976)
36. B. R. McDonald, Geometric Algebra Over Local Rings (1976)
37. C. W. Groetsch, Generalized Inverses of Linear Operators: Representation
and Approximation (1977)
38. J. E. Kuczkowski and J. L. Gersting, Abstract Algebra: A First Look (1977)
39. C. 0. Christenson and W. L. Vox man, Aspects of Topology (1977)
40. M. Nagata, Field Theory (1977)
41. R. L. Long, Algebraic Number Theory (1977)
42. W. F. Pfeffer, Integrals and Measures (1977)
43. R. L. Wheeden and A. Zygmund, Measure and Integral: An Introduction to
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44. J. H. Curtiss, Introduction to Functions of a Complex Variable (1978)
45. K. Hrbacek and T. Jech, Introduction to Set Theory (1978)
46. W. S. Massey, Homology and Cohomology Theory (1978)
4 7. M. Marcus, Introduction to Modern Algebra (1978)
48. E. C. Young, Vector and Tensor Analysis (1978)
49. S. B. Nadler, Jr., Hyperspaces of Sets (1978)
50. S. K. Segal, Topics in Group Rings (1978)
51. A. C. M. van Rooij, Non-Archimedean Functional Analysis (1978)
54. L. Corwin and R. Szczarba, Calculus in Vector Spaces (1979)
53. C. Sadosky, Interpolation of Operators and Singular Integrals: An
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54. J. Cronin, Differential Equations: Introduction and Quantitative Theory
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55. C. W. Groetsch, Elements of Applicable Functional Analysis (1980)
56. I. Vaisman, Foundations of Three-Dimensional Euclidean Geometry (1980)
57. H. I. Freedman, Deterministic Mathematical Models in Population Ecology
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58. S. B. Chae, Lebesgue Integration (1980)
59. C. S. Rees, S. M. Shah, and C. V. StanojeviJ, Theory and Applications of
Fourier Analysis (19 81)
60. L. Nachbin, Introduction to Functional Analysis: Banach Spaces and
Differential Calculus (R. M. Aron, translator) (1981)
61. G. Orzech and M. Orzech, Plane Algebraic Curves: An Introduction
Via Valuations (1981)
62. R. Johnsonbaugh and W. E. Pfaffenberger, Foundations of Mathematical
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63. W. L. Voxman and R. H. Goetschel, Advanced Calculus: An Introduction
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64. L. J. Corwin and R. H. Szcarba, Multivariable Calculus (1982)
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68. D. L. Armacost, The Structure of Locally Compact Abelian Groups (1981)
69. J. W. Brewer and M. K. Smith, eds., Emmy Noether: A Tribute to Her Life
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71. T. W. Wieting, The Mathematical Theory of Chromatic Plane Ornaments
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72. D. B. Gauld, Differential Topology: An Introduction (1982)
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74. M. Carmeli, Statistical Theory and Random Matrices (1983)
75. J. H. Carruth, J. A. Hildebrant, and R. J. Koch, The Theory of
Topological Semigroups (1983)
76. R. L. Faber, Differential Geometry and Relativity Theory: An
Introduction (1983)
77. S. Barnett, Polynomials and Linear Control Systems (1983)
78. G. Karpilovsky, Commutative Group Algebras (1983)
79. F. Van Oystaeyen and A. Verschoren, Relative Invariants of Rings: The
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80. I. Vaisman, A First Course in Differential Geometry (1984)
81. G. W. Swan, Applications of. Optimal Control Theory in Biomedicine ( 1984)
82. T. Petrie and J. D. Randall, Transformation Groups on Manifolds (1984)
83. K. Goebel and S. Reich, Uniform Convexity, Hyperbolic Geometry, and
Nonexpansive Mappings (1984)
84. T. Albu and C. Nastiisescu, Relative Finiteness in Module Theory (1984)
85. K. Hrbacek and T. Jech, Introduction to Set Theory, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded (1984)
86. F. Van Oystaeyen and A. Verschoren, Relative Invariants of Rings: The
Noncommutative Theory ( 1984)
87. B. R. McDonald, Linear Algebra Over Commutative Rings (1984)
88. M. Namba, Geometry of Projective Algebraic Curves (1984)
89. G. F. Webb, Theory of Nonlinear Age-Dependent Population
Dynamics (1985)
90. M. R. Bremner, R. V. Moody, and J. Patera, Tables of Dominant Weight
Multiplicities for Representations of Simple Lie Algebras (1985)
91. A. E. Fekete, Real Linear Algebra (1985)
92. S. B. Chae, Holomorphy and Calculus in Normed Spaces (1985)
93. A. J. Jerri, Introduction to Integral Equations with Applications (1985)
94. G. Karpilovsky, Projective Representations of Finite Groups (1985)
95. L. Narici and E. Beckenstein, Topological Vector Spaces (1985)
96. J. Weeks, The Shape of Space: How to Visualize Surfaces and Three-
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97. P. R. Gribik and K. 0. K ortanek, Extremal Methods of Operations Research
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98. J.-A. Chao and W. A. Woyczynski, eds., Probability Theory and Harmonic
Analysis (1986)
99. G. D. Crown, M. H. Fenrick, and R. J. Valenza, Abstract Algebra (1986)
100. J. H. Carruth, J. A. Hildebrant, and R. J. Koch, The Theory of
Topological Semigroups, Volume 2 (1986)
101. R. S. Doran and V. A. Belfi, Characterizations of C*-Algebras: The
Gelfand-Naimark Theorems (1986)
102. M. W. Jeter, Mathematical Programming: An Introduction to
Optimization (1986)

Other Volumes in Preparation

CHARACTERIZATIONS OF
C*-ALGEBRAS
The Gelfand-Nairnark Theorems

ROBERT S. DORAN
VICTOR A. BELFI
Texas Christian University
Fort Worth, Texas

MARCEL DEKKER, INC. New York and Basel

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Doran, RobertS., [date)

Characterizations of C* -algebras--the Gelfand-
Naimark theorems.

(Monograp?s and textbooks in pure and applied

mathematics ; 101)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. C*-algebras. I. Belfi, Victor A., [date]
II. Title. III. Title: Gelfand-Naimark theorems.
IV. Series: Monographs and textbooks in pure and
applied mathematics ; v. 101.
QA326.D67 1986 512'.55 85-29234
ISBN 0-8247-7569-4

COPYRIGHT ~ 1986 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher.

MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016

Current printing (last digit):

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 To

ROBERT B. BURCKEL
IZRAIL' M. GELFAND
MARK A. NAIMARK
Preface

This book is devoted to giving an account of two characterization theorems

which have had a substantial impact upon our thinking in modern analysis.
These theorems, due to I. M. Gelfand and M. A. Naimark in their original
form, were published in 1943, and served notice to the world that c*-alge-
bras had arrived and were a voice (among many, to be sure) to be heard
regarding future mathematical developments.
This volume is admittedly specialized. Our goal is to discuss the
Gelfand-Naimark theorems and related results, old and new, which have been
stimulated by them. It is our belief that readers with an interest in
Banach algebras and c*-algebras will appreciate and enjoy having these
results collected in a single volume and treated in a unified way. The
book is a natural outgrowth of a paper by Doran and Wichmann (1] which
appeared in 1977.
In order to achieve maximum generality we have treated algebras with-
out identity as well as algebras with identity. Further, much of the theory
requires that one deal with algebras with arbitrary (possibly discontinuous)
involutions and we have done this. However, as the experts know, at these
levels of generality there is a real danger in obscuring the main ideas and
principal lines of thought. We have tried to counteract this by first giving
complete proofs of the (now) classical Gelfand-Naimark theorems (Chapters 2
and 3), and then proceeding to the more refined results in later chapters.
We continually try to be attentive to the needs of the beginning reader
who simply wants to know what the Gelfand-Naimark theorems are all about.
Therefore we do not hesitate to repeat definitions if necessary or remind
the reader of what is going on in particular situations.
An introduction to those parts of the general theory of Banach algebras
needed to understand the remainder of the book is provided in Appendix B.
The theory of Banach algebras with involution is treated in the text. A

vii
viii PREFACE

reader with no previous knowledge of Banach algebras could read Chapter 1

on the history of the Gelfand-Naimark theorems and then should go to
Appendix B before proceeding to Chapter 2. It is expected that the reader
is familiar with basic real and complex analysis and has been exposed to
a first course in functional analysis. For the reader's convenience we
have summarized in Appendix A the main results from functional analysis
which will be used.
It should be emphasized that this book is not intended, in any way,
to replace the existing works and monographs on c*-algebras. Rather, it
is meant to complement and supplement them in a particular area. Even so,
in view of the fairly complete appendix on Banach algebras, the book could
be used as an introductory text on Banach algebras and elementary c*-alge-
bra theory.
The authors are deeply grateful for the help of many friends in the
writing of this book. Among these we would like to cite Professor Robert
B. Burckel for his constant support and interest in the project. He has
read the manuscript carefully and has offered many suggestions which have
clarified proofs and generally improved the exposition. We wish to thank
him also for bringing relevant papers to our attention which we might other-
wise have overlooked. His unselfish giving of his time, even when busy
with large projects of his own, is the sign of a true friend. Professor
Leo F. Boron was very helpful in securing photographs and biographical
information on Gelfand and Naimark. We thank him for his efforts.
The first draft of this book was written while the first author was
a member of the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton. Portions of
the book were also written while he was a visitor in the Department of Math-
ematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The hospitality and
support extended by these institutions is deeply appreciated.
Finally we wish to thank Texas Christian University for partial finan-
cial support during the writing and Shirley Doran for an exceptionally nice
job of typing.

Robert S. Doran
Victor A. Belfi
Contents

PREFACE vii

CHAPTER l. THE GELFAND-NAIMARK THEOREMS: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 1

l. Introduction 1
2. Definitions 3
3. Historical Development: A Tangled Trail 6
4. Gelfand and Naimark: The Mathematicians 9
Exercises 16

CHAPTER 2. THE GELFAND-NAIMARK THEOREM FOR COMMUTATIVE C*-ALGEBRAS 18

5. Gelfand Structure Theory: A Brief Review 18
6. Unitization of a C1'-Algebra 20
7. The Gelfand-Naimark Theorem 22
8. Functional Calculus in C*-Algebras 24
Exercises 28

CHAPTER 3. THE GELFAND-NAIMARK THEOREM: ARBITRARY C*-ALGEBRAS 30

9. Introduction 30
10. Continuity of the Involution 30
11. An Equivalent C*-Norm 31
12. Positive Elements and Symmetry 33
13. Approximate Identities in C*-Algebras 38
14. An Embedding Theorem for C*-Algebras 40
15. The Unitary Seminorm 42
16. The Involution in a C*-Algebra Is Isometric 45
17. The Gelfand-Naimark-Segal Construction 46
18. Construction of Positive Functionals 48
19. The Isometric *-Representation 49
Exercises 50

CHAPTER 4. BANACH *-ALGEBRAS: GENERALITIES 53

20. Introduction 53
21. *-Algebras 53
22. Normed *-Algebras 60
23. A'~-Algebras 77
24. Homomorphisms and Quotients of C*-Algebras 82
Exercises 88

ix
X CONTENTS

CHAPTER 5. *-REPRESENTATIONS ON A HILBERT SPACE: A CLOSER LOOK 94

25. Introduction 94
26. *-Representations on a Hilbert Space 94
27. TheGNS-Construction Revisited 101
28. Irreducible *-Representations 107
29. Pure States and Irreducible *-Representations 110
30. The *-Radical 118
Exercises 123

CHAPTER 6. HERMITIAN AND SYMMETRIC *-ALGEBRAS 127

31. Introduction 127
32. Definitions and Basic Properties 128
33. Hermitian Banach *-Algebras 133
34. Equivalent C*-Norms 150
35. The Russo-Dye Theorem in Symmetric Algebras 153
36. Further Characterizations of C*-Algebras 157
Exercises 162

CHAPTER 7. A FURTHER WEAKENING OF THE c*-AXIOMS 165

37. Introduction 165
38. Every C*-Seminorm Is Automatically
Submultiplicative 167
39. Some Applications 172
Exercises 175

CHAPTER 8. GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERIZATIONS OF C*-ALGEBRAS 177

40. Introduction 177
41. The Numerical Range of an Element in a Normed
Algebra 181
42. Two Numerical Range Formulas 185
43. The Numerical Radius 187
44. Hermitian Elements in a Unital Normed Algebra 189
45. The Vidav-Palmer Theorem and Applications 197
Exercises 200

CHAPTER 9. LOCALLY C*-EQUIVALENT ALGEBRAS 202

46. Introduction 202
47. Locally C*-Equivalent Algebras 202
48. Local c*-Equivalence Implies C*-Equivalence 206
Exercises 218

CHAPTER 10. APPLICATIONS OF THE CHARACTERIZATION THEOREMS 219

49. Introduction 219
SO. Compactifications in Topology 219
51. Almost Periodic Functions and Harmonic Analysis 220
52. The Spectral Theorem for a Bounded Normal Operator 222
53. The Structure Space of an Abelian von Neumann
Algebra 233
54. The C*-Algebra of Compact Operators 235
55. On the Closure of the Numerical Range 236
CONTENTS xi

56. The Gelfand-Raikov Theorem 237

57. Unitary Representations and Positive Definite
Functions 253
58. Completely Positive Mappings and Stinespring's
Theorem 257
59. C*-Algebra Methods in Quantum Theory 264
Exercises 265

NOTES AND REMARKS 270

Finite-dimensional C*-Algebras 270
The C*-Norm Condition on Matrix Algebras 270
The Dauns-Hofmann Theorems 271
The Gelfand-Naimark Theorems for Real C*-Algebras 274
Gelfand-Naimark Theorems for Jordan Algebras 275
A Gelfand-Naimark Theorem for Finitely Generated
C*-Algebras 280
A Characterization of the C*-Norm Condition
Without Using the Norm 281
Representations of Topological Algebras 282
A Characterization of C*-Algebras by Linear
Functionals 284
A Characterization of C*-Subalgebras 285
Symmetric *-Algebras 285
Characterizations of Hilbert Space 285
Characterizations of von Neumann Algebras 286
Characterizations of Commutativity in C*-Algebras 287

APPENDIX A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS 290

APPENDIX B BANACH ALGEBRAS 297

B.l First Properties 297
B.2 Examples 299
B.3 Invertible and Quasi-regular Elements 301
B.4 The Spectrum and Normed Division Algebras 306
B.5 Ideals in Banach Algebras 312
B.6 The Gelfand Theory of Commutative Banach Algebras 337
B.7 Factorization in Banach Algebras 347
B.8 The Holomorphic Functional Calculus 350
Banach Algebra Excercises 356

BIBLIOGRAPHY 373

SELECTED HINTS AND REFERENCES 399

SYMBOL INDEX 411

EXAMPLE INDEX 415

AUTHOR INDEX 417

SUBJECT INDEX 421

CHARACTERIZATIONS OF
C*-ALGEBRAS
1
The Gelfand-Naimark Theorems: Historical Perspective

§1. Introduction.

c*-algebras made their first appearance in 1943 in the now famous

paper of Gelfand and Naimark [1]. Since then hundreds of mathematicians
have contributed more than 2500 publications to the subject. It
continues to grow at a phenomenal rate and has permeated many branches
of mathematics through its connections with group representations,
abstract harmonic analysis, operator theory, algebraic topology, and
quantum physics.
Our primary purpose is to give an account of two celebrated
theorems of Gelfand and Naimark, their tangled history, generalizations
and applications, in a form accessible not only to specialists but also
to mathematicians working in various applied fields, and also to
students of pure and applied mathematics.
There are several reasons why one might wish to study the Gelfand-
Naimark theorems. They are, for example, beautiful in statement,
mathematically elegant, and rich in applications. Furthermore, the
theorems are central to the general theory of c*-algebras. Mathematicians
were quick to recognize the power implicit in the theorems. Spectral
theory of linear operators in Hilbert space was particularly affected
by them. Indeed, the Gelfand-Naimark theorem for commutative C*-algebras
is essentially the spectral theorem for normal operators in slight
disguise. Another aspect of the theorems concerns the canonical and
instructive nature of their proofs. The basic constructions in these
proofs have been imitated in many different and widely divergent
contexts.
What do the Gelfand-Naimark theorems say and how did they
achieve their present form? We shall have a great deal to say about

1
2 CHAPTER 1, GELFAND-NAIMARK THEOREMS

these questions soon. In this introduction we content ourselves with

the following general discussion. Definitions of all terms will be
given in Section 2.
At the turn of the century the abstract tendency in analysis,
which developed into what is now known as functional analysis, began
with the work of Volterra, Fredholm, Hilbert and F. Riesz, to mention
some of the principal figures. They studied eigenvalue problems,
integral equations, orthogonal expansions, and linear operators in
general. In 1918 the axioms for a normed linear space appeared for
the first time in F. Riesz's work on compact operators. The first
abstract treatment of normed linear spaces was given in Banach's 1920
thesis, and later, in 1932, he published his celebrated book Theorie
des operations Zineaires which was to be tremendously influential.
Many of the Banach spaces studied by Banach and others were at
the same time algebras under some multiplication---a fact which they
neither mentioned nor used. It is of some interest to record that in
1932 N. Wiener [1, p. 10), in his work on the tauberian theorem,
observed the fundamental inequality llxYII ::_ llxii·IIYII for the
algebra of absolutely convergent Fourier series; however, no systematic
use of the ring theoretic structure was made in his study---certainly
a missed opportunity!
The notion of an abstract Banach algebra was introduced by M.
Nagumo [1) in 1936 under the name "linear metric ring" in connection
with Hilbert's fifth problem. During the late 1930's the term "normed
ring" was introduced by the Soviet mathematicians. The present term
"Banach algebra" was used for the first time in 1945 by W. Ambrose [1)
in his work on generalizing the L2-algebra of a compact group.
One of the early fundamental results in the general theory of
Banach algebras was a generalization of a classical theorem of
Frobenius that any finite-dimensional division algebra over the complex
numbers is isomorphic to the field of complex numbers. S. Mazur [1)
announced in 1938 that every complex normed division algebra is
isomorphic to the field of complex numbers. (He also dealt with real
normed division algebras and showed that they were isomorphic to
either the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions.) As an immediate
consequence one obtains the following beautiful characterization of
the complex field among normed algebras: any complex normed algebra
2, DEFINITIONS 3

satisfying the norm condition I lxyl I = I lxl I ·I IYI I for all elements
x and y is isometrically isomorphic to the field of complex numbers.
It was Gelfand [1], in his 1939 thesis, who nearly single-handedly
developed the general theory of commutative Banach algebras much as it
is presented in Appendix B.
Many important Banach algebras carry a natural involution. In
the case of an algebra of functions the involution is the operation
of taking the complex-conjugate and in the case of an algebra of
operators on a Hilbert space it is the operation of taking the adjoint
operator. Motivated by these observations and by the earlier work of
Gelfand on the representation ·a£ commutative Banach algebras, Gelfand
and Naimark [1], working together, proved, under some additional
assumptions, the following two theorems:

GELFAND-NAIMWRK THEOREM I. Let A be a commutative Banach

algebra with involution satisfying llx1'xll llx*ll·llxJJ forall x
in A. Then A is isometrically 1'-isomoi>phic to C0 (X), the algebra
of all continuous complex-valued functions which vanish at infinity on
some locally compact Hausdorff space X.

GELFAND-NAIMARK THEOREM II. Let A be a Banach algebra with

involution satisfying llx*x!J = IJx*IJ·I!xiJ foraU x in A.
Then A is isometrically 1'-isomorphic to a norm-closed *-subalgebra
of bounded linear operators on some Hilbert space.

As mentioned earlier, in this book we shall present a thorough

discussion of these two representation theorems. We shall trace, as
carefully as we can, the interesting and rather tangled history which
led to their present form. Full proofs of the theorems will be given,
as well as a survey, with proofs, of recent generalizations and devel-
opments which have been inspired by the theorems. Finally a few
applications of the theorems will be given.

§2. Definitions.

We set down in this brief section the basic definitions that the
reader needs to know to read this chapter with understanding. A
discussion of the elementary theory of Banach algebras is given in
Appendix B.
4 CHAPTER 1. GELFAND-NAIMARK THEOREMS

A linear space A over a field F is said to be an associative

linear algebra over F (or simply an algebra if no confusion can arise)
if for each pair x, y of elements from A a product xy is defined
on A, i.e., a map from Ax A into A, such that for all x, y, z E A
and all A E F:
(i) x(yz) = (xy)z;
(ii) x(y + z) = xy + xz; (y + z)x yx + zx;
(iii) ll(xy) = (llx)y = x(lly).
Real and complex algebras are algebras over R and C respectively.
Whenever the field is unspecified we will be working with complex
algebras. An algebra A is commutative if xy = yx for all x, y E A.
If there exists an element e in an algebra A such that ex x = xe
for all x E A, then A is said to be an algebra with identity.
Throughout this book we shall assume that our algebras are nontrivial,
i.e., that they do not consist of the zero element alone.
A linear subspace I of an algebra A is a left ideal if x E I,
z E A imply zx E I. A linear subspace I is a right ideal if x E I,
z E A imply xz E I. A two-sided ideal is a left ideal that is also
a right ideal. An ideal I of A such I f A is a proper ideal.
An algebra possessing no proper two-sided ideals except {0} is said
to be simple. Of course in a commutative algebra the definitions of
left, right, and two-sided ideals are equivalent. In this case, we
simply write "ideal" for these.
A '''-algebra is an algebra over C with a mapping x + x'' of A

into itself such that for all x, y E A and complex II:

(a) (x + y)* = x* + y*;
(b) (h)* fx*;
(c) (xy)* y*x*;
(d) x** x.
The map x + x* is called an involution; because of (d) it is
clearly bijective. A subalgebra B of A is called a *-subalgebra
if x E B implies x* E B. Similarly, an ideal I is called a
*-ideal if x E I implies x* E I. A *-homomorphism of a ''-algebra
A into a *-algebra B is a linear mapping ¢: A+ B such that
¢(xy) = ¢(x)¢(y) and ¢(x*) = ¢(x)* for all x, y in A. If ¢ is
bijective, ¢ is a *-isomorphism of A onto B, and A and B are
said to be '~-isomorphic.
2. DEFINITIONS 5

An algebra A which is also a normed (resp. Banach) space

satisfying

llxyll ::: llxii·IIYII (x, y E A)

is called a normed algebra (resp. Banach algebra). A normed algebra

which is also a *-algebra is called a normed *-algebra. Of course, if
the algebra is complete it is called a Banach *-algebra.
The involution in a normed *-algebra is continuous if there exists
a constant M> 0 such that flx*ll ::: M·llxll for all x; the
involution is isometric i f llx*ll = llxll for all x. Two normed
*-algebras A and B are isometrically *-isomorphic, denoted A ~ B,
if there exists a *-isomorphism f: A~ B such that I lf(x} I I = I lxl I
for all x £ A.
A norm on a ''-algebra A is said to satisfy the c*-condition if

llx*xll llx*ll·llxll (x £A). (1)

A c*-algebra is a Banach *-algebra whose norm satisfies the c*-condition.

The norm in a c*-algebra with isometric involution clearly satisfies
the condition

llx*xfl (x E A). (2)

It turns out that in a Banach *-algebra (1) also implies (2) without the
assumption that the involution is isometric; however this is highly non-
trivial and will be shown in Chapter III. It is easily seen that
condition (2) implies that the involution is isometric and hence (2)
implies (1). Therefore conditions (1) and (2) turn out to be equivalent.
The Banach space C(X) of continuous complex-valued functions on
a compact Hausdorff space X is a commutative c*-algebra under point-
wise multiplication (fg) (t) = f(t)g(t)' involution f* (t) = f(t),
and sup-norm. A function f on a locally compact Hausdorff space X
is said to "vanish at infinity" i f for each E > 0 there is a compact
set K c X such that lf(x)j < E for all X E X \ K, the complement
of K in X. As with C(X), the algebra C0 (X) of continuous complex-
valued functions which vanish at infinity on a locally compact Hausdorff
space is a commutative c*-algebra. While C(X) possesses an identity,
C0 (X) does not unless X is compact, and in this case C0 (X) = C(X).
6 CHAPTER 1. GELFAND-NAIMARK THEOREMS

Examples of noncommutative C*-algebras are provided by the algebra

B(H) of bounded linear operators on a Hilbert space H. Hultiplication
in B(H) is operator composition, the involution T + T* is the usual
adjoint operation, and the norm is the operator norm

II T II = sup{ II n; II : I Ii; I I :: 1, i; E H}.

A norm-closed *-subalgebra of B(H) is called a eonerete c*-algebra;

clearly, every concrete C1'-algebra is a c*-algebra in the abstract
sense. If X is a locally compact Hausdorff space, then the algebra
C0 (X) can be viewed as a subalgebra of B(H); indeed, if ~ is a
regular Borel measure on X, with support X, and H = L 2 (X,~), the Hilbert
space of ~-square-integrable complex functions on X, then C0 (X) may be
interpreted as an algebra of multiplication operators on H. Hence
C0 (X) is a concrete C*-subalgebra of B(H) which is commutative.
The remarkable message of Theorems I and II of Section 1 is that these
examples exhaust the class of c*-algebras.
We end this section with a few historical notes regarding the
above terminology. The term "C*-algebra" was introduced in 1947 by
I. E. Segal [2] and was reserved for what we have called a "concrete
C1'-algebra ". The "C" stood for "closed" in the norm topology of
B(H). It has been speculated by some authors that the "C" was meant
to indicate that a c*-algebra is a noncommutative analogue of C(X);
however, Professor Segal has assured the first named author that he
didn't have this in mind--although he agreed that it was certainly
a reasonable supposition. The term "B*-algebra" was introduced in
1946 by c. E. Rickart [1] for Banach algebras satisfying condition
(2). This terminology is still in wide usage today. Finally, we
mention that the term "B'*-algebra" was used by T. Ono [1] in 1959
to describe Banach *-algebras whose norm satisfies (1). This some-
what cumbersome notation was only to be temporary as his goal was to
show that every B'*-algebra was, in fact a B*-algebra. We shall not
use the terminology "B*-algebra" in the sequel except possibly in the
historical notes.

§3. Historical development: a tangled trail.

In 1943 Gelfand and Naimark [1] published (in English!) a ground-

breaking paper in which they proved that a Banach *-algebra with an
3. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 7

identity element e is isometrically *-isomorphic to a concrete

c*-algebra if it satisfies the following three conditions:

1° II x*x II = II x* II · II x II (the c*-condition);

2o llx*ll = llxll (isometric condition);

3° e + x*x is invertible (symmetry)

for all x. They immediately asked in a footnote if conditions 2° and

3° could be deleted--apparently recognizing that they were of a
different character from condition 1° and were needed primarily because
of their method of proof. This indeed turned out to be true after
considerable work. To trace the resulting history in detail it is
convenient to look at the commutative and noncommutative cases
separately.
Commutative aZgebras: In their paper Gelfand and Naimark first
proved that every commutative c*-algebra with identity is a C(X) for
some compact Hausdorff space X. They were able to show quite simply
that in the presence of commutativity the C*-condition implies that
the involution is isometric (hence continuous). Utilizing a delicate
argument depending on the notion of "Shilov boundary" (cf. Naimark
[1, p. 231]) they proved that every commutative C*-algebra is symmetric.
Thus in the commutative case they were able to show that conditions
2° and 3° follow from condition 1°.
A much simpler proof for symmetry of a commutative C*-algebra
was published in 1946 by Richard Arens [1]. It may be of some
historical interest that Professor Arena--as he mentioned in a conver-
sation with the first named author--had not seen the Gelfand-Naimark
proof when he found his. In 1952, utilizing the exponential function
for elements in a Banach algebra, the Japanese mathematician Masanori
Fukamiya [2] published yet another beautiful proof of symmetry. The
arguments of Arens and Fukamiya will be given in full in Chapter II.
Nonaommutative aZgebras: The 1952 paper of Fukamiya [2] implicitly
contained the key lemma needed to eliminate condition 3° for non-
commutative algebras. In essence this lemma states that if x and y
are "positive elements" in a c*-algebra with identity and isometric
involution, then the sum x + y is also positive. Independently and
nearly simultaneously this lemma was discovered by John L. Kelley and
8 CHAPTER 1. GELFAND-NAIMARK THEOREMS

Robert L. Vaught [1]. The Kelley-Vaught argument is extremely brief

and elegant, and is the one that we shall give in Section 12.
The nontrivial observation that this lemma was the key to
eliminating condition 3° was due to Irving Kaplansky. His ingenious
argument was recorded in Joseph A. Schatz's [2] review of Fukamiya's
paper, making it an amusing instance where a theorem was first "proved"
in the Mathematical Reviews.
In marked contrast to the commutative case, the redundancy of
condition 2° for noncommutative algebras did not follow easily; in fact,
the question remained open until 1960 when a solution for c*-algebras
with identity was published by James G. Glimm and Richard V. Kadison [1].
Their proof was based on a deep "n-fold transitivity" theorem for
unitary operators in an irreducible c*-algebra of operators on a Hilbert
space. A beautiful theorem, proved in 1966, by Bernard Russo and
Henry A. Dye [1] made it possible to by-pass the Glimm-Kadison
transitivity theorem; an elementary proof of their result was given in
1972 by Lawrence A. Harris [1], and an extremely short elegant proof
was given in 1984 by L. Terrell Gardner [ 1 ]. The paper of Harris
contained powerful new techniques that simplified and unified several
other parts of the theory of Banach algebras with involution. Another
paper concerning the elimination of 2° (and also 3°) was published by
the Japanese mathematician Tamio Ono (1] in 1959. This paper contained
useful techniques but was flawed by errors in the arguments of both of
the main theorems (see the Mathematical Review of Ono [1]). Ten years
later Ono {2] acknowledged these mistakes and corrected them from the
viewpoint of 1959.
The original 1943 conjecture of Gelfand and Naimark was, at this
time, completely solved for algebras with identity. What about algebras
without identity? This question is of considerable importance since
most c*-algebras which occur in applications do not possess an identity.
An answer was provided in 1967 by B. J. Vowden [1]. He was able to
utilize the notion of "approximate identity" and several arguments from
Ono Ill to embed a c*-algebra without identity in a c*-algebra with
identity. He then applied the known case for algebras with an identity
to complete the proof. Hence after nearly twenty-five years of work
by outstanding mathematicians, the mathematical community had the
theorems as we have stated them in the introduction.
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