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Engineering Noise Control
This classic and authoritative textbook contains material that is not over-simplified and can be
used to solve real-world noise control engineering problems. Engineering Noise Control, 6th edi-
tion covers theoretical concepts, and practical application of current noise control technology.
Topics extensively covered or revised from the 5th edition include: beating; addition and sub-
traction of noise levels; combining multi-path noise level reductions; hearing damage assess-
ment and protection; speech intelligibility; noise weighting curves; instrumentation, including
MEMS, IEPE and TEDS sensors; noise source types, including transportation noise and equip-
ment noise estimations; outdoor sound propagation, including noise barriers, meteorological
effects and sloping ground effects; sound in rooms, muffling devices, including 4-pole analysis,
self noise and pressure drop calculations; sound transmission through single, double and triple
partitions; vibration measurement and control, finite element analysis; boundary element meth-
ods; and statistical energy analysis.
• Discusses all aspects of industrial and environmental noise control
• An ideal textbook for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses in noise control
• An excellent reference text for acoustic consultants and engineers
• Practical applications are used to demonstrate theoretical concepts
• Includes material not available in other books
A wide range of example problems and solutions that are linked to noise control practice are
available for download from www.causalsystems.com.
Colin H. Hansen is an Emeritus Professor in Mechanical Engineering at the University of Ad-
elaide, Australia and past President and Honorary Fellow of the International Institute of Acous-
tics and Vibration and Honorary Fellow of the Australian Acoustical Society. He was awarded
the 2009 Rayleigh Medal by the UK Institute of Acoustics, the 2013 Michell Medal by Engi-
neers Australia and the 2014 Rossing Prize in Acoustics Education by the Acoustical Society of
America.
Carl Q. Howard is a Professor in Mechanical Engineering at the University of Adelaide,
Australia.
Kristy L. Hansen is a Senior Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering at Flinders University,
Australia.
The late David A. Bies was formerly reader at the University of Adelaide, Australia.
Engineering Noise Control
Sixth Edition
David A. Bies
Colin H. Hansen
Carl Q. Howard
Kristy L. Hansen
Cover image: Shutterstock ©
MATLAB• is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB• software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB• software.
Sixth edition published 2024
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press
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CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2024 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Fifth edition published by CRC Press 2018
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Bies, David A., 1925- author. | Hansen, Colin H., 1951- author. |
Howard, Carl Q., 1970- author. | Hansen, Kristy L., author.
Title: Engineering noise control / David A. Bies, Colin H. Hansen, Carl Q.
Howard, Kristy L. Hansen.
Description: Sixth edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2024. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023001141 | ISBN 9780367414788 (paperback) | ISBN
9780367414795 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367814908 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Noise control. | Soundproofing. | Machinery--Noise.
Classification: LCC TD892 .B54 2024 | DDC 620.2/3--dc23/eng/20230118
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023001141
ISBN: 978-0-367-41479-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-41478-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-81490-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9780367814908
Typeset in Latin Modern font
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Publisher’s note: This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the authors.
Dedication
This book is dedicated to our families.
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
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Contents
Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . xxiii
Preface to the Fourth Edition . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . xxv
Preface to the Fifth Edition . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . xxvii
Preface to the Sixth Edition . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . xxix
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . xxxi
1 Fundamentals and Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 1
1.2 Noise-Control Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Sound Source Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Control of the Transmission Path . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Modification of the Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Existing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Facilities in the Design Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 8
1.2.6 Airborne versus Structure-Borne Noise . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 9
1.3 Acoustical Standards and Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 10
1.4 Acoustic Field Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 11
1.4.1 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 11
1.4.2 Acoustic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 12
1.4.3 Magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 13
1.4.4 Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 13
1.4.5 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 16
1.4.6 Acoustic Potential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 17
1.4.7 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 18
1.4.8 Complex Number Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 18
1.5 Plane, Cylindrical and Spherical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 18
1.5.1 Plane Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 19
1.5.2 Cylindrical Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 23
1.5.3 Spherical Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 23
1.5.4 Wave Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 25
1.5.5 Plane Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 25
1.5.6 Spherical Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 26
1.6 Mean Square Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 26
1.7 Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 27
1.8 Sound Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 27
1.8.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 28
1.8.2 Plane Wave and Far-Field Intensity . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 30
1.8.3 Spherical Wave Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 31
1.9 Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 31
1.10 Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 32
1.11 Combining Sound Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 35
1.11.1 Coherent and Incoherent Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 35
1.11.2 Addition of Coherent Sound Pressures . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 35
1.11.3 Addition of Incoherent Sounds (Logarithmic Addition) . . . . . . 36
1.11.4 Logarithmic versus Arithmetic Addition and Averaging . . . . . . 36
1.11.5 Subtraction of Sound Pressure Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.11.6 Combining Level Reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
viii Contents
1.12 Beating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13 Amplitude Modulation and Amplitude Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.14 Basic Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.14.1 Frequency Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.15 Doppler Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.16 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.16.1 Mechanical Impedance, ZM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.16.2 Specific Acoustic Impedance, Zs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.16.3 Acoustic Impedance, ZA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.17 Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2 Human Hearing and Noise Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1 Brief Description of the Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.1 External Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.1.2 Middle Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.1.3 Inner Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1.4 Cochlear Duct or Partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.5 Hair Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.1.6 Neural Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1.7 Linear Array of Uncoupled Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1.8 Mechanical Properties of the Central Partition . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.1.8.1 Basilar Membrane Travelling Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.1.8.2 Energy Transport and Group Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.8.3 Undamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.1.8.4 The Half-Octave Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.1.8.5 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1.8.6 Critical Frequency Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1.8.7 Frequency Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2 Subjective Response to Sound Pressure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2.1 Masking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2.2 Loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.2.3 Comparative Loudness and the Phon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2.4 Low-Frequency Loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2.5 Relative Loudness and the Sone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.2.6 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.3 Weighting Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.4 Noise Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.4.1 Equivalent Continuous Sound Pressure Level, Leq . . . . . . . . . 83
2.4.2 A-Weighted Equivalent Continuous Sound Pressure Level, LAeq . 83
2.4.3 Noise Exposure Level, LEX,8h or LEX or Lep d . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.4.4 A-Weighted Sound Exposure, EA,T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.4.5 A-Weighted Sound Exposure Level, LAE or SEL . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.4.6 Day-Night Average Sound Pressure Level, Ldn or DNL . . . . . . 85
2.4.7 Community Noise Equivalent Level, Lden or CNEL . . . . . . . . 86
2.4.8 Effective Perceived Noise Level, LEPN or EPNL . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.4.9 Statistical Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.4.10 Other Descriptors, Lmax , Lpeak , LImp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.5 Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.5.1 Threshold Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.5.2 Presbyacusis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.5.3 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.6 Hearing Damage Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Contents ix
2.6.1 Requirements for Speech Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.6.2 Quantifying Hearing Damage Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.6.3 International Standards Organisation Formulation . . . . . . . . . 94
2.6.4 United States Standard Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.6.5 Alternative Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.6.5.1 Bies and Hansen Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.6.5.2 Dresden Group Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.6.6 Observed Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.6.7 Occupational Noise Exposure Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.7 Hearing Damage Risk Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.7.1 Continuous Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.7.2 Impulse Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.7.3 Impact Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.8 Implementing a Hearing Conservation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.9 Hearing Protection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.9.1 Noise Reduction Rating, NRR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.9.2 Noise Reduction Rating Subjective Fit, NRR(SF) . . . . . . . . . 109
2.9.3 Noise Level Reduction Statistic, NRSAx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.9.4 Calculation of Effective A-Weighted Sound Pressure Level Using
Assumed Protection Value, APV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.9.4.1 Octave Band Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.9.4.2 High, Medium, Low (HML) Method . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.9.4.3 Single Number Rating, SNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.9.5 Sound Level Conversion, SLC80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.9.6 Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.9.7 Personal Attenuation Rating (PAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.9.8 Degradation of Effectiveness from Short Lapses . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.9.9 Overprotection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.10 Speech Interference Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.10.1 Broadband Background Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.10.2 Intense Tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.10.3 Speech Intelligibility Index and Speech Transmission Index . . . . 117
2.10.3.1 STI Calculation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.10.3.2 STIPA Calculation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.10.3.3 STITEL Calculation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.10.3.4 SII Calculation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.11 Psychological Effects of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.11.1 Noise as a Cause of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.11.2 Effect on Behaviour and Work Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.11.3 Effect on Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.12 Ambient Sound Pressure Level Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.12.1 Ambient Sound Recommendations for Classrooms . . . . . . . . . 125
2.12.2 Noise Weighting Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.12.2.1 NR Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.12.2.2 NC Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.12.2.3 NCB Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.12.2.4 RC, Mark II Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.12.2.5 RNC Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.12.3 Speech Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.12.3.1 Measurement of Speech Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.13 Environmental Noise Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
x Contents
2.13.1A-Weighting Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.13.1.1 Low-Frequency Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.13.1.2 Transportation Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.13.1.3 Tonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.13.1.4 Impulsiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.13.1.5 Intermittency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.13.2 Comparison of Noise Weighting Curves with dBA Specifications . 140
2.14 Environmental Noise Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.14.1 Measurement Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.14.2 Duration of the Measurement Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.14.3 Measurement Parameters and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.14.4 Measurement Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
2.14.5 Noise Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3 Instrumentation for Noise Measurement and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.1 Microphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.1.1 Condenser Microphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.1.2 Piezoelectric Microphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.1.3 MEMS Microphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.1.4 Pressure Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.1.5 Microphone Sensitivity and Dynamic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.1.6 Field Effects and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.7 Microphone Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.8 Infrasound Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.9 Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.1.9.1 IEPE Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.1.9.2 TEDS Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.2 Sound Level Meters (SLMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.3 Classes of Sound Level Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.4 Sound Level Meter Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.4.1 Electrical Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.4.2 Acoustic Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.4.3 Measurement Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.5 Noise Measurements Using Sound Level Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.5.1 Microphone Mishandling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.5.2 Sound Level Meter Amplifier Mishandling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.5.3 Microphone and Sound Level Meter Response Characteristics . . 160
3.5.4 Background Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.5.5 Wind Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.5.6 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.5.7 Humidity and Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.5.8 Reflections from Nearby Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.5.9 Time-Varying Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.5.10 Sound Pressure Level Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.6 Data Loggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.7 Personal Sound Exposure Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.8 Data Acquisition and Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.9 Spectrum Analysers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.9.1 Spectrograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.10 Sound Intensity Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.10.1 Sound Intensity by the p − u Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.10.1.1 Accuracy of the p − u Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Contents xi
3.10.2Sound Intensity by the p − p Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.10.2.1 Accuracy of the p − p Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.10.3 Frequency Decomposition of the Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.10.3.1 Direct Frequency Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.10.3.2 Indirect Frequency Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.11 Sound Source Localisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.11.1 Near-Field Acoustic Holography (NAH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.11.1.1 Summary of the Underlying Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.11.2 Statistically Optimised Near-Field Acoustic Holography (SONAH) 178
3.11.3 Helmholtz Equation Least Squares Method (HELS) . . . . . . . . 180
3.11.4 Beamforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.11.4.1 Summary of the Underlying Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.11.5 Direct Sound Intensity Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4 Sound Sources and Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.2 Simple Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.2.1 Pulsating Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.2.2 Fluid Mechanical Monopole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.3 Dipole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.3.1 Pulsating Doublet or Dipole (Far-Field Approximation) . . . . . 190
4.3.2 Pulsating Doublet or Dipole (Near Field) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.3.3 Oscillating Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.3.4 Fluid Mechanical Dipole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.4 Quadrupole Source (Far-Field Approximation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.4.1 Lateral Quadrupole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.4.2 Longitudinal Quadrupole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.4.3 Fluid Mechanical Quadrupole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.5 Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.5.1 Infinite Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.5.1.1 Incoherent Sources in a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.5.1.2 Coherent Sources in a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.5.2 Finite Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.5.2.1 Incoherent Sources in a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.5.2.2 Coherent Sources in a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.6 Piston in an Infinite Baffle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.6.1 Far Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.6.2 Near Field On-Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.6.3 Radiation Load of the Near Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.7 Incoherent Plane Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.7.1 Single Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.7.2 Several Walls of a Building or Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.8 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.9 Reflection Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.9.1 Simple Source Near a Reflecting Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.9.2 Observer Near a Reflecting Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.9.3 Observer and Source Both Close to a Reflecting Surface . . . . . . 216
4.10 Radiation Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.11 Relation between Sound Power and Sound Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.12 Radiation Field of a Sound Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.12.1 Free-Field Simulation in an Anechoic Room . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.12.2 Sound Field Produced in a Non-Anechoic Room . . . . . . . . . . 221
xii Contents
4.13 Determination of Sound Power Using Sound Intensity Measurements . . . 221
4.13.1 Uncertainty in Sound Power Determined Using Sound Intensity
Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.14 Determination of Sound Power Using Sound Pressure Measurements . . . 223
4.14.1 Measurement in Free or Semi-Free Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.14.2 Measurement in a Diffuse Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.14.2.1 Substitution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.14.2.2 Absolute Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.14.3 Field Measurement (ISO 3744, 2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.14.3.1 Semi-Reverberant Field Measurements Using a Reference
Source to Determine Room Absorption . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.14.3.2 Semi-Reverberant Field Measurements Using a Reference
Source Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.14.3.3 Semi-Reverberant Field Measurements Using Two Test
Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.14.3.4 Near-Field Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.14.4 Measurement of the Total Sound Power of Multiple Sources Covering
a Large Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.14.5 Gas Turbine Exhaust Sound Power Measurement . . . . . . . . . 235
4.14.6 Wind Turbine Sound Power Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.14.7 Road Traffic Noise Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.14.8 Specialist Procedures for Other Noise Sources . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.14.9 High-Frequency Correction for Sound Power Level Measurements 238
4.14.10 Uncertainty in Sound Power Levels Determined Using Sound Pressure
Level Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.15 Determination of Sound Power Using Surface Vibration Measurements . . 241
4.15.1 Uncertainty in Sound Power Measurements Determined Using Surface
Vibration Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.16 Uses of and Alternatives to Sound Power Information . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.16.1 Far Free Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.16.2 Near Free Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.16.3 Sound Pressure Levels at Operator Locations . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5 Outdoor Sound Propagation and Outdoor Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.2 Reflection and Transmission: Plane Interface between Two Different Media 247
5.2.1 Porous Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.2.2 Plane Wave Reflection and Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.2.3 Spherical Wave Reflection at a Plane Interface Between Two Media 254
5.2.4 Effects of Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.3 Sound Propagation Outdoors – General Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.3.1 Geometric Divergence, Adiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.3.2 Atmospheric Absorption, Aa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.3.3 Ground Effect, Ag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
5.3.4 Meteorological Effects, Amet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.3.4.1 Uncertainty Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
5.3.4.2 Overview of Methods Used in Standard Propagation
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
5.3.4.3 Methods Using Linear Sonic Gradient Estimates . . . . 266
5.3.4.4 Methods Using Piecewise Linear Sonic Gradient Estimates 276
5.3.4.5 Calculation of Ray Path Lengths and Propagation Times 282
5.3.4.6 Ground-Reflected Rays – Single Ground Reflection . . . 286
Contents xiii
5.3.4.7 Ground-Reflected Rays – Multiple Ground Reflections . 287
5.3.4.8 Low-Level Jets (LLJs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.3.4.9 Attenuation in the Shadow Zone (Negative Sonic Gradient) 289
5.3.5 BarrierEffects, Ab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.3.5.1 Diffraction at the Edge of a Thin Sheet . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.3.5.2 Outdoor Barriers, Ray Paths Over the Top, Flat Ground 296
5.3.5.3 Outdoor Barriers, Ray Paths Over the Top, Sloping
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5.3.5.4 Outdoor Barriers, Ray Paths Around Barrier Ends, Flat
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
5.3.5.5 Outdoor Barriers, Ray Paths Around Barrier Ends, Sloping
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
5.3.5.6 Combining Contributions From All Paths Around a Barrier 305
5.3.5.7 Thick Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
5.3.5.8 Shielding by Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
5.3.5.9 Effects of Wind and Temperature Gradients . . . . . . . 312
5.3.5.10 Barrier Insertion Loss (IL) Measurement . . . . . . . . . 314
5.3.6 Miscellaneous Effects, Amisc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
5.3.7 Low-Frequency Noise and Infrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
5.3.8 Impulse Sound Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
5.4 Propagation Models in General Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
5.5 CONCAWE Noise Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.5.1 Spherical Divergence, K1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.5.2 Atmospheric Absorption, K2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.5.3 Ground Effects, K3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.5.4 Meteorological Effects, K4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.5.5 Source Height Effects, K5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
5.5.6 Barrier Attenuation, K6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.5.7 In-Plant Screening, K7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.5.8 Vegetation Screening, Kv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.5.9 Limitations of the CONCAWE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.6 ISO 9613-2 (1996) Noise Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
5.6.1 Ground Effects, Ag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.6.2 Meteorological Effects, Amet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.6.3 Barrier Attenuation, Ab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
5.6.4 Vegetation Screening, Af . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.6.5 Industrial Equipment Screening, Asite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.6.6 Housing Screening, Ah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.6.7 Effect of Reflections Other than Ground Reflections . . . . . . . . 328
5.6.8 Limitations of the ISO 9613-2 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.7 NMPB-2008 Noise Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.7.1 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Attenuation, Ag+b . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.7.1.1 Mean Ground Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.7.1.2 Ground Effect Factor, G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5.7.1.3 Ground Effect, No Diffraction: Homogeneous Atmosphere 334
5.7.1.4 Ground Effect: Downward Refraction, No Diffraction . . 334
5.7.1.5 Diffraction with No Ground Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.7.1.6 Diffraction with Ground Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.7.1.7 Vertical Edge Diffraction with Ground Effect . . . . . . 339
5.7.2 Reflections from Vertical Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
5.7.3 Limitations of the NMPB-2008 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
xiv Contents
5.8 Required Input Data for the Various Propagation Models . . . . . . . . . 341
5.8.1 CONCAWE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.8.2 ISO 9613-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.8.3 NMPB-2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.9 Propagation Model Prediction Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.9.1 Type A Standard Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.9.2 Type B Standard Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
5.9.3 Combining Standard Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
5.9.4 Expanded Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6 Sound in Enclosed Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
6.1.1 Wall-Interior Modal Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.1.2 Sabine Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.1.3 Flat and Long Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
6.2 Low Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
6.2.1 Rectangular Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
6.2.2 Cylindrical Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6.3 Boundary between Low-Frequency and High-Frequency Behaviour . . . . 355
6.3.1 Modal Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.3.2 Modal Damping and Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
6.3.3 Modal Overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
6.3.4 Crossover Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
6.4 High Frequencies, Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.4.1 Effective Intensity in a Diffuse Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.4.2 Energy Absorption at Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.4.3 Air Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.4.4 Steady-State Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
6.5 Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
6.5.1 Classical Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
6.5.2 Modal Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.5.3 Empirical Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
6.5.4 Mean Free Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.6 Measurement of the Room Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.6.1 Reference Sound Source Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.6.2 Reverberation Time Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.7 Porous Sound Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.7.1 Measurement of Absorption Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.7.2 Single Number Descriptors for Absorption Coefficient . . . . . . . 372
6.7.3 Porous Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
6.7.4 Porous Liners with Perforated Panel Facings . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
6.7.5 Micro-Perforated Panels and Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
6.7.6 Acoustic Metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
6.7.6.1 Layered Fibrous Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
6.7.6.2 Porous Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
6.7.6.3 Functionally Graded Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
6.7.7 Sound-Absorption Coefficients of Materials in Combination . . . . 379
6.8 Panel Sound Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6.8.1 Empirical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6.8.2 Analytical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
6.9 Flat and Long Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
6.9.1 Flat Room with Specularly Reflecting Floor and Ceiling . . . . . 384
Contents xv
6.9.2 Flat Room with Diffusely Reflecting Floor and Ceiling . . . . . . 386
6.9.3 Flat Room with Specularly and Diffusely Reflecting Boundaries . 390
6.9.4 Long Room with Specularly Reflecting Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
6.9.5 Long Room: Circular Cross-Section, Diffusely Reflecting Wall . . 394
6.9.6 Long Room with Rectangular Cross-Section . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
6.10 Applications of Sound Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
6.10.1 Relative Importance of the Reverberant Field . . . . . . . . . . . 396
6.10.2 Reverberation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
7 Partitions, Enclosures and Indoor Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.2 Sound Transmission through Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
7.2.1 Bending Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
7.2.2 Transmission Loss, TL (or Sound Reduction Index, R) . . . . . . 404
7.2.2.1 Measurement of Transmission Loss Outside of a
Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
7.2.2.2 Single Number Ratings for Transmission Loss of Partitions 406
7.2.2.3 Uncertainty in TL and R Measurements . . . . . . . . . 410
7.2.3 Impact Isolation Measurement According to ASTM Standards . . 412
7.2.3.1 Laboratory Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
7.2.3.2 Measurement of the Effectiveness of Floor Coverings . . 414
7.2.3.3 Field Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
7.2.3.4 Uncertainty According to ASTM E492-09 (2016) . . . . 415
7.2.4 Impact Isolation Measurement According to ISO Standards . . . . 416
7.2.4.1 Laboratory Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
7.2.4.2 Measurement of the Effectiveness of Floor Coverings . . 418
7.2.4.3 Field Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
7.2.4.4 Additional Impact Spectrum Adaptation Term . . . . . 419
7.2.4.5 Uncertainty According to ISO 12999-1 (2020) . . . . . . 419
7.2.5 Recommended Sound and Impact Isolation Values for Apartment and
Office Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
7.2.6 Panel Transmission Loss (or Sound Reduction Index) Estimates . 420
7.2.6.1 Sharp’s Prediction Scheme for Isotropic Panels . . . . . 424
7.2.6.2 Davy’s Prediction Scheme for Isotropic Panels . . . . . . 426
7.2.6.3 ISO 12354-1 (2017) Prediction Scheme for Isotropic Panels 427
7.2.6.4 Thickness Correction for Isotropic Panels . . . . . . . . . 428
7.2.6.5 Orthotropic Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
7.2.7 Sandwich Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
7.2.8 Double Wall Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
7.2.8.1 Sharp Model for Double Wall TL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
7.2.8.2 Davy Model for Double Wall TL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
7.2.8.3 Model from ISO 12354-1 (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
7.2.8.4 Stud Spacing Effect in Walls with Wooden Studs . . . . 439
7.2.8.5 Staggered Studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
7.2.8.6 Panel Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
7.2.8.7 Effect of Cavity Material Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . 440
7.2.8.8 Multi-Leaf and Composite Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
7.2.8.9 TL Properties of Some Common Stud Wall Constructions 440
7.2.9 Triple Wall Sound Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
7.2.10 Sound-Absorptive Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
7.2.11 Common Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
7.3 Noise Reduction versus Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
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